Diamond property and their engineering applications (* highest among all materials).
\\n\\n
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Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\nThis achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\nWe are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\nThank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"4619",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Wastewater Treatment Engineering",title:"Wastewater Treatment Engineering",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book provides useful information about bioremediation, phytoremediation, and mycoremediation of wastewater and some aspects of the chemical wastewater treatment processes, including ion exchange, neutralization, adsorption, and disinfection. Additionally, this book elucidates and illustrates the wastewater treatment plants in terms of plant sizing, plant layout, plant design, and plant location. Cutting-edge topics include wet air oxidation of aqueous wastes, biodegradation of nitroaromatic compounds, biological treatment of sanitary landfill leachate, bacterial strains for the bioremediation of olive mill wastewater, gelation of arabinoxylans from maize wastewater, and modeling wastewater evolution.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-2179-4",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6390-9",doi:"10.5772/59384",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"wastewater-treatment-engineering",numberOfPages:212,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"5799cd230809e143d51ba5bc5890cd17",bookSignature:"Mohamed Samer",publishedDate:"October 14th 2015",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4619.jpg",numberOfDownloads:42160,numberOfWosCitations:78,numberOfCrossrefCitations:77,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:15,numberOfDimensionsCitations:154,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:16,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:309,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 7th 2014",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 28th 2014",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"March 15th 2015",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 2nd 2015",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 30th 2015",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"175050",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Samer",slug:"mohamed-samer",fullName:"Mohamed Samer",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175050/images/system/175050.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Mohamed Samer is a laureate of the 2019 Cairo University Scientific Excellence Award. He is also the recipient of the 2017 Privilege Medal of First Class issued by the Egyptian President and laureate of the 2016 State Encouragement Award conferred by the Egyptian Government. He obtained his Ph.D. from the University of Hohenheim, Germany. He has led seventeen research projects and established five research laboratories. Dr. Samer has 120 publications, 70 of which are peer-reviewed articles published in high-impact journals, and 20 patents to his credit. He is a member of thirteen scientific societies and a peer reviewer for thirty scientific journals. He is also a reviewer for seven research funding agencies.",institutionString:"Cairo University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Cairo University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"779",title:"Ecohydrology",slug:"engineering-environmental-engineering-ecohydrology"}],chapters:[{id:"49024",title:"Biological and Chemical Wastewater Treatment Processes",doi:"10.5772/61250",slug:"biological-and-chemical-wastewater-treatment-processes",totalDownloads:27849,totalCrossrefCites:57,totalDimensionsCites:105,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"This chapter elucidates the technologies of biological and chemical wastewater treatment processes. The presented biological wastewater treatment processes include: (1) bioremediation of wastewater that includes aerobic treatment (oxidation ponds, aeration lagoons, aerobic bioreactors, activated sludge, percolating or trickling filters, biological filters, rotating biological contactors, biological removal of nutrients) and anaerobic treatment (anaerobic bioreactors, anaerobic lagoons); (2) phytoremediation of wastewater that includes constructed wetlands, rhizofiltration, rhizodegradation, phytodegradation, phytoaccumulation, phytotransformation, and hyperaccumulators; and (3) mycoremediation of wastewater. The discussed chemical wastewater treatment processes include chemical precipitation (coagulation, flocculation), ion exchange, neutralization, adsorption, and disinfection (chlorination/dechlorination, ozone, UV light). Additionally, this chapter elucidates and illustrates the wastewater treatment plants in terms of plant sizing, plant layout, plant design, and plant location.",signatures:"Mohamed Samer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49024",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49024",authors:[{id:"175050",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Samer",slug:"mohamed-samer",fullName:"Mohamed Samer"}],corrections:null},{id:"49190",title:"Bioremediation of Nitroaromatic Compounds",doi:"10.5772/61253",slug:"bioremediation-of-nitroaromatic-compounds",totalDownloads:2484,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nitroaromatics are major pollutants released in the environment during the post-industrialization era and pose toxic effects to living organisms. Several bacterial strains have been isolated for the degradation of these nitroaromatic pollutants. Some of them have been used in field trial experiments for the removal of nitroaromatics from industrial water and groundwater. Very few bacterial pathways have been characterized at genetic and molecular levels. In this review, we cover all reported degradation pathways and their gene evolution. These studies for nitroaromatics clearly indicate that most of the involved genes have evolved from preexisting enzymes by using all means of gene evolution like horizontal gene transfer, mutation, and promiscuity principle. This information has been exploited for the creation of hybrid pathways and better biocatalysts for degradation.",signatures:"Deepak Singh, Keerti Mishra and Gurunath Ramanthan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/49190",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/49190",authors:[{id:"174077",title:"Prof.",name:"Gurunath",surname:"Ramanathan",slug:"gurunath-ramanathan",fullName:"Gurunath Ramanathan"},{id:"178959",title:"Dr.",name:"Keerti",surname:"Mishra",slug:"keerti-mishra",fullName:"Keerti Mishra"},{id:"178961",title:"Dr.",name:"Deepak",surname:"Singh",slug:"deepak-singh",fullName:"Deepak Singh"}],corrections:null},{id:"48706",title:"Selection of Promising Bacterial Strains as Potential Tools for the Bioremediation of Olive Mill Wastewater",doi:"10.5772/60896",slug:"selection-of-promising-bacterial-strains-as-potential-tools-for-the-bioremediation-of-olive-mill-was",totalDownloads:1472,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The main objective of this paper was the selection of promising bacterial strains to be used as potential tools to remove phenols in olive mill wastewater (OMW) or in other food wastes. Therefore, 12 OMW samples were analyzed and 119 isolates were collected. After a preliminary screening on a medium containing vanillic and cinnamic acids, three isolates were selected to evaluate their viability in presence of different compounds (cinnamic, vanillic and caffeic acids, rutin, tyrosol and oleuropein) and a possible bioremediation effect. The isolates generally survived with phenols added and exerted a significant bioremediation activity in some samples (reduction of phenols by 20%). The last step was focused on the evaluation of the combined effects of pH, cinnamic and vanillic acids on the viability of a selected isolate (13M); the combination of the acids exerted a strong effect on the target, but alkaline pH played a protective role.",signatures:"Daniela Campaniello, Antonio Bevilacqua, Milena Sinigaglia and\nMaria Rosaria Corbo",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48706",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48706",authors:[{id:"173309",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Bevilacqua",slug:"antonio-bevilacqua",fullName:"Antonio Bevilacqua"},{id:"173661",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",surname:"Campaniello",slug:"daniela-campaniello",fullName:"Daniela Campaniello"},{id:"173662",title:"Prof.",name:"Milena",surname:"Sinigaglia",slug:"milena-sinigaglia",fullName:"Milena Sinigaglia"},{id:"173663",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Rosaria",surname:"Corbo",slug:"maria-rosaria-corbo",fullName:"Maria Rosaria Corbo"}],corrections:null},{id:"48968",title:"Gelation of Arabinoxylans from Maize Wastewater — Effect of Alkaline Hydrolysis Conditions on the Gel Rheology and Microstructure",doi:"10.5772/61022",slug:"gelation-of-arabinoxylans-from-maize-wastewater-effect-of-alkaline-hydrolysis-conditions-on-the-gel-",totalDownloads:1837,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The purpose of this research was to extract arabinoxylans (AX) from maize wastewater generated under different maize nixtamalization conditions and to investigate the polysaccharide gelling capability, as well as the rheological and microstructural characteristics of the gels formed. The nixtamalization conditions were 1.5 hours of cooking and 24 hours of alkaline hydrolysis (AX1) or 30 minutes cooking and 4 hours of alkaline hydrolysis (AX2). AX1 and AX2 presented yield values of 0.9% and 0.5% (w/v), respectively. Both AX samples presented similar molecular identity (Fourier Transform Infra-Red) and molecular weight distribution but different ferulic acid (FA) content. AX1 and AX2 presented gelling capability under laccase exposure. The kinetics of gelation of both AX samples was rheologically monitored by small amplitude oscillatory shear. The gelation profiles followed a characteristic kinetics with an initial increase in the storage modulus (G') and loss modulus (G\") followed by a plateau region for both gels. AX1 presented higher G' than AX2. In scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images, both gels present an irregular honeycomb microstructure. The lower FA content in AX2 form gels presenting minor elasticity values and a more fragmented microstructure. These results indicate that nixtamalization process conditions can modify the characteristics of AX gels.",signatures:"Rita Paz-Samaniego, Elizabeth Carvajal-Millan, Francisco Brown-\nBojorquez, Agustín Rascón-Chu, Yolanda L. López-Franco, Norberto\nSotelo-Cruz and Jaime Lizardi-Mendoza",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48968",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48968",authors:[{id:"22173",title:"Dr.",name:"Elizabeth",surname:"Carvajal-Millan",slug:"elizabeth-carvajal-millan",fullName:"Elizabeth Carvajal-Millan"},{id:"29653",title:"Dr.",name:"Agustín",surname:"Rascón-Chu",slug:"agustin-rascon-chu",fullName:"Agustín Rascón-Chu"},{id:"39809",title:"Prof.",name:"Norberto",surname:"Sotelo",slug:"norberto-sotelo",fullName:"Norberto Sotelo"},{id:"177936",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Rita",surname:"Paz-Samaniego",slug:"rita-paz-samaniego",fullName:"Rita