Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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1. Introduction
Proteomics is an important tool in the study of human biological material with the aim to extract knowledge that can improve a patients’ treatment outcomes. Molecular information obtained from patient samples can be complementary to pathological observations all with the goal of faster and more accurate diagnosis, and subsequent treatment. Molecular analysis of tissue by proteomics can lead to disease classification and reveal underlying disease pathways that can further serve as a target for medical treatment.
Sample size and origin is an important aspect in sample preparation. Today, there are numerous sample preparation procedures existing which aim to improve sensitivity of detection or protein recovery from a sample. Release of proteins from native or artificial material is a crucial step in sample preparation and to improve protein recovery there are different additives such as detergents, chaotropes, buffers and salts added during the sample preparation that must be considered. Moreover, targeting special groups of proteins (e.g. membrane proteins), which are involved in key cellular functions and may be a target of pharmaceutical treatment, often represent a challenge in their isolation and analysis. Their amphipathic nature may require use of appropriate enrichment procedures all with the goal to achieve better detection.
Further, sample loss during most standard preparation procedures is inevitable, and it is even more accentuated when minute amounts of material are being processed. To minimize sample loss and thus increase sensitivity of the analysis at the MS step there have recently been several technologies developed. Specifically, improvement in technologies that allow detection of proteins down to a single cell have become available. Some of these technologies, such as nanoPOTS and microPOTS, have already been applied to human tissues. These new possibilities to analyse small regions of tissue samples with sufficient sensitivity is opening the door to many applications such as profiling of selected regions of a tumorous zone or detection of proteins from subcellular populations. These new applications aimed at working with 1 to 100s or 1000s of cells will likely have increasing importance in clinics, but only if they can be developed into routine and robust methods.
2. Tissue preservation
Human tissue samples are a valuable source of information for diagnostics, therefore a lot of effort has gone into best preservation methods that minimize changes that can occur over time in storage. For example, following clinical surgery tissues need to be stored according to the protocols that minimize chemical, enzymatic, mechanical or thermal degradation and protect their molecular content. Today, tissues are most often preserved as fresh frozen (FF) or formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissues.
2.1 Fresh frozen tissues
FF tissues are obtained usually with snap freezing of tissues where the temperature achieved is below −70°C, most often in dry ice or liquid nitrogen (Figure 1B). To minimize variability between the samples storage and thus to minimize potential effect on molecular structure and integrity of the tissue, the European Human Frozen Tumour tissue bank (TuBa-Frost) has standardized tissue preservation by freezing in 2006 [1, 2]. An important aspect in preservation of tissues by the FF method is prevention of formation of artefacts that might result in changes to the tissue structure and morphology. For example, ice crystals that can disrupt structures within the tissue may form as a consequence of the freezing procedure due to moisture present within the tissue [3]. An alternative to snap freezing is the optimal cutting temperature (OCT) compound, which is used for tissue embedding and contains polyvinyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol (PEG) and benzalonium chloride. The OCT substance preserves tissue and enables optimal microdissection of the tissue. However, where samples will later be analyzed by mass spectrometry (MS), OCT compounds must be removed prior to analysis. This is usually achieved by washing the tissue with a special grade of alcohol or Carnoy’s fluid [4] or with the use of other protocols for sample purification.
Figure 1.
Overview of tissue sample processing prior to proteomic experiments. A) Tissues can be preserved and stored for long periods of time by formalin fixation and paraffin embedding which has been routinely used for decades. Proteomic analysis of FFPE tissues can be accompanied with laser capture microdissection (LCM) which helps to retrieve regions of interest on tissue sections. Further steps involve isolation of the proteins from the sections in appropriate lysis buffers and further processing for protein analysis by MS. B) Tissues can be preserved by freezing and further stored at low temperatures. Tissue should be frozen as soon as possible after retrieval and tissue can be sectioned prior to proteomic sample preparation. Tissue sections are further prepared for protein isolation, but also single cell isolation protocols could be employed to retrieve limited cell subsets prior protein extraction.
