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Kaoud",authors:[{id:"265070",title:"Dr.",name:"Hussein Abdelhay",middleName:null,surname:"Essayed Kaoud",fullName:"Hussein Abdelhay Essayed Kaoud",slug:"hussein-abdelhay-essayed-kaoud"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"66570",title:"Neurophenomenology, Enaction, and Autopoïesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85262",slug:"neurophenomenology-enaction-and-autopo-esis",body:'In 1995, Chalmers [1] identified what he called the “hard problem” of consciousness. The question is, how can a purely physicochemical event such as a set of action potentials in a set of brain cells (and why brains, rather than the heart or the gut?!) actually
In Section 2, I will present the “neurophenomenology” proposed by Varela [2], which provides empirical evidence on the neural correlates of consciousness. While entirely valid and indeed intriguing, this work does not solve the “hard problem”; I will argue that in a way it makes matters even worse, because the correlations it reveals are not explanatory, but they require explanation‑although in the conclusion, I will suggest that there is actually more to it than this.
In Section 3, I will present the concept of “enaction” [3]. In order for conscious experience to be possible, there must be something to be conscious
In the previous paragraph, I said that enaction is the process, whereby a
In the box below, I provide definitions of some major concepts in this field.
Definitions of major concepts
Enaction.
Autopoïesis.
Dissipative structure. In thermodynamically
Thermodynamic systems: open and closed. In classical thermodynamics, there are two sorts of system. In a
Finally, in conclusion, I will attempt to draw these various threads together.
A notable attempt to solve the “hard problem”—or rather, to dissolve it away—is the neurophenomenology proposed by Varela [2]. There are two strands to neurophenomenology. On one hand, there are the modern techniques of brain imaging, which provide rich empirical data—fine-grained, precisely localized, in real time—on cerebral activity. On the other hand, there is a serious attempt to obtain valid descriptions of first-person subject consciousness. It is notoriously difficult to obtain such descriptions; spontaneous introspection is disconcertingly unreliable. In a well-known experiment, repeated by various authors, two similar subjects are shown, but slightly with different portraits, and were asked to designate the one they prefer. They are then shown a slightly enlarged version of the portrait,
With these methods and also drawing on the literature, Varela obtained some convincing results. The major results are detailed in Table 1.
Basic brain mechanisms for consciousness.
So where does this leave us? These neural correlates of consciousness are, in their own way, impressive indeed. However, with respect to the “hard problem,” there is a sense in which we are worse off than ever. The point is that these correlates are just that; they do not actually
To start with, it will be salutary to go back to basics and look at what it is that neurons actually
The prototype example is the “world of the tick” as described by von Uexküll [4]. This lived world is enacted by three simple sensation-action cycles. (i) The female tick climbs to the end of the branch of a bush, and … waits, maybe for weeks. If she senses an odor of butyric acid, she lets herself fall. (ii) If she falls on a hairy surface, she crawls until she finds a smooth area (if not, she climbs back up onto the bush and starts over). (iii) She then sticks her proboscis through the surface, and if she finds a liquid at 37°C underneath, she sucks to satiety. This makes sense when we know that (in context) butyric acid is secreted by the sweat glands of mammals; the hairy surface will then be the fur of the mammal; and the liquid at 37°C will be the blood of the mammal (which the tick needs to feed her eggs; she then fertilizes the eggs from a store of sperm, after which she lays the eggs and her life cycle is complete). Of course, the tick does not know
Before moving on, there is another aspect to enaction; that is, as conscious living beings, each and every one of us
I now address the point that consciousness would seem to be a feature reserved to living organisms; it is only in science fiction that computers and computerized robots are conscious (the film “Space Odyssey 2001” with the computer “Hal,” and the film “Her” in which the hero falls in love with his “operating system”). This raises the question as to what it is about living organisms that makes them candidates for consciousness. After all, computerized robots can perfectly have artificial nervous systems that set up their sensory motor dynamics. One lead is that all living organisms, even the simplest, have the property that they are
Ironically, it is not the most highly evolved forms of human consciousness that are the most mysterious; Jaynes [7] has provided a highly suggestive account of how sophisticated reflexive consciousness might have arisen through the “breakdown of the bicameral mind”. The “bicameral mind” in question is the sort of trance in which prophets (Old Testament) and heroes (Odyssey) “heard voices” telling them what to do. Nowadays, we call this “auditory hallucination” and shut up those concerned in a psychiatric asylum, whereas at that time, they were valued members of their communities. However, that may be, “hallucinations” are clearly the result of cerebral activity, as are dreams to which they are closely related. No; what is most mysterious is the basic form of “animal consciousness,” which seems not only to be all-or-nothing but also to increase gradually along the evolutionary scale from fish to reptiles to mammals. This
In conclusion, I would like to return to some issues that I raised earlier. As we have seen, Varela’s “neurophenomenology” highlights some of the neural correlates of consciousness. But as I said, if this were all, it would aggravate rather than solving Chalmers’ “hard problem.” But in fact it is not all. Varela’s main point—which may be well missed by those reading it as one more academic text—is that if we really wish to address the phenomenon of consciousness, we must be prepared to take into account the fact that it is a phenomenon that is only properly instantiated in the form of
“
The consequence is that with respect to the “hard problem,” the nature of “hard” becomes reframed in two senses:
It is hard work to train and stabilize new methods to explore experience.
It is hard to change the habits of science in order for it to accept that new tools are needed for the transformation of what it means to conduct research on mind and for the training of succeeding generations.
Interestingly enough, a similar theme comes up with respect to the concept of enaction. As I have already indicated, there is potentially an existential dimension to enaction; scientists are after all human beings, as thus like all living organisms
Of course what happens is that any “normal” scientist will seek to defuse this threat – both individually and as a community. I do hope I am not being pretentious or disdainful here; I think I understand too well what is going on, because I know the cost. But still I do want to stand my ground, to stand up, and be counted. I maintain that if enaction is defused, it is betrayed. I propose that we take a closer look at this.
One of the main ways—certainly not the only one—that enaction defused is by converting it into a much safer research program of what has been called “4E cognition” [8]. The “4Es” are: embodied, embedded, extended, and enacted cognition. This is a smart move (if one is indeed trying to defuse enaction so as to get back into the comfort zone of “normal” science), for the following reason. Varela himself envisaged enaction as the framework for a possible paradigm in Cognitive Science, and others have attempted to follow up on this [3]. Now, in any such attempt, the notions that cognition is embodied, embedded (it is more usual to say “situated”), and extended undeniably play key roles. So as a proponent of “existential enaction,” I cannot protest against the association of enaction with the other three “Es.” However, what I can and do protest about is adding in “enacted” as an ancillary element at the end of the list. In my view, these three E’s are
To sum up, then, I would like to conclude by an invitation. As I have tried to explain, the neuroscience of consciousness potentially opens up a breach in our normal functioning as scientists; it offers the opportunity for those so inclined to introduce a subjective, existential dimension into their work. Of course, one can bring a horse to the water, but one cannot force him to drink. This is particularly so here, where intimate personal attitudes are at stake. But I hope that I have done enough to make the invitation appealing.
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