Paz-Samaniego"},{id:"177937",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",surname:"Brown-Bojorquez",slug:"francisco-brown-bojorquez",fullName:"Francisco Brown-Bojorquez"},{id:"177938",title:"Dr.",name:"Yolanda L",surname:"López-Franco",slug:"yolanda-l-lopez-franco",fullName:"Yolanda L López-Franco"},{id:"177939",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaime",surname:"Lizardi-Mendoza",slug:"jaime-lizardi-mendoza",fullName:"Jaime Lizardi-Mendoza"}],corrections:null},{id:"48751",title:"Perspectives on Biological Treatment of Sanitary Landfill Leachate",doi:"10.5772/60924",slug:"perspectives-on-biological-treatment-of-sanitary-landfill-leachate",totalDownloads:2740,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Landfilling, one of the prevailing worldwide waste management strategies, is presented together with its benefits and environmental risks. Aside from biogas, another non-avoidable product of landfilling is landfill leachate, which usually contains a variety of potentially hazardous inorganic and organic compounds. It can be treated by different physico-chemical and biological methods and their combinations. The composition and characteristics of landfill leachate are presented from the aspect of biotreatability. The treatment with activated sludge, mainly consisting of bacterial cultures under aerobic and anaerobic conditions in various reactor systems, is explained, including an extensive literature review. The potential of fungi and their extracellular enzymes for treatment of municipal landfill leachates is also presented, with a detailed review of the landfill leachate treatment studies. The future perspectives of biological treatment are also discussed.",signatures:"Andreja Žgajnar Gotvajn and Aleksander Pavko",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48751",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48751",authors:[{id:"23280",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksander",surname:"Pavko",slug:"aleksander-pavko",fullName:"Aleksander Pavko"},{id:"177753",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreja",surname:"Žgajnar Gotvajn",slug:"andreja-zgajnar-gotvajn",fullName:"Andreja Žgajnar Gotvajn"}],corrections:null},{id:"48758",title:"Wet Air Oxidation of Aqueous Wastes",doi:"10.5772/60935",slug:"wet-air-oxidation-of-aqueous-wastes",totalDownloads:3336,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Wet air oxidation (WAO) is a key technology in the disposal of industrial and agricultural process wastewaters. It is often used coupled with activated sludge treatment at a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) as preliminary conversion of toxic and/or non-biodegradable components. The process is based on a high temperature and pressure reaction of the oxidizable materials in water with air or oxygen, in most cases in a bubble column reactor. The oxidation is a chain type radical reaction. The intensification of this technology is possible with the application of homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysts, recently non-thermal radical generating methods (UV/H2O2, ozonization, Fenton type processes) gathered ground also. The most frequent use of the process is in sludge treatment and oxidation of spent caustic of refineries or ethylene plants.",signatures:"Antal Tungler, Erika Szabados and Arezoo M. Hosseini",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48758",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48758",authors:[{id:"173900",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Antal",surname:"Tungler",slug:"antal-tungler",fullName:"Antal Tungler"},{id:"173902",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Erika",surname:"Szabados",slug:"erika-szabados",fullName:"Erika Szabados"},{id:"173981",title:"Dr.",name:"Arezoo",surname:"Hosseini",slug:"arezoo-hosseini",fullName:"Arezoo Hosseini"}],corrections:null},{id:"48765",title:"Modeling Wastewater Evolution and Management Options under Variable Land Use Scenarios",doi:"10.5772/60893",slug:"modeling-wastewater-evolution-and-management-options-under-variable-land-use-scenarios",totalDownloads:2443,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The development of a reliable decision support system and predictions for water quantity and quality often require a reasonable level of environmental and hydrological simulations at various geographic scales. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) model offers distributed parameter and continuous time simulation, and flexible watershed configuration and with the adoption of geographic information system (GIS) technology, a user-friendly and interactive decision support system can be developed for wastewater management. In this chapter, we evaluated the spatio-temporal evolution of wastewater contaminants in an environmentally degraded watershed through integrated field-based investigations and modeling approach. Later, management options were identified to improve the watershed health and agro-environment. The results of the modeling study exhibited variable responses of surface runoff and water quality to different scenarios of land use change. Temporal wastewater analysis indicated a significant impact of seasonality on the contaminants’ population levels. The adopted approach would prove effective in evaluating better management options to reduce negative impacts of wastewater and contaminants for sustainable agro-environment in future.",signatures:"Arshad Ashraf, Muhammad Saleem Pomee, Muhammad Munir\nAhmad, Muhammad Yasir Waqar and Bashir Ahmad",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/48765",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/48765",authors:[{id:"99395",title:"Dr.",name:"Arshad",surname:"Ashraf",slug:"arshad-ashraf",fullName:"Arshad Ashraf"},{id:"176547",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad Saleem",surname:"Pomee",slug:"muhammad-saleem-pomee",fullName:"Muhammad Saleem Pomee"},{id:"176548",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Munir",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"muhammad-munir-ahmad",fullName:"Muhammad Munir Ahmad"},{id:"176549",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Muhammad Yasir",surname:"Waqar",slug:"muhammad-yasir-waqar",fullName:"Muhammad Yasir Waqar"},{id:"176550",title:"Dr.",name:"Bashir",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"bashir-ahmad",fullName:"Bashir Ahmad"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5758",title:"Pyrolysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"536c8699f8fa7504a63a23de45158a24",slug:"pyrolysis",bookSignature:"Mohamed Samer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5758.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"175050",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Samer",slug:"mohamed-samer",fullName:"Mohamed Samer"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5227",title:"Urban Agriculture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"722ebe60b63f7c01577d063a3e39c36a",slug:"urban-agriculture",bookSignature:"Mohamed Samer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5227.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"175050",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Samer",slug:"mohamed-samer",fullName:"Mohamed Samer"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2503",title:"Water Treatment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"296eb93cd4d7425db9a1f7c0d57032fe",slug:"water-treatment",bookSignature:"Walid Elshorbagy and Rezaul Kabir Chowdhury",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2503.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"137631",title:"Dr.",name:"Walid",surname:"Elshorbagy",slug:"walid-elshorbagy",fullName:"Walid Elshorbagy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1868",title:"Industrial Waste",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ecbdc3462929480899609f52f7b1f18b",slug:"industrial-waste",bookSignature:"Kuan-Yeow Show and Xinxin Guo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1868.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"119827",title:"Prof.",name:"Kuan-Yeow",surname:"Show",slug:"kuan-yeow-show",fullName:"Kuan-Yeow Show"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"303",title:"Expanding Issues in Desalination",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"59baacd82853e81f2c0bb98ba737c5f3",slug:"expanding-issues-in-desalination",bookSignature:"Robert Y. 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Dey",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10333.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31178",title:"Prof.",name:"Subrata",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Dey",slug:"subrata-dey",fullName:"Subrata Dey"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"418409",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Van Hieu",middleName:"Van",surname:"Pham",fullName:"Van Hieu Pham",slug:"van-hieu-pham",email:"hieupvbio@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"10333",title:"Down Syndrome and Other Chromosome Abnormalities",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Down Syndrome and Other Chromosome Abnormalities",slug:"down-syndrome-and-other-chromosome-abnormalities",publishedDate:"March 23rd 2022",bookSignature:"Subrata Kumar Dey",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10333.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31178",title:"Prof.",name:"Subrata",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Dey",slug:"subrata-dey",fullName:"Subrata Dey"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11867",leadTitle:null,title:"Echocardiography",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tAlthough the diagnosis and overall survival of patients with various cardiac diseases have improved in the last years, there still remains a significant proportion of patients with unfavorable prognoses. The evaluation of these patients necessitates effective imaging techniques in both diagnosis and long-term follow-up. Even though Cardiac Magnetic Resonance imaging is currently the imaging modality of choice for tissue characterization, advanced echocardiography represents a modern alternative. Speckle tracking echocardiography can be used to assess myocardial deformation at both segmental and global levels. Since distinct myocardial pathologies affect deformation differently, information about the underlying tissue can be offered by strain imaging. Echocardiography advances also show promising results in the improvement of diagnostic accuracy, management, and follow-up and a major advantage of echocardiography over other imaging modalities is the ability to use it in real-time, in the cardiac catheterization laboratory, allowing for the performance of imaging immediately before, during, and after interventional procedures. Furthermore, the prevalence of adult congenital heart disease continues to grow due to advances in surgical and diagnostic techniques. Echocardiography has proven to be a useful tool in the diagnosis and follow-up of these patients, both after percutaneous and surgical procedures, and its utility has expanded significantly due to the development of better technology. In addition, stress echocardiography could be useful in the evaluation of several cardiac diseases and should be preferred over other imaging modalities due to the lower cost, wider availability, and radiation-free nature.