2.2 Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues
An alternative to preservation of tissue by the FF process is the use of FFPE methods (Figure 1A), which are routinely used by pathologists around the globe to preserve tissue by embedding in paraffin. The FFPE process preserves tissues by chemical fixation most often in 10% of formalin and is followed later by embedding in paraffin to form a tissue block for subsequent slicing. The combination of formalin fixation with paraffin embedding allows for long term storage of tissues. Also, FFPE tissues are often used for histopathological studies, a routine process in examination of a patient’s biopsies and clinical material [5]. Moreover, it is known that formalin leads to chemical modification of proteins in the fixed tissues causing cross-linking between proteins and modifications most often as methylation (+14 Da) as well as formation of methylene and methylol adducts to a lesser extent. As a consequence of formaldehyde induced modifications, the molecular weight or physicochemical properties of fixed proteins can be altered.
3. Preparation of the sample for bottom-up proteomics
Protein extraction and the subsequent preparation for LC–MS analysis represents one of the key steps in proteomics (Figure 2). While there have been numerous protocols reported, they have mainly focused on preparation from large amounts (i.e. micrograms to milligrams) of material, which limits their utility in the study of patient clinical samples. Notably, protein extraction from FFPE preserved tissues requires removal of formaldehyde-formed cross links, which is usually carried out by heating samples in a buffered solution at an elevated temperature (95°C or 100°C). The most common buffers used for protein extraction are ammonium bicarbonate, tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (Tris), and Radioimmunoprecipitation assay (RIPA) buffer. Addition of detergents to the buffer composition (e.g. sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), sodium dodecyl cholate (SDC), RapiGest SF surfactant™ (Waters), PPS Silent Surfactant™ (Expedeon) have been routinely used to improve protein solubilization efficiency and thus enhance protein extraction. In addition to optimization of the extraction buffers many studies also optimized other parameters like incubation time of the extraction and/or addition of various proteases to improve protein coverage during subsequent LC–MS/MS analysis.
Figure 2.
Overview of sample preparation for bottom-up proteomic analysis by tandem mass spectrometry. A) Sample lysis: proteins are extracted from biological matrix in lysis buffer. Mechanical disintegration or sonification is used to homogenize rigid structures present within samples such as is common in mammalian tissue. B) Protein digestion: proteins are proteolytically digested into peptides, usually by the protease trypsin. C) Peptide fractionation: optionally, the complexity of the peptide sample is decreased by addition of fractionation steps orthogonal to methods used in the next step. D) Mass spectrometry analysis: desalted peptide samples are dissolved in an appropriate buffer and introduced into a tandem mass spectrometer. Most often reversed phase liquid chromatography separation is used in this final step to enable sequential introduction of peptides into the tandem mass spectrometer.
3.1 Detergents
Traditional detergents and chaotropes such as SDS and urea have been widely used for protein solubilization, however they are also well known to inhibit digestion at higher concentrations and are incompatible with reversed phase chromatography separation (RPLC) used to introduce samples for MS analysis. Therefore, their concentration must be kept low at the time of proteolysis in order to preserve the effectiveness of proteases used for protein digestion. Failure to do so often leads to incomplete protein solubilization and denaturation. Also, presence of detergents in the sample might interfere with later instrumental analysis, therefore there have been different purification methods developed for detergent removal to improve LC–MS outcome. The choice of the most effective procedure depends on the physicochemical properties of the detergent. Some of the procedures might include detergent removal on the basis of size exclusion (i.e. molecular weight cut-off filters) or with the use of spin columns containing appropriate resins for detergent removal. Moreover, heating of the sample in urea buffers often leads to covalent modification of proteins via carbamylation, which might affect peptide retention time during RPLC separation and if not accounted for will interfere with identification. In order to circumvent these problems caused by mass spectrometry incompatible detergents significant effort went into development of reagents that avoid these complications. To this end, acid labile detergents such as RapiGest SF surfactant™ (Waters) and PPS Silent Surfactant™ (Expedeon) were developed that could be easily removed after proteolysis by simple measures like decreasing the pH. For example, the MS compatible surfactant ProteaseMAX™ (Promega) surfactant enhances tryptic, chymotryptic and LysC digestion and then degrades during the course of a digestion reaction. Another compound, Invitrosol™ (Thermo Fisher Scientific) is a homogenous surfactant that does not impact tryptic digestion and elutes during RPLC in three peaks well separated from where peptides elute [6].
3.2 Sample digestion
Classical bottom-up proteomic sample preparation aims to turn protein extracts into peptides via a process of protein cleavage or digestion with proteases. Notably, proteins extracted from biological material tend to keep their native tertiary structure mostly held by non-covalent interactions of amino acid side groups [7]. It is thus essential to disrupt the tertiary structure and linearize the protein sequence to ease the accessibility of proteases to cleavage sites. Protein tertiary structure is frequently disrupted by chaotropic and denaturing reagents. Disulfide bonding contributes to tertiary structure as well via a covalent bond between cysteine side chain groups also termed an S-S bridge. Disulphide bonds are most often broken by use of reducing agents leaving free sulfhydryl groups available that allow the protein to unfold more fully. Dithiothreitol (DTT), tris (2-carboxyethyl) phosphine (TCEP), tris (3-hydroxypropyl) phosphine (THPP) and 2-mercaptoethanol (2-ME) are the most commonly used reducing agents. Sulphur containing reagents such as 2-ME and DTT break the S-S bridge by thiol-disulfide exchange, while phosphorus containing reagents form a phosphine oxide as a result of disulphide bond reduction [8]. Reduction is commonly followed by free sulfhydryl group alkylation to prevent disulphide bond reformation. In this chemistry a free sulfhydryl group performs a nucleophilic attack on the alpha carbon of an alkylating reagent creating a covalent bond between the alkyl group and cysteine. There is a wide palette of alkylating reagents that may be used, but in proteomic sample preparation the most commonly used reagents include iodoacetamide, iodoacetic acid, N-ethylmaleimide (NEM) and S-methyl methanethiosulfonate. Covalent modification of a free sulfhydryl group leaves a mass tag on each cysteine that must be considered as a mass shift to cysteine during interpretation of peptide tandem mass spectra. Alkylated proteins are then further processed by proteolytic cleavage, to shorter segments; peptides, which are then easily detected in a bottom-up experiment carried out by LC–MS/MS analysis. As mentioned above peptides may be produced by enzymatic methods but also chemical methods that can be either specific or unspecific (Table 1). In both cases there are a variety of protocols available to digest proteins into peptides for mass spectrometry-based proteomic analysis.
Proteases used for proteolytic digestion of protein extracts retrieved from biological material such as tissue, body fluids or cell extract. Table 1 presents the enzyme class, pH and temperature optimum, inorganic ion cofactor and specificity of protease. In addition a representative application and literature source is given.
Bottom-up proteomics frequently relies on proteolytic enzymes that digest a protein at specific sites. Having predictable digestion rules for a given protease results in a faster database search process that also makes it computationally less demanding and more accurate. Trypsin is the most common protease in bottom-up proteomics cleaving peptide bonds at the C-terminus of arginine and lysine when not followed by proline [16]. Notably, maintaining an optimal temperature of 37°C at a pH optimum between 7 and 8 in the presence of Ca2+ ions in the digestion buffer is important for the reaction to proceed efficiently [17]. The optimal enzyme to substrate ratio is also important and for trypsin this is often from 1:20 to 1:100 (w:w). In some instances LysC endoproteinase, which is isolated from Lysobacter enzymogenes, is often combined with trypsin to provide cleavage at lysine C-terminus. This combination of multiple enzymes is used to enhance peptide sequence coverage by producing overlapping peptides. The addition of chymotrypsin and pepsin produce the most orthogonal peptides to trypsin. Chymotrypsin is a serine protease which cleaves a peptide bond at the C-terminus of large hydrophobic side chain amino acids such as phenylalanine, tryptophan, tyrosine and leucine. Chymotrypsin performs best in a 1:50 (w:w) enzyme to substrate ratio at basic pH and a temperature around 37°C. Chymotrypsin is also activated and stabilized by the presence of Ca2+ ions, therefore it is beneficial to use digestion buffers containing calcium ions (e.g. CaCl2) [18]. Pepsin is an endopeptidase that is secreted in gastric chief cells as an inactive precursor called pepsinogen that becomes activated by cleavage of an N-terminal pro-segment in acidic conditions. The optimal enzymatic activity of pepsin is achieved at pH 1.5–2.5 and 37°C. Pepsin cleaves at the C-terminus of phenylalanine, leucine and rarely after histidine and lysine, unless they are adjacent to leucine or phenylalanine. Pepsin is frequently used for on-column protein digestion in hydrogen-deuterium exchange experiments (HDX), but also an application in off-line pressure assisted protein digestion has been reported [19].