\r\n\tThis book intends to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art novel imaging techniques by focusing on the most important evidence-based developments in this area.
Science is the knowledge of the existing laws and principles, whereas, engineering is the application of such scientific knowledge in building/designing/creating something useful for the humans, and such engineered tools/devices/processes are collectively known as technology. Knowledge about diamond materials is in existence since its early discovery along the river beds or in the mines, as early as from the 4th century BC (Figure 1). It was the hardest known stone which were “artfully” cut and polished to shine so beautifully that lured the kings and queens over centuries [1]. The cutting and polishing technology of these rarely found stones was popularly used to make jewellery. The diamond dust particles that are generated during jewellery stone making or the small sized stones from mines which can not be used in jewellery making, are always used as abrasives. Because of its extreme hardness, it was used for engraving other stones or grinding other materials. However, the industrial use of diamond in cutting tools has become possible with the advent of high-pressure high-temperature (HPHT) diamonds in the late 20th Century [2]. The rarity of mined diamonds made them precious and was unaffordable for the average income people. A new process called chemical vapour deposition (CVD) [3] has made it possible now to grow gem quality diamonds for the affordable jewellery application [4]. There is another method where oxygen deficient TNT/RDX explosive is detonated to create diamond nanoparticles (Figure 2). These detonation nanodiamonds (DND) [5] are now extensively used as nucleation seeds for the CVD growth of diamond. However, the detonation process (neither ultrasonic cavitation [6] nor microplasma processing [7]) can not make gemstone quality (Figure 3) larger diamond crystals, whereas, HPHT can make gemstones, but they are limited in size [8] and of inferior quality diamond with defects or foreign inclusion [9]. Beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder. For the millennium generation, diamond jewellery is losing its charm and attraction. Other than aesthetic value, because of the stone’s other exceptional material properties [10], like thermal conductivity, optical transparency over wide electromagnetic spectrum, velocity of sound waves, tensile strength, doping conductivity etc., diamond can also be used for the greater benefits of the human society [11, 12], like making faster and smaller future electronics, quantum computers, high power lasers, nuclear energy, capturing carbon for reducing its footprint in the environment [13], medical devices for patients [14] or even water purification [15] for a better standard of living (Table 1). This chapter lists some of the engineering applications where the scientific knowledge of the diamond material property has been used to build/design/create something useful for the people on earth.
A brief timeline with respect to the different milestones in diamond material history.
Four different sources of diamond. (images are from GIA and Adamas websites).
A relative evaluation of the laboratory grown with their mined source of the material.
Property | Value | Application |
---|---|---|
Hardness* [16] | 100 GPa | Grinding abrasive, Cutting tool [17, 18], Tribology [19, 20, 21], mechanical applications [22] |
Young’s Modulus* | 1100 GPa | |
Poisson’s ratio | 0.1 | |
Co-efficients of friction | 0.1 | |
Wear resistance* | 10−7 mm3/N-m | |
Thermal conductivity at 300 K* | 2000 W/m-K | Heat spreader [23], High temperature application [24, 25] |
Thermal expansion co-efficient at 300 K | 0.8 × 10 −6 /K | |
Specific heat at 20 °C | 0.502 J/g-K | |
Debye temperature* | 1860 ± 10 K | Acoustic devices [26, 27] |
Sound velocity* | 17,500 m/s | |
Density | 3.515 g/cm3 | |
Atomic Density* | 1.77 × 1023 cm−3 | |
Bandgap | 5.45 eV | Power electronics packaging [28, 29, 30] |
Electrical resistivity | 10 13–10 16 Ω-cm | |
Breakdown Voltage* | 107 V/m | |
Doped [31, 32, 33] semiconductor resistivity | 10−1-104 Ω-m | Electronic sensors, devices [34, 35, 36] |
Negative electron affinity | −1.5 eV (H-terminated) | Electron field emitter [37] |
IR to UV optical transparency | UV cut off @ 225 nm & absorptions at 2.5–6.5 μm with theoretical 71% transmission | Photonics [38, 39], Power transmission windows [40], Jewellery [41], Quantum computing [42, 43, 44] |
Absorption co-efficient | ≤ 0.10 cm−1 at 10 μm | |
Refractive index | 2.38 @ 10 μm, 2.41 @ 500 nm | |
Photoluminescence | Nitrogen NV, silicon SiV vacancy centres | |
Corrosion resistant | Chemically inert to acids | Electrodes in electro-chemical cells [45] |
Biocompatible | Inert to biological cells [46] | Medical devices [14] |
Radiation hard | 43 eV atomic displacement energy | Nuclear detector [47, 48], instruments [49], Betavoltaics power supply [50] |
Nuclear battery | Encapsulation of radio-isotopes | |
Extreme conditions | Graphitisation at T > 700 °C in an oxygen containing, and 1500 °C in an inert atmosphere | High pressure cell anvils [51, 52] |
Diamond property and their engineering applications (* highest among all materials).
The oldest (engineering) application of diamond has been cutting and polishing. Diamond is the hardest and the strongest materials with highly covalent C-C bonding. It is strong along certain crystallographic planes, in certain directions, due to variable packing density of carbon atoms. Present day scientific knowledge about the diamond crystal structure, chemistry and its other material property was developed much later, than the art of making diamond jewellery was mastered by the ancient craftsmen since the middle ages. Geologists developed the Mohs scale of hardness as shown in Figure 4 on the basis of the relative hardness between different minerals.
Mohs scale of hardness of different materials.
However, much later on when the modern-day science started to develop, scientist found that the indentation hardness values in GPa [53] is the highest for diamond materials. Figure 5 compares the GPa hardness of different engineering materials. It can be found that hardened steel has only 7 GPa of hardness whereas, diamond has as high as 115 GPa. However, depending on the various factors like, the amount of defects present inside like dislocations, foreign elements, single or polycrystalline diamond, CVD or HPHT grown, crystallographic planes and directions, the hardness values can vary from 25–100 GPa. Due to such high hardness value, it has been used as grinding, lapping and polishing material in the form of slurries, paste, impregnated metallic disc or paper as shown in Figure 6.
A relative comparison of the hardness of different materials.
Diamond abrasive application.
Diamond carbon atoms are arranged in two inter-penetrating FCC crystal lattice of a diamond cubic structure where the covalent bond length is 0.154 nm with tetrahedral angle of 109.5° between them. The highly covalent nature (deep and symmetric potential well) of the C-C bond makes diamond’s Young’s modulus tensile strength and the thermal expansion co-efficient, the highest among all the solid materials. The high molecular weight polyethylene polymer which are used for protective armour application has the least tensile strength (about 1 GPa) in the Figure 7. The woods (11 GPa) that are used to build houses, or the human teeth enamel (55 GPa) for breaking food and even the structural steel material (200 GPa) have much less stiffness or flexibility i.e. the ability to resist deformation than diamond (>1200 GPa).
A relative comparison of the strength of different materials.
Due to its extreme hardness and strength, it has been traditionally used as cutting tools [54] in machining application as shown in Figure 8. Polycrystalline diamond cutting tools of different shapes and sizes are shown. They are used for the processing of natural stones starting from the block extraction in quarries through the intermediate steps of production to the final step of polishing the final product. Diamond tools are extensively used in the construction industry for the cutting and drilling of the concretes, asphalt and other materials. The traditional use of diamond has been for polishing glass, ceramics and the other hard metals, as already described before. Various types of metal bonded or pre-alloyed (cobalt) powders are mixed with synthetic diamond powder by hot pressing or sintering for the abrasive industry. It has been shown by the researchers (Figure 8) that a double-layer diamond coating with micro (MCD) and nanocrystalline diamond (NCD) grains on the top of traditional Co cemented WC cutting tools not only increases the tool life but also it enhances the cutting efficiency. Such coated tools can be recycled time and again after recoating with diamond, once the top coating is worn out. Diamond is the best protective solution for the coating service industry. Wear is the major cause of economic loss due to the energy that is lost in overcoming the mechanical friction within the moving mechanical assemblies. Diamond tribology [55, 56] is an important engineering application.
Diamond cutting tools application.
When current passes through electronic circuits, it heats up the devices, which even sometimes lead up to the device failures. Future generation devices will be smaller and faster, therefore there will be more current passing through per unit area of electronic circuits that will heat up the devices enormously. For efficient working of our devices, this heat needs to be thrown out of the electronic circuits, and diamond does this job the best, being the material with highest thermal conductivity (Figure 9). Moore’s law earlier predicted that every 2 years the size of the electronics will be reduced by half. Diamond can only keep the pace of the Moore’s law with time. Direct contact of diamond with electronic chips will pass the heat away from the circuits and thereby making the current to flow easily within your device for smooth operations (Figure 10). There are commercial suppliers, like Element Six, of such CVD diamond heat spreaders. If we compare the cooling capacity of different coolants, it is observed that diamond is five times more effective than commonly used Cu in electrical engineering. Polycrystalline diamond is alloyed/mixed with Cu/Ag/Ti metal powders and then sintered together for making composites for electronic packaging application [57, 58]. Therefore, engineers are designing future technologies like 5G/7G, radars for space or military communication with the integration of diamond in their electronic circuits. The scanning electron micrograph in Figure 9 shows one such CVD grown polycrystalline diamond plate like microstructure suitable for heat spreading applications.
A relative comparison of the thermal conductivity of different materials.
Diamond thermal management application.
As we know from our high school physics that the energy level difference between the conduction band and valence band divides materials into a. insulator - with large differences, b. semiconductor - with small differences and c. metal - with overlapping of the bands. Materials like GaN (3.44 eV), SiC (2.36 eV) and Diamond (5.45 eV) have large values of band gaps and they are known as wide band gap materials. They are used in high power high temp. high freq. energy engineering applications. In order to keep pace with the Moore’s law, Si is running out of gas. It is getting replaced by wide band gap materials for high power density applications (Figure 10). Compare to other wide band gap materials, diamond is with the highest band gap, also has the best electron–hole mobility (1945 and 2285 cm / V. s), critical breakdown voltage and the best value of the thermal expansion co-efficient. However, it is intrinsically insulator at room temperature and will become semiconductor only by suitable doping. Boron doping has made it possible to produce acceptor levels suitable for room temperature conductivity (metallic to superconductor [59, 60] based on doping concentration and temperature); but phosphorous doped n-type diamond has deep electron donor levels (0.46 eV) which only become active at high temperatures. Nitrogen also could not dope diamond to produce n-type conductivity, rather it produces NV centre defects [38] - suitable for opto-electronic engineering or quantum computer engineering. Absence of suitable n-type dopant atom for diamond, has so far limited the future prospect of diamond based electronic devices. It can only be used as single electrode - but not as transistors.
In a maze puzzle, in order to find out “the only way out of the confinement”, one has to explore all the different possible routes, one at a time, in order to look for the “single” viable solution - which is time consuming. Classical computing would take long time to find a solution by trial and error, on the basis of its binary states of “0” and “1”. Quantum mechanics gives wave particle duality i.e., quantum entities or qubits can be present simultaneously at more than one location, therefore, if qubit tries to find the way out of a maze puzzle, due to its entanglement and superposition characteristic of different states at the same time, it will be possible to find/compute the solution of maze puzzle much faster and in efficient manner. In other words, if an electron is asked to find the way out of a maze, due to its quantum nature, it will visit all the routes inside the maze simultaneously and will return with the correct maze path solution within no time! Quantum computing based on qubit has many advantages over classical computing. It can process much bigger amount of data at much less amount of time. In today’s world of artificial intelligence and machine learning with increasing amount of data, the classical computing is reaching its limit of computational power. Therefore, there is greater need of increasing the computational power of today’s computers. And the solution lies in quantum computers. The search for qubits started in 1980s and there are trapped ions, quantum dots or cryogenic superconductor-based quantum information processing, however, diamond advantageously offers a nitrogen vacancy NV centre based solid state room temperature qubit [61, 62]. First ever continuous-wave (CW) room-temperature solid-state maser using the NV defect in diamond was reported in 2018 [63]. There are numerous large and small start-up companies, supported by national and international government agencies [64], who are devoting research effort in coming up with a viable diamond-based quantum computer in the coming decade or so.
Boron doped diamond electrodes are used for many electrochemistry-based applications [65] like sensing, environmental, electrosynthesis, electrocatalysis for energy and devices. Chemo-mechanical polishing [66] by diamond slurries uses the combined effect of chemical reaction in addition to the mechanical abrasion of hard surfaces for polishing application.
IDT metallic lines are patterned onto SAW devices. Sound velocity divided by the IDT internal spacing gives the frequency of such devices, which can be used as pressure and temperature sensors under extreme heat and pressure conditions of internal combustion engine for auto-mobile industry. The frequency of SAW devices can be enhanced by the use of diamond substrate material [67] with high sound velocity. Diamond being the material with the highest acoustic wave velocity is ideal for different sonic applications, like tweeter domes [68].
Nitrogen vacancy (NV) centre [69] defect inside diamond crystal lattice has room temperature quantum spin states which interacts with presence of an external magnetic field. Higher the external magnetic field higher is their interaction. The energy which is required to flip the NV centre spin state would also become higher. This energy of interaction can be probed by electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy (EPR) – when input microwave energy/frequency (E = hν) matches with the interaction energy, input microwave energy flips then NV centre spin state and thereby the intensity of fluorescence drops which is detected by optical microscope. Thus, the resonance frequency provides a direct and quantitative measurement of the local external magnetic field. NV centre magnetometer has been so far explored for jam-less GPS navigation by interacting with the earth’s magnetic field (Lockheed Martin is developing), surface scanning probes to magnetically characterise semiconductors, oxides and other materials, spintronics, nanoscale thermometry, marker for living cells etc.
HPHT or CVD diamond optical lenses [70] are used for wide range of spectrum from infrared to UV windows for their unique optical properties, chemical, mechanical and thermal stability under extreme conditions of high-power optical beams. They can be used as visible intraocular lens, X-ray refractive lens [71] and even for spectrometers.
Artificial retina based on silicon chips was earlier coated with ultra nanocrystalline diamond (UNCD) for eye environment fluid protective application [72]. Nowadays diamond electrode [73] is even tried for electrical stimulation of retinal prosthetic implants [74]. Diamond surfaces have been functionalised [75] for various applications [76, 77] like biomarker, bio-chip using electrochemical reactions. Microwave plasma CVD grown single crystal diamonds [78] is also used as dosimeter detector in radiotherapy treatments for cancer [79].
Diamond coatings have been developed by many companies to treat industrial waste water and also to disinfect freshwater without use of any chemicals. The boron doped diamond electrodes oxidise the organic pollutant into CO2 or destroys the dirt and disinfect the germs that are present in the water. Recently a European project titled “DIACAT” has used the same boron doped diamond for direct photocatalytic conversion of CO2 into fine chemicals and fuels under visible light [80].
Diamond has the best mechanical properties alongwith high thermal conductivity [81] and very low dielectric loss tangent [82], which make them the only material that can be used as power transmission windows in the gyrotrons used for fusion reactors [25]. Synthetic diamond detector designed for small field dosimetry is used as a dosimeter for synchrotron microbeam and minibeam radiotherapy to ensure highly localised and precise dose delivery [83]. Betavoltaics are converting the beta particle (high energy electrons) decay of the radioactive material into the electric current of a semiconductor material (electron–hole pair generation by ionisation), that lasts for the half-life time period of the radioactive material itself. Researchers at Bristol, UK, [84] have separated C14 radio-isotope from the nuclear power plant waste material to form diamond out of them, which can be used as a nuclear battery to power low-capacity device application for space, military or medical, like hearing aid in human body for their entire lifetime. But safety is still the main concern for its actual use.
These are some (Figure 11), among the many, engineering applications of diamond that are available and/or under testing, for better technologies of the future.
Few important engineering applications of diamond.
AKM thankfully acknowledge the Research Foundation Flanders - (FWO) for his Postdoctoral Researcher fellowship grant no (12X2919N) at Hasselt University, under the supervision of Prof. Ken Haenen.
Food safety is a major concern to researchers and industries. Conventional technologies are generally easy-to-use methods to transform and to conserve foods. Some of these methods create unsuitable conditions in order to inhibit the microbial growth such as drying, chilling, freezing, salting, etc.; otherwise, other methods aim to kill or eliminate the pathogens such as the heat treatments and microfiltration for example [1]. The international standards and the consumer attitudes are becoming increasingly straight regarding the safety and the quality of food products. Many food compounds and ingredients are well known to be sensitive to heat and vulnerable to other chemical or physical changes. Low production efficiency, losses of some nutritional elements, and time and energy consumption are often encountered using the traditional food processing technologies. This is why there is an acute need for improved and appropriate production methods, which ensure the microbiological safety and allow better preservation of organoleptic and nutritional quality at the same time [2].
Innovative food drying and decontamination techniques have become commercially an important alternative to conventional processes due to their profound advantages over the classic ones. The innovative methods are characterized by higher product quality, better production efficiency, energy saving, and environmental preservation compared with the conventional food processing methods [1, 3, 4].
Drying is a widely used process for preservation of agricultural and food products [3]. It consists in removing water, thus lowering the water activity, which limits the development of microorganisms, slows down or stops the majority of chemical and/or enzymatic reactions [5], and extends, as a result, the shelf life of these products. It is necessary to distinguish between drying and dehydration: drying refers to the removal of excess free water contained in the product, while dehydration means to remove all traces of water in the product [6]. Conventional drying techniques (convective drying by hot air, conduction, atomization, etc.) may have major disadvantages regarding the nutritional and sensory quality of foods [7]. Degradation of some nutritional compounds and loss of color and aroma of dried products are reported in the literature [8]. Furthermore, conventional drying usually results in shrinkage of the biological material, which has often prejudicial impact on the functional and rehydration properties of the dried products [9]. Various advanced methods were proposed in the literature to overcome the disadvantages of conventional drying such as lyophilization (freeze-drying) for example [3]. Nevertheless, the high cost of this technology limits its use at industrial scale to high value-added products, such as pharmaceuticals. This method is slow and has no influence on the initial microbiological load of the fresh product [10].