GluC, ArgC, LysN, AspN are also popular proteases in bottom-up proteomics as they predictably produce complementary or orthogonal peptides to trypsin with different substrate affinities. GluC is a serine protease isolated from Staphylococcus aureus with specificity dependent on the digestion buffer composition. For example, performing proteolysis in phosphate buffers will lead to cleavage at the C-terminus of glutamic acid and asparatic acid, but only cleavage at the C-terminus of glutamic acid will be catalysed in ammonium acetate (pH 4.0) and ammonium bicarbonate (pH 7.8) buffers [20]. GluC is known to perform optimally under pH 4.0 and pH 7.8 at 37°C while it is stable in denaturing conditions. ArgC, isolated from Clostridium histolyticum, is a cysteine endopeptidase cleaving at the C-terminus of arginine and sometimes at the C-terminus of lysine. Its pH optimum is 7.6 and Ca2+ ions also enhance its activity. ArgC digestion has recently been considered an alternative to the conventional trypsin digestion as it cleaves at the C-terminus of arginine. LysN is a metalloprotease that cleaves at the N-terminus of lysine and it is resistant to denaturation allowing digests to proceed even at temperatures higher than mentioned above. AspN is a selective metalloproteinase isolated from Flavobacterium menigosepticum requiring zinc atoms for its catalytical activity [21]. Its endopeptidase activity is specific to the N-terminus of aspartic acid or cysteic acid. To maintain optimal enzymatic activity it is recommended to include ZnSO4 in the digestion solution buffered between pH 6.5–8.0 at a temperature of 40°C. Combining AspN with trypsin digestion increases data quality and increases protein coverage [22]. WaLP and MaLP are less known proteases cleaving at aliphatic amino acids, which makes them popular for membrane proteomic applications. Meyer et al. demonstrated that combination of data from trypsin, LysC, WaLP and MaLP digestion leads to an increase in membrane proteome coverage by 101%, compared to coverage achieved by trypsin digestion alone [23].
Broad specificity protease digestion is less common to bottom-up sample preparation, nevertheless it is used to digest rigid protein structures that resist digestion using common proteases. Proteinase K is one such serine endopeptidase isolated from fungus Engyodontium album that cleaves protein sequences with a broad specificity and like others discussed above requires Ca2+ ions for activity. Generally, it cleaves at the C-terminus of aromatic or aliphatic amino acids and is able to digest proteins in their native state or in presence of detergent such as SDS and Triton-X 100, but works best at alkaline pH 7.5–12.0 and 37°C. Most frequently, it is used for nucleic acid purification to remove proteins, but it is also suitable for some proteomic applications such as non-specific digestion of membrane proteins, protease footprinting or prion digestion. As the name implies thermolysin is a thermostable metalloproteinase isolated from Bacillus thermoproteolyticus. Thermolysin requires zinc and calcium ions for proteolytic activity but remains active in temperatures from 65–85°C and between pH 5.0 to 8.5. It cleaves at the N-terminus of alanine, methionine, isoleucine, leucine, valine and phenylalanine and is often used to digest proteins that resist proteolysis using conventional proteases [24]. Papain and elastase have endopeptidase activity and broad specificity that while available are rarely used in bottom-up sample preparation. Elastase is a serine endopeptidase that cleaves at the C-terminus of small hydrophobic side chains such as glycine, valine, isoleucine and leucine. While, papain is cysteine endopeptidase that cleaves at the C-terminus of arginine and lysine if it is preceded by hydrophobic amino acid, but not succeeded by valine. Subtilisin is a serine endopeptidase isolated from soil bacteria (e.g. Bacillus licheniformis) that is known to non-specifically cleave the peptide bond with a preference for large uncharged amino acids, although amino acids with basic side chains can be accepted in alternate binding mode [25]. Subtilisin remains active and stable under denaturing and alkaline conditions ranging from pH 8–12 and Ca2+ ions stabilize subtilisin structure, therefore it is essential to include CaCl2in a digestion buffer. Subtilisin’s use in bottom-up proteomics is quite limited due to its wide range of specificity, nevertheless it has been reported that it could be used to reveal previously hidden areas of the proteome [26]. Cathepsins form a large group of proteases with endopeptidase activity. Their use in proteomics is not frequent but nevertheless some uses have been reported. Cathepsin L is a cysteine protease located in lysosomes, it is physiologically involved in tissue remodeling and in diseases such as cancer metastasis. Cathepsin L is catalytically active at pH 3.0–6.5 in the presence of thiol compounds [27]. Digestion using Cathepsin L has been reported in research of histone N-termini. Cathepsin C is a N-terminal dipeptidase physiologically involved in activation of serine proteases and inflammatory cells [28]. Its use in proteomic sample preparation is limited, as its cleavage is unspecific. Nevertheless, it could serve as a potent tool to generate peptides orthogonal to conventional proteases.