Likewise, the conventional decontamination thermal processes (pasteurization, sterilization, and blanching) are the major methods for food preservation [11]. Although relatively effective, these methods often require an intense heat treatment to ensure the inactivation of some enzymes and pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms, which naturally alters the qualities of the end product. Ultra-high-temperature (UHT) treatment is successfully used to provide safe and accepted quality products, but this method is limited for liquids. The decontamination of solid foods, particularly powders and granular products, stays a challenge. Several new decontamination treatments were presented in the literature to treat the solid foods such as the dielectric heating for example [12]. This method is characterized by noncontact volumetric and rapid heating due to the interaction of dipoles (principally: water) and ionic charges contained within the product with electromagnetic alternating fields. However, nonuniformity of dielectric heating is still the main drawback of this technology [13, 14]. Furthermore, in order to preserve the natural aspects of food products, some nonthermal decontamination methods were also studied, such as the pulsed electric fields, high pressure processing, etc. [4]. However, the industrial application of these technologies is still limited.
An innovative process called instant controlled pressure drop (Détente instantannée contrôlée in French, DIC) was invented as a drying and decontamination food process. This process is based on the thermomechanical effect induced by a rapid pressure drop leading to instant evaporation of water and inactivation of vegetative bacteria and spores. DIC technology is distinguished by its ability to handle a wide range of solid food products. In addition, this process results in volume expansion and positive texture modification. Preservation of sensory aspects and nutriment compounds of food products was also reported using this technology. Based on the DIC technology, many industrial projects were realized and several patents were filed [15]. The DIC technology as a food drying and microbial decontamination process is reviewed in this chapter.
Instant controlled pressure drop (French acronym: DIC, for “Détente Instantané Contrôlée”) was invented by Allaf and Vidal as, practically, a high temperature short time (HTST) type process followed by an abrupt pressure drop toward a vacuum [16]. The different steps of a typical DIC treatment are presented in detail in (Figure 1).
DIC treatment steps.
This process consists of, in the first place, a short heating step (10–60 s) including a saturated steam injection under high-pressure (up to 1 MPa) applied to product put initially under vacuum. This step involves vapor condensation and product heating, in which the moisture content of the product increases by 0.1 g H2O/g dry basis. The initial vacuum ensures rapid contact between the steam and the sample and consequently improves the heat transfer. Sometimes, the compressed air could be used as a pressurized agent as for the multicycle DIC treatment. Following the first heating step, the abrupt dropping of pressure (0.5 MPa.s−1) toward a vacuum (3–5 kPa) over only 10–60 ms results in an auto evaporation of water within the product, which produces an amount of vapor and a significant mechanical stress enabling the product to be expanded. Furthermore, the auto evaporation of water ensures rapid cooling, which prevents the thermal degradation of the sensitive compounds and thus ensures the high quality of treated products. The cooling rate can reach exceptional levels of 1500–2000 kW m−2 [17].
Moreover, the extension stress within the product creates a new expanded and porous structure [18]. The new structure increases the specific surface area and the mass transfer diffusivity as well as the stating accessibility of the product, thus improving the drying process, solvent extraction, and many other functional properties of foods [19]. The energy costs can also be reduced.
DIC equipment is mainly composed of four components [20] as presented in Figure 2:
A processing vessel, which is an autoclave with a heating jacket where the product to be treated is placed.
A pneumatic valve, which ensures a nearly instant liberation of steam pressure contained in the treatment vessel to the vacuum tank.
A vacuum system composed of a vacuum pump and a tank with a cooling jacket. The tank volume is usually 100–130 times higher than the volume of the processing vessel. A water ring pump maintains the tank pressure at about 2.5–5 kPa.
An extract collection trap used to recover condensates.
Schematic presentation of a typical DIC reactor: (1) treatment vessel, (2) controlled instant pressure drop valve, (3) vacuum tank with cooling jacket, (4) vacuum pump, (5) extract collection trap, (6) steam generator, and (7) air compressor.
The operating pressure profile during a DIC cycle is presented in Figure 3.
Pressure profile of a typical DIC treatment.
Drying of fruits and vegetables is one of the most efficient and ancient preservation methods. However, consumer demands have become increasingly restraint in terms of the quality of dried foods. Several scientific researches were attempted to improve the conventional drying process using innovative methods or a combination of conventional and novel technologies [21].
Convective airflow drying is the main drying operation in food processing. However, airflow drying undergoes fundamental problems such as low operation performance and poor end-product quality. The drying time is relatively long, which implies crucial energy consumption. The poor quality of the traditionally dried product is related principally to the thermal degradation and in particular to the compactness of texture at the end stages of the drying process [22].
Drying steps are presented in Figure 4. The first step is defined as an interaction between the product surface and the heating surrounding air, which includes a convective external heat transfer and vapor removal to the surrounding atmosphere [23]. This initial and relatively rapid step is defined by the term of the initial accessibility [24] expressed in gH2O/100 g dry basis, which would indicate the quantity of water removed from the surface before starting the second internal diffusion drying phase. The second step consists of conductive heat transfer, coupled with moisture transfer due to capillary forces and internal diffusion of liquid and vapor within the product [20]. However, the water elimination causes shrinkage of foods, which decreases the internal water diffusivity and increases the thermal conductivity. This phenomenon slows down the drying rate and amplifies the thermal degradation [25, 26].
Four steps of traditional hot air drying.
In fact, the external heat and mass transfers can be optimized by adequate operating parameters such as surrounding air temperature, velocity, and relative humidity. This is why the external transfer phenomena are not considered, generally, as a limiting factor for drying kinetics. Otherwise, because of shrinkage of foods during drying, the water will be entrapped in a dense matrix and its movement toward the external surface becomes difficult. Consequently, the internal transfer is the driving and limiting factor of the traditional hot air drying [18].
In order to intensify the overall drying operation, the amelioration of the internal transfer process is needed. To overcome the shrinkage problems, a modification of product structure must be made. It would be possible to make notable improvements, in terms of drying kinetics, by inserting the DIC texturing process, which will increase the effective water diffusivity and the specific exchange surface [20].
Another advantage for the DIC technology over the conventional drying methods is related to the glass transition phenomenon, which has an essential role to control the quality of the end-products. Angella and others suggested that the quality of dried foods could be ameliorated by keeping the product temperature close to the glass transition temperature range to avoid structural damages and other quality changes during dehydration [27]; however, this point has received little attention in the literature.
In fact, the applications of glass transition in food technology were reviewed in many papers [28, 29]. Several studies have reported glass transitions and state diagrams for foods, such as fruits [30, 31, 32], vegetables [33, 34], and meat products [35, 36]. Glass transition is an important element to understand and to predict the behavior of foods during processing and storage [29, 37]. The glass transition phenomenon is a reversible state transition of amorphous substances occurring when a glassy state material is changed into a supercooled melt during heating or, conversely, to the reverse transformations during cooling below its glass transition temperature (Tg) at a more rapid rate than the rate of crystallization [38]. The rapid cooling of a liquid below its equilibrium melting temperature does not allow the regular crystallization of food molecules which will be frozen at their disordered random positions and form a solid-like noncrystalline glass [38]. This glassy solid state is nonequilibrium thermodynamically and its properties are time-dependent. Moreover, Roos and Karel described the glass solid formation as a result of rapid removal of water by freezing or drying [39]. The residual water contents and high temperatures at the later stages of the drying process may cause stickiness of powder particles and/or their adhesion on the processing equipment’s surfaces.
At the end of the DIC drying process, the product water content and temperature support perfectly the solid glassy state conditions. Figure 5 represents the drying process by the conventional (ABCD) and the DIC (DEF) drying methods regarding the glass transition curve. In general, an initial hot air drying step is applied in order to decrease the product humidity down to 20–30% dry basis which is a recommended value to guarantee the viscoelastic behavior of the product under the DIC expanding and drying proceeding. The saturated steam, during the compression step, heats the product and may increase slightly the product humidity. Due to the instant pressure drop, an abrupt auto evaporation of water cools the product and allows the crossing of the glass transition frontier [27]. It was reported that structure collapse, stickiness, and agglomeration are never observed in the temperature/water content domain below glass transition. These conditions are guaranteed by the DIC process.
The DIC and hot air drying process with regard to the glass transition curve. Here, W0 is the initial product humidity, WD is the humidity at the end of hot air drying step (20–30% dry basis), WE is the humidity at the end of compression by saturated steam step, WF is the final dried product humidity, T0 is the initial product temperature, TB is the hot air drying temperature, TE is the DIC processing temperature depending on the processing pressure, and TF is the product temperature at the end of the DIC process (usually about 32°C).
The DIC treatment combined with classical hot air drying may be considered as an innovative and alternative intensifying drying process. This combination is very flexible and easy to be realized. Several protocols were proposed in the literature [8]. In general, swell drying is defined as an operation that combines optimized hot air drying step with a DIC texturing operation (Figure 5). In this method, instant pressure drop (DIC) step is inserted generally after a hot air drying treatment or, often, between two steps of conventional hot air drying. The first drying step allows the product to reach an elastic state with a water content of 20–30 g H2O/100 g dry basis, which is an essential condition before application of DIC treatment. The swell drying process has been successfully applied to fruits [40], vegetables [41], dairy components [20], granular powders [40], and meat products [19, 42]. In the case of meat and sea products, it has been possible to start the DIC texturing of the fresh material prior to hot air drying step. Swell drying reduces the drying shrinkage phenomenon, which takes place during the first hot-air drying step, via a controlled expansion. It improves also the drying kinetics by increasing water diffusivity (2–10 times) and initial accessibility (about two times). The reduction in processing time (often reduced by more than 50%) leads to a significant improvement in product quality and energy consumption [8]. Furthermore, the swell drying process ensures effective microbiological decontamination of the end products [41].
For example, swell drying of apple and onion was studied [40]. Three drying steps were adopted (initial hot air drying, DIC texturing, and final hot air drying). DIC texturing reduced the final hot air drying step time from 6 h, for the untreated DIC conventionally dried product, to 1 h in the case of DIC treated samples. The effective diffusivity in the onion is extensively accelerated after DIC treatment up to 7.56 10−10 against 0.46. 10−10 m2.s−1 for untreated DIC samples.
Swell drying is also a suitable method for fragile fruit such as strawberries [43]. At optimized DIC condition (0.35 MPa, 10 s), the dried strawberries were higher in anthocyanins and phenolic compound contents compared to classical drying treatment.
Moreover, coupling of the DIC process with spray drying was also investigated. Mounir and Allaf defined a new industrial operation composed of three stages (spry drying, DIC texturing, and hot air drying) with the aim of increasing the specific surface area of some dairy powders (skim milk, sodium caseinates, and whey proteins). For example, specific surface area of whey protein powder was tripled compared to conventional spray dried powders. A positive relation was reported between the steam pressure used in DIC operation and the specific surface area. Scanning electron microscopy analyses showed that DIC textured powders have very porous textures with numerous differently sized cavities and pores, which may explain the rapid drying and improved drying kinetics [20]. At the final drying stage of skim milk, less than 22 min were required to reach a humidity of 5% for the DIC treated powders compared to 55–60 min for the nontreated powders.
Carrot swell drying was also studied compared to traditional simple hot air drying [44]. The porosity of DIC-textured samples was five times higher than the control’s dried samples. A linear correlation was defined between the product porosity and DIC operating pressure and thermal holding time. Due to important increase of effective diffusivity of moisture content, a significant reduction in drying time and energy consumption was reported in this study. About 450 Wh/kg dry basis was saved, thanks to reducing drying time of 150 min after the DIC texturing step.
Microbiological, organoleptic, and nutritional qualities of powders and granular products are a very important issue for the researchers and industrials. Additionally, high microbial load generally characterizes the dried foods such as spices and herbs [45] due to their traditional methods of harvesting, drying, preparation, and storage [46]. The use of these ingredients in ready-to-eat plates without further heat treatment can be a serious source of hazards [47]. Moreover, it has been reported that the heat resistance of microorganisms is greater in water-poor environments such as the spices and dried herbs [48].
Thermal decontamination of microorganisms in solid foods faces several difficulties. During a heat treatment, high temperature and/or long treatments cause color changes and loss in aromatic compounds and nutritional value. Conventional heat exchangers are not appropriate for granular and powder products. A strong temperature gradient is often produced, during heating or cooling stages, which typically involves damage to the end product and reduces its overall quality. The development of a specific and effective heat treatment in the case of solid or powder foods is still required.
Steam treatment is a simple way to decontaminate foods [49, 50]. However, the effectiveness of this method depends on the type of product and target microorganisms. Also, the exposure time needs to be reduced in order to limit the heat quality degradation. Moreover, due to thermal sensitivity of food powders, athermic decontamination processes seem to be more appropriate such as high pressure decontamination processes. However, despite its numerous advantages, the effectiveness of powder decontamination under high pressures is not yet validated (about 1 log) because of their very low water content [51].
Beside its application as a drying method, the instant controlled pressure drop (DIC) technology can be used as a decontamination process for powders, species, pharmaceutical products, animal feed, and fresh-cut fruits and vegetables. The efficiency of DIC technology as a microbial inactivation process was studied and approved against spores and vegetative forms, such as
The effective microbial inactivation with DIC is due to the thermomechanical impacts resulting in irreversible changes in the microorganism cells, such as protein denaturation and break of the cellular membrane. Two main mechanisms are involved in DIC bactericidal effect: a controlled high thermal treatment and instant excessive pressure release. In addition to the well-known thermal effects on the bacterial mortality, the auto evaporation of water contained in the microorganisms, during the pressure release, causes the explosion of the bacterial cells and spores [8, 52, 54].
Inactivation of
This process is very flexible to apply. The operating parameters can be adjusted depending on the product nature and target microorganisms. The published results show that both steam pressure, which determines the temperature, and holding time under these conditions had a significant effect on the microbial inactivation. Higher saturated steam pressure and longer treatment time result in more effective decontamination. In addition, the number of pressure-drop cycles is another important factor to take into account [54].
In addition to its application as a decontamination and intensifying drying process, DIC technology can be used in other various operations in food processing [15], such as, blanching-steaming of vegetables. DIC Treatment of fresh cut onions allows a perfect decontamination of raw materials and a preservation of the natural structure of the end product. Onion samples were treated firstly by DIC under high natural initial moisture content before a dehydration step by gentle hot air flow. As the effective diffusivity increased by the DIC technology, consequently, the drying time, in the second step, was highly reduced by about 78%, with an effective increase of moisture diffusivity. In addition, natural contamination of raw onions has been eliminated. A decontamination of 1.7–3.9, depending on the operation conditions, was obtained [41].
Similarly, as a post harvesting treatment, DIC assisted steaming and parboiling of paddy rice followed by conventional airflow drying was also studied. Total treatment time was significantly reduced (205 min compared to 1110 min) as well as the rate of broken kernels (less than 3% compared to 25% at least for the traditional treatment). DIC treated rice was characterized by better cooking behavior [55].
Furthermore, the DIC process has been used to enhance or assist the conventional edible oil extraction from various vegetal materials [17]. Multi-DIC cycles allow the extraction of essential oils of aromatic plants with low energy and low water consumption. The structure expansion by DIC increases the porosity and the specific surface area of the treated plants and improves, as a result, the solvent extraction. DIC texturing is considered, thus, as a solvent extraction pretreatment, which decreases the extraction time. Indeed, Mkaouar and others (2015) reported that DIC texturing step, before polyphenol extraction from olive leaves, improves the extraction yield up to 312% [56]. Other studies have showed that DIC texturing permits enhancing essential oils and lipid extraction from Jatropha and rapeseed seeds [57], rosemary leaves [17], orange peel [58], and microalgae [59].
The nutritive quality of processed food is effectively influenced by the operating conditions. High temperature and long heating times result in important degradation of vitamins and bioactive molecules [60]. The nutritive values of DIC-treated products were evaluated [43, 61]. Thanks to its effective heating and rapid cooling, DIC-dried products are characterized by higher content and availability of bioactive compounds. The open porous structure, because of DIC texturing, allows increasing the availability of these compounds. As an example, the Quercetin content in DIC textured apple was higher than fresh apple by about 700% dry basis [6] as presented in Figure 7.
Increase in the relative availability of quercetin in apple (dry basis) after DIC treatment compared to fresh untreated apple, data modeled from [
Sensory characteristics are crucial quality attributes and normally influence the consumer preferences [62]. DIC dried, or treated products in general, are distinguished by preserved and even improved sensory properties such as flavor, color, and texture. Conventional hot air dried food products suffer from color and flavor changes as a result of severe drying conditions. Several studies have been carried out to enhance color, aroma content, and texture quality of several food products using DIC technology [63]. The results proved the high quality of swell dried carrots, potatoes, green beans, and tomatoes for example. Wang and others (2014) reported similar industrial results for green tea, wherein the DIC process intensifies the color as well as availability of antioxidant nutritional molecules [64].
Crispness is an important sensorial and textural characteristic often associated with the firmness of fresh or dried food products. Alonzo-Macías and others reported that swell dried strawberry has a higher porosity and preferred crunchiness properties compared to conventional dried samples [43]. The dense structure of hot air dried products, due to the shrinkage phenomenon, solidifies excessively the structure.