Thrombin is a serine protease which is proteolytically activated during the clotting process from an inactive prothrombin precursor. It is exclusively specific towards the Leu-Val-Pro-Arg-Gly-Ser motif. Therefore, it is most often used to cleave a specific linker tethered to another peptide with this sequence motif inserted into recombinant fusion protein constructs. There is a wide palette of these type of protein tag removal endopeptidases; namely Factor Xa cleaving Leu-Val-Pro-Arg-Gly-Ser motif, Enteropeptidase cleaving Asp-Asp-Asp-Asp-Lys motif, TEV Protease cleaving Glu-Asn-Leu-Tyr-Phe-Gln-Gly motif, Rhinovirus 3C Protease cleaving Leu-Glu-Val-Leu-Phe-Gln-Gly-Pro motif and several others [29]. Further details of protein tag removal proteases will not be discussed as it does not fall within scope of this chapter.
Finally, it should be noted that reproducible protein cleavage could be achieved even in non-enzymatic reactions mediated by chemical reagents. The most frequent chemical reagents to cleave peptide bond are dilute acids, such as hydrochloric acid, formic acid and acetic acid or other reagents such as cyanogen bromide (CNBr), hydroxylamine and 2-nitro-5-thiocyanobenzoate (NTCB) [30]. Exposure of proteins to dilute acids results in kinetically favored cleavage of peptide bonds at asparagine but with time others as well, while CNBr cleaves at less abundant methionine [31]. NTCB is specific towards cysteine, while hydroxyl amine reagent cleaves peptide bonds at asparagine and glycine. Generally, chemical mediated cleavage targets peptide bonds of less common amino acids producing long peptides useful in middle-down proteomics [30].
4. Technologies for analysis of limited sample amounts
Given that there is no technology to amplify proteins as may be done for nucleic acids with polymerase chain reaction, historically proteomics has faced limitations in terms of the amount of starting material required for success. Traditional proteomics approaches to sample preparation such as filter-aided sample preparation (FASP), in-gel digestion, and in-solution digestion typically require at least several micrograms of a protein sample, which can be complicated to retrieve from representative clinical samples that are by default limited in availability. Therefore, the traditional method of defining proteomes has generally produced knowledge on the underlying biology that reflect averages rendered from analysis of mixtures of cells of different types present in tissue.
As proteomics and the requisite mass spectrometry instrumentation have evolved, microscale proteomic pipelines that decrease the amount of protein required to sub-microgram levels have become available. Microscale proteomics pipelines rely on modifications of traditional proteomics pipelines frequently accompanied with cell sorting, laser capture tissue microdissection (LCM) or single cell extraction methods. Microdevices such as nano-capillary columns, microfluidic chips, miniaturised ESI introduction interfaces and miniaturised enzyme reactors are often required [32]. Introducing microscale proteomics provides a clearer picture of reality as it substantially increases sensitivity, spatial proteome resolution and leads to better understanding of how protein networks coincide on microscopic level. Despite obvious benefits, microscale proteomics still requires special instrumentation making implementation of these protocols for the moment some what difficult across laboratories worldwide.