In addition, the expansion ratio of DIC swell dried vegetables, such as carrots, onions, and potatoes, was about 200–300% compared to control samples [63, 65]. The expansion phenomenon results in increasing the specific surface area, which was two times higher for swell dried apples compared to hot air dried samples [40]. Relative expansion ratio is defined as a volumetric ratio between DIC and conventional hot air dried products, which allows evaluating the macrostructural changes caused by DIC texturing. Alonzo-Macías and others found that the relative expansion ratio of DIC swell dried strawberry was about 3.6 compared to the conventional hot air dried product [43]. Similar results were also reported for cheese, chicken breast meat, and sodium caseinate [8]. Powders issued from an adequate grinding of these swell-dried products have the specificity to be “expanded granule powders” with high functional properties such as the rehydration ability for example. In the specific cases of dairy products, such expanded-granule powders have had instantaneous rehydration behavior without inserting any agglomerating steps.
The rehydration of DIC dried products was compared to freeze-dried and hot-dried references. The rehydration ability of DIC swell dried chicken breast meat was higher than that of the hot dried samples but slightly lower than that of freeze-dried meat [66]. These results are in agreement with those of others studies [43, 61]. It was found that freeze-dried Moroccan green pepper and strawberry had a better rehydration ability (i.e., starting accessibility and effective diffusivity) compared with conventional hot air dried and DIC swell dried samples. However, the freeze-dried samples have a low water holding capacity (WHC) compared to DIC swell dried samples. Water holding capacity is defined as the total quantity of water retained or absorbed by a food matrix under defined conditions [67]. This property is very important to be considered for incorporation of the dried ingredients into food formulation. The high rehydration ability of DIC swell dried products is due to the open texture formed of large intercellular spaces (porosity), which leads to higher water diffusivity during the rehydration process [8]. Several researchers have found that saturated steam pressure, during the DIC operation, has positively a significant impact on increasing the rehydration ability and water holding capacity of treated products.
In a similar way, oil holding capacity (OHC) of some DIC treated foods was studied. This factor is very important in food formulation. Setyopratomo and others observed that oil holding capacity of DIC textured cassava flour increased compared to conventional hot air dried flour. It was about 2.0 versus only 0.4 g oil/g dry cassava for DIC treated and hot air dried samples, respectively. These results may be related to starch gelatinization combined with microstructural changes as a result of DIC textured treatment [68]. Mounir and Allaf studied the OHC of egg white and yolk powder dried by different methods. The results showed that freeze dried powders exhibit the highest oil retention capacity compared to DIC swell and hot air dried powders. Under optimized operating conditions for DIC swell drying had an intermediate value of oil holding capacity of 1.5 ml oil/g powder between freeze dried (2.2 ml oil/g powder) and hot-air dried powders (0.91 ml oil/g powder). In the same study, the emulsifying capacity (EC) of egg yolk was investigated. DIC textured egg yolk had high EC (66 g oil/g dry basis), compared to 57 and 56 g oil/g dry basis for freeze-dried and conventional hot air dried egg yolk, respectively. This could be due to the exposure of hydrophobic groups of unfold proteins. Under soft operating conditions, the foaming ability of egg white powders dried by the DIC swell drying method was better than those of the other methods. The foam volume of DIC-treated egg white powders increased by 28 and 188% compared to hot air and freeze-dried samples, respectively [69].
Based on instant controlled pressure drop (DIC) technology, several industrial projects were realized in several sectors of food and pharmaceutical industries [15]. This process is applied to decontamination, extraction, and texturation of many materials. Actually, the DIC process is principally used for swell drying applications. More than 200 commercial varieties of fruits and vegetables are dried by this technology [6]. Thermal drying operations consume 10–25% of the national industrial energy in the developed countries. Conventional industrial driers usually operate at only 30–70% efficiency levels. The DIC texturing step in the swell drying process increases the stating accessibility and water diffusivity, which decreases the drying time and thus the energy consumption. At the industrial scale, DIC treatment requires about 0.8 kWh total energy consumption for 1 kg of removed water. Since 2001, the DIC process is operated by ABCAR-DIC Process, a French start-up company that employed DIC development, equipment design, and fabrication. Different models of DIC reactors are now operating worldwide; for example, in the United States, Mexico, Spain, France, Italy, Malaysia, and China.
Several DIC reactors at laboratory and industrial scales are proposed by the ABCAR-DIC process. Thanks to its flexibility, the different operating parameters in the DIC process can be optimized in order to meet the industrial needs. According to the product to be treated and the target temperature, different heating fluids can be used, such as superheated or saturated steam for high temperature treatments. In addition, low temperature steam under low pressure can be used as well as the hot air for heat sensitive products. Five models of DIC laboratory-scale equipment are available with different capacities from 30 cc to 15 liters and pressure values from 0.08 to 1 MPa. The ABCAR-DIC process offers also four models of industrial scale DIC reactors. The processing capacity ranges between 40 kg/h up to 8 tons/h such as the case for rice steaming for example. Batch and continuous reactors are also available [6].
Instant controlled pressure drop (DIC) technology can be considered as an intensification operation for several processes in food and pharmaceutical industries, such as drying, decontamination, extraction, decaffeination, steaming, and thermal transformations. Briefly, the DIC process consists in holding the product under high pressure (0.08–1 MPa) during a short time (5–60 s) followed by an instant pressure drop toward a vacuum (about 5 kPa) which results in auto evaporation of water, expansion, and rapid cooling of the product. DIC swell drying is the principal application of this technology. It is an alternative method used to improve conventional hot air drying and to overcome the shrinkage problems. Expanding and texturing the raw materials by the DIC process, before the final hot air drying step, result in intensifying the drying kinetics and, as a result, saving drying time and energy compared to traditional methods. In addition, DIC technology can be defined as a highly appropriate HTST type process that can be applied to powder and dry solids. The coupled thermomechanical impact leads to high decontamination of microorganisms. The DIC process is very effective for a wide variety of heat sensitive materials. DIC treated products are well characterized by preserved nutritive values, attractive sensorial properties, and ameliorated functional behavior. DIC technology is developed and marketed since 2001 at pilot and industrial scales by the ABCAR-DIC Process company for different sectors. Instant controlled pressure drop is a flexible technology. The operating parameters can be optimized to meet the exact needs of different industrial applications. DIC coupling with other innovative processes is an interesting research topic.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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Of the different curve types, the thoracolumbar curve is the most common curve type operated upon, as it is associated with marked trunk shift and disability. Current physiotherapy treatments consist of electrotherapy, aquatic exercises, core-strengthening exercises, and dry needling. Outcome of these treatments has not been satisfactory. Long-term successful rate of conservative treatment of symptomatic adult scoliosis is low, as the treatment addresses symptoms but not the biomechanics involved in adult scoliosis. Recent studies have shown that physiotherapeutic scoliosis-specific exercises (PSSE) and bracing stabilized the curves in 80% of the subjects. Thus PSSE and bracing should be added to the standard physiotherapy care in the management of symptomatic adult scoliosis. For asymptomatic patients with thoracolumbar curve that has an increased risk of progression, PSSE should be considered as preventative exercises. Patients who do not respond to conservative treatments and have significant spinal stenosis should be referred for surgery.",book:{id:"7540",slug:"different-areas-of-physiotherapy",title:"Different Areas of Physiotherapy",fullTitle:"Different Areas of Physiotherapy"},signatures:"Shu-Yan Ng, Tsz-Ki Ho and Yin-Ling Ng",authors:[{id:"204673",title:"Dr.",name:"Shu Yan",middleName:null,surname:"Ng",slug:"shu-yan-ng",fullName:"Shu Yan Ng"}]},{id:"62969",title:"Non-Pharmacological Pain Management",slug:"non-pharmacological-pain-management",totalDownloads:2968,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Non-pharmacological pain therapy refers to interventions that do not involve the use of medications to treat pain. The goals of non-pharmacological interventions are to decrease fear, distress and anxiety, and to reduce pain and provide patients with a sense of control. When deciding the most effective non-pharmacological technique, take into consideration the patient’s age, developmental level, medical history and prior experiences, current degree of pain and/or anticipated pain. The advantage of non-pharmacological treatments is that they are relatively inexpensive and safe.",book:{id:"7289",slug:"pain-management-in-special-circumstances",title:"Pain Management in Special Circumstances",fullTitle:"Pain Management in Special Circumstances"},signatures:"Ahmed El Geziry, Yasser Toble, Fathi Al Kadhi, Muhammad Pervaiz\nand Mohammad Al Nobani",authors:null},{id:"63463",title:"Clinical Classification of Cerebral Palsy",slug:"clinical-classification-of-cerebral-palsy",totalDownloads:2643,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"The classification of cerebral palsy (CP) remains a challenge; hence the presence of so many classifications and a lack of consensus. Each classification used alone is incomplete. Therefore, a multiaxial classification gives a more comprehensive description of a child with CP. The recent WHO International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) emphasizes the importance of focusing on the functional consequences of various states of health and has stimulated the development of newer functional scales in CP. It is widely accepted that the functional classification is the best classification for the patient because it guides management. The objectives of this chapter are to review the various classifications of CP, to highlight the clinical features used in the various classifications, to outline the recent functional classifications of CP and to highlight how these recent classifications guide current management. It is expected that at the end of this chapter, the reader should be able to understand the difficulties in classifying CP, enumerate and discuss the various classifications of CP, understand the merits and shortcomings of each classification scheme, clinically evaluate and classify a child with CP multiaxially and understand how functional scales predict current and future needs of children with CP.",book:{id:"7072",slug:"cerebral-palsy-clinical-and-therapeutic-aspects",title:"Cerebral Palsy",fullTitle:"Cerebral Palsy - Clinical and Therapeutic Aspects"},signatures:"Christian Chukwukere Ogoke",authors:[{id:"250398",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:"Chukwukere",surname:"Ogoke",slug:"christian-ogoke",fullName:"Christian Ogoke"}]},{id:"70770",title:"Ambulatory Devices: Assessment and Prescription",slug:"ambulatory-devices-assessment-and-prescription",totalDownloads:1203,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Injuries or disabilities associated with the lower extremities and aging frequently result in ambulation difficulty and this usually necessitates the prescription of ambulatory assistive device (e.g., cane, crutch and walker) in an attempt to restore locomotory function. Ambulatory devices are orthotic devices that provide support, stability and balance for users to able to move from one point to another. Users can progress or retrogress from one ambulatory device to another while some are permanently fit on a particular device throughout lifetime. The progression is dependent on the medical condition, user’s abilities, user’s anthropometric and environment. Physiotherapist prescribes ambulatory device to users and helps with the fitting and proper use of the ambulatory device. A correct prescription and well fitted ambulatory device minimize functional limitation and promote functional ability and improve quality of life. Incorrect prescription, fitting and use of ambulatory device may result in early fatigue, frustration, fall and damage to blood vessels, muscles or nerves.",book:{id:"7178",slug:"prosthesis",title:"Prosthesis",fullTitle:"Prosthesis"},signatures:"Daniel Olufemi Odebiyi and Caleb Adewumi Adeagbo",authors:[{id:"268146",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Odebiyi",slug:"daniel-odebiyi",fullName:"Daniel Odebiyi"},{id:"268254",title:"Mr.",name:"Caleb",middleName:"Adewumi",surname:"Adeagbo",slug:"caleb-adeagbo",fullName:"Caleb Adeagbo"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"197",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 4th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:2,paginationItems:[{id:"1",title:"Oral Health",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/1.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"173955",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandra",middleName:null,surname:"Marinho",slug:"sandra-marinho",fullName:"Sandra Marinho",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRGYMQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-06-01T13:22:41.png",biography:"Dr. Sandra A. Marinho is an Associate Professor and Brazilian researcher at the State University of Paraíba (Universidade Estadual da Paraíba- UEPB), Campus VIII, located in Araruna, state of Paraíba since 2011. She holds a degree in Dentistry from the Federal University of Alfenas (UNIFAL), while her specialization and professional improvement in Stomatology took place at Hospital Heliopolis (São Paulo, SP). Her qualifications are: a specialist in Dental Imaging and Radiology, Master in Dentistry (Periodontics) from the University of São Paulo (FORP-USP, Ribeirão Preto, SP), and Doctor (Ph.D.) in Dentistry (Stomatology Clinic) from Hospital São Lucas of the Pontifical Catholic University of Rio Grande do Sul (HSL-PUCRS, Porto Alegre, RS). She held a postdoctoral internship at the Federal University from Jequitinhonha and Mucuri Valleys (UFVJM, Diamantina, MG). She is currently a member of the Brazilian Society for Dental Research (SBPqO) and the Brazilian Society of Stomatology and Pathology (SOBEP). Dr. Marinho's experience in Dentistry mainly covers the following subjects: oral diagnosis, oral radiology; oral medicine; lesions and oral infections; oral pathology, laser therapy and epidemiological studies.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"State University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/2.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"179568",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Wen Lin",middleName:null,surname:"Chai",slug:"wen-lin-chai",fullName:"Wen Lin Chai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHGAQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-05-23T14:31:12.png",biography:"Professor Dr. Chai Wen Lin is currently a lecturer at the Department of Restorative Dentistry, Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Malaya. She obtained a Master of Dental Science in 2006 and a Ph.D. in 2011. Her Ph.D. research work on the soft tissue-implant interface at the University of Sheffield has yielded several important publications in the key implant journals. She was awarded an Excellent Exchange Award by the University of Sheffield which gave her the opportunity to work at the famous Faculty of Dentistry of the University of Gothenburg, Sweden, under the tutelage of Prof. Peter Thomsen. In 2016, she was appointed as a visiting scholar at UCLA, USA, with attachment in Hospital Dentistry, and involvement in research work related to zirconia implant. In 2016, her contribution to dentistry was recognized by the Royal College of Surgeon of Edinburgh with her being awarded a Fellowship in Dental Surgery. She has authored numerous papers published both in local and international journals. She was the Editor of the Malaysian Dental Journal for several years. Her main research interests are implant-soft tissue interface, zirconia implant, photofunctionalization, 3D-oral mucosal model and pulpal regeneration.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorTwo:{id:"479686",title:"Dr.",name:"Ghee Seong",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"ghee-seong-lim",fullName:"Ghee Seong Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003ScjLZQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-06-08T14:17:06.png",biography:"Assoc. Prof Dr. Lim Ghee Seong graduated with a Bachelor of Dental Surgery from University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur in 2008. He then pursued his Master in Clinical Dentistry, specializing in Restorative Dentistry at Newcastle University, Newcastle, UK, where he graduated with distinction. He has also been awarded the International Training Fellowship (Restorative Dentistry) from the Royal College of Surgeons. His passion for teaching then led him to join the faculty of dentistry at University Malaya and he has since became a valuable lecturer and clinical specialist in the Department of Restorative Dentistry. He is currently the removable prosthodontic undergraduate year 3 coordinator, head of the undergraduate module on occlusion and a member of the multidisciplinary team for the TMD clinic. He has previous membership in the British Society for Restorative Dentistry, the Malaysian Association of Aesthetic Dentistry and he is currently a lifetime member of the Malaysian Association for Prosthodontics. Currently, he is also the examiner for the Restorative Specialty Membership Examinations, Royal College of Surgeons, England. He has authored and co-authored handful of both local and international journal articles. His main interest is in prosthodontics, dental material, TMD and regenerative dentistry.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:47,paginationItems:[{id:"82938",title:"Trauma from Occlusion: Practical Management Guidelines",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105960",signatures:"Prashanth Shetty, Shweta Hegde, Shubham Chelkar, Rahul Chaturvedi, Shruti Pochhi, Aakanksha Shrivastava, Dudala Lakshmi, Shreya Mukherjee, Pankaj Bajaj and Shahzada Asif Raza",slug:"trauma-from-occlusion-practical-management-guidelines",totalDownloads:11,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Trauma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11567.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"82654",title:"Atraumatic Restorative Treatment: More than a Minimally Invasive Approach?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105623",signatures:"Manal A. Ablal",slug:"atraumatic-restorative-treatment-more-than-a-minimally-invasive-approach",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Caries - The Selection of Restoration Methods and Restorative Materials",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11565.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"82608",title:"Early Management of Dental Trauma in the Era of COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105992",signatures:"Khairul Bariah Chi Adam, Haszelini Hassan, Pram Kumar Subramaniam, Izzati Nabilah Ismail, Nor Adilah Harun and Naziyah Shaban Mustafa",slug:"early-management-of-dental-trauma-in-the-era-of-covid-19",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Trauma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11567.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"82767",title:"Teeth Avulsion",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105846",signatures:"Manal Abdalla Eltahir, Randa Fath Elrahman Ibrahim and Hanan Alharbi",slug:"teeth-avulsion",totalDownloads:20,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Dental Trauma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11567.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6668",title:"Dental Caries",subtitle:"Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6668.jpg",slug:"dental-caries-diagnosis-prevention-and-management",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Zühre Akarslan",hash:"b0f7667770a391f772726c3013c1b9ba",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Dental Caries - Diagnosis, Prevention and Management",editors:[{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7139",title:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7139.jpg",slug:"current-approaches-in-orthodontics",publishedDate:"April 10th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Belma Işık Aslan and Fatma Deniz Uzuner",hash:"2c77384eeb748cf05a898d65b9dcb48a",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Current Approaches in Orthodontics",editors:[{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7572",title:"Trauma in Dentistry",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7572.jpg",slug:"trauma-in-dentistry",publishedDate:"July 3rd 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Serdar Gözler",hash:"7cb94732cfb315f8d1e70ebf500eb8a9",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Trauma in Dentistry",editors:[{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. 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Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. 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Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. 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His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. 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He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. 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He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. 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Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/system/329795.png",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India, where he obtained a Ph.D. in Pharmacology in 2020. He also obtained a BPharm and MPharm from the same university in 2013 and 2015, respectively. His area of research is the pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/natural products in liver cancer and cardiac diseases. He is a member of many professional bodies and has guided many MPharm and PharmD research projects. Dr. Siddiqui has many national and international publications and one German patent to his credit.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). 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He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"175762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Escribano",slug:"alfredo-j.-escribano",fullName:"Alfredo J. 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Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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