One recent promising such technology is nanoPOTS (nanodroplet processing in one pot for trace samples) (Figure 3A). The nanoPOTS platform is intended for processing small cell populations in nanoliter volumes. NanoPOTS benefits from downscaling the processing volumes that in turn substantially reduces surface associated sample losses. The final step of nanoPOTS is accompanied with solid phase extraction (SPE) that concentrates, desalts and efficiently introduces a sample to nanoLC fluidics. Recently, a modification of nanoPOTS termed microPOTS was reported that is a more adoptable variant not requiring a robotic platform [33]. It has been reported that nanoPOTS could identify >3000 proteins from 10 cultured mammalian cells, while microPOTS has been reported to reproducibly identify up to 1200 and 1800 proteins from 25 HeLa cells and 50 mm square mouse liver tissue, respectively [33]. Several nanoPOTS modifications have been reported since it was introduced. For example, Zhu et al. claim that a combination of nanoPOTS with fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS) could detect 670 protein groups from a single mammalian cell [34]. Later a combination of nanoPOTS, nanoLC separation operated at 20 nL/min and Orbitrap Eclipse and Tribrid mass spectrometer led even to a slight increase in sensitivity identifying ~1000 protein groups from a single HeLa cell [35]. Extraordinary low sample requirements predispose nanoPOTS to being useful for LC–MS/MS tissue imaging. Spatially resolved proteomic maps of a mouse blastocyst embedding into placenta have been produced using a combination of nanoPOTS and LCM. The nanoPOTS - LCM combination produced quantitative tissue images for >2000 proteins with 100-μm spatial resolution which substantially outperformed classical protein imaging mass spectrometry (IMS) [36]. The universality of nanoPOTS is well documented in several publications summarising results from pancreas, liver brain tissue thin sections as well as plant samples.
Figure 3.
Modern limited proteomic sample preparation approaches. (A) NanoPOTS; A limited proteomic sample preparation protocol that uses an automated robotic platform operating with nanoliter volumes. Sample is processed in a nano-well patterned slide. Sample preparation is based on principles of classical in-solution protein digestion. Protein digest is then transferred into SPE cartridge, where peptides are desalted and concentrated. Following, peptides are separated and analysed using mass spectrometry. (B) SCoPE-MS; a single cell proteome analysis platform. Carrier proteome is used to overcome sample losses accompanied due to peptide adsorption to surfaces. TMT labelling identifies the carrier and analysed proteomes. It could also serve for relative quantification of compared proteomes (SCoPE-MS2). Protein presence in the investigated sample and its quantity is determined based on reporter ion intensity.
Achieving submicrogram detection limits has also been reached by introducing a carrier proteome to decrease adsorption of the proteome of interest in combination with TMT labelling (Figure 3B). The carrier proteome spike-in helped the method known as Single-Cell-ProtEomics-by-Mass-Spectrometry (SCoPE MS) to overcome extensive losses due to adsorption of proteins to surfaces (e.g. LC columns) while the addition of TMT labelling identifies the carrier and analysed proteomes. Moreover, TMT labels enable relative protein quantitation of multiple samples/conditions per one LC–MS run. The SCoPE MS approach has enabled detection of >1000 proteins from a single mouse embryonic stem cell [37]. Specht et al. further exploited quantitative potential of TMT labels and claimed to reproducibly quantitate >1000 proteins in a SCoPE MS experiment investigating differentiating monocytes heterogeneity [38].
Introducing on-column immobilised protease digestion (IMER) downscales sample requirements up to the sub-microgram level, especially when combined with miniaturised column diameter. Utilising various nanostructured materials such as nanoporous material, nanoparticles, nanofibers and nanotubes succeeded in IMER nanobiocatalysis as it has led to enzyme stabilisation and increasing apparent enzyme activity per unit mass of immobilisation host [39]. Several sub-microgram proteomic setups combining IMER with downstream microfluidic platforms have been reported [40, 41, 42].
The microfluidic platform termed Open tubular lab-on-column combines LysC and trypsin enzymatic digestion on 20 mm inner diameter (ID) column with on-line connected nano LC–MS/MS system. Open tubular lab-on-column benefits from very narrow capillary ID and IMER column ID that prevent excessive peptide dilution and adsorption to fluidics. The authors detected a biomarker Axin 1 in 10 ng of HCT15 colon cancer cells [40]. Huang et al. characterised 348 proteins from 25 mice blastocysts on a platform termed SNaPP coupling enzymatic digestion on 150 mm ID IMER to nanofluidics [41]. Naldi et al. coupled SCX column-based IMER proteomic reactor to nano-proteomic platform capable of protein capture, reduction, alkylation, digestion and the first dimensional SCX peptide pre-separation followed by LC–MS/MS. These authors claim that the platform performs with as low as 200 ng protein starting material [42]. Moreover, the integrated Proteome Analysis Device (iPAD) couples a 10 port valve, digestion loop and SPE trap column in a microfluidic setup that is intended for micro sample preparation prior to mass spectrometry. The authors claim that the iPAD approach is capable of identifying 813 proteins in approx. 100 Duke’s type C colorectal adenocarcinoma [43].
Capillary electrophoresis (CE) is an efficient and sensitive separation technique reliably resolving proteins or peptides. Historically, it has been less robust than nanoLC but recently this has begun to change. Specifically, the introduction of CE-ESI interfaces that do not lead to an excessive peptide dilution have made CE-MS applicable in microproteomics [44]. Several reports describe various proteomic pipelines coupling CE to MS. An ultrasensitive electrokinetically pumped nanospray ionization source coupled with CE was able to identify 283 proteins from 80 ng of MCF7 breast cancer cells. Moreover, the detection limit of spiked-in angiotensin II in bovine serum albumin digest was 2 attomole/injection [45]. Although animal proteomics does not fall within scope of this chapter it is worth mentioning that CE-MS input allowed analysis down to 50 ng of Xenopus laevis eggs in a single protein extract. The authors of this study used linear polyacrylamide coating and sulfonate-silica hybrid strong cation exchange monolith for SPE followed by CE-MS [46]. Combining SPE with CE in 2D manner is a promising candidate for the future development of microscale CE-MS proteomics.
5. Conclusions and future perspectives
Developments in proteomics to identify clinically relevant proteins has been widely used in scientific research. Sample preparation has been considered as one of the key steps during analysis, and as such a variety of protocols to minimize variability and to obtain best sensitivity and protein recovery from the material have been used.
Constant development of technologies that could be applied in a medical context and potentially used for screening of patient samples have been rising in recent years. Technological evolution has also had an impact to provide platforms for proteome screening of limited cell numbers, i.e. some technologies have clearly demonstrated success on the single cell level. Cellular heterogeneity at the cellular level results during tumour development that can confound analysis. Therefore, advancement of the tools for profiling of cellular subpopulations or regions of tumours has great potential to provide novel insight in mechanisms of tumour growth. Moreover, integration of developed tools with machine learning algorithms to discover and map molecules that manifest pathological development will likely lead to a better understanding of mechanisms of oncogenesis and potentially uncover therapeutic targets.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the International Centre for Cancer Vaccine Science, carried out within the International Research Agendas program of the Foundation for Polish Science, co-financed by the European Union under the European Regional Development Fund. The University of Victoria-Genome BC Proteomics Centre is grateful to Genome Canada and Genome British Columbia for financial support for Genomics Technology Platforms (GTP) funding for operations and technology development (264PRO).
\n',keywords:"sample preparation, tissue, digestion, mass spectrometry, proteomics",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/75004.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/75004.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/75004",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/75004",totalDownloads:507,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,totalAltmetricsMentions:1,introChapter:null,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:37,impactScoreQuartile:2,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"September 7th 2020",dateReviewed:"January 11th 2021",datePrePublished:"March 16th 2021",datePublished:"June 2nd 2021",dateFinished:"February 1st 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Sample preparation is a key step in proteomics, however there is no consensus in the community about the standard method for preparation of proteins from clinical samples like tissues or biofluids. In this chapter, we will discuss some important steps in sample preparation used for bottom-up proteome profiling with mass spectrometry (MS). Specifically, tissues, which are an important source of biological information, are of interest because of their availability. Tissues are most often stored as fresh frozen (FF) or formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE). While FF tissues are more readily available, paraffin embedding has historically been routinely used for tissue preservation. However, formaldehyde induced crosslinks during FFPE tissue preservation present a challenge to the protocols used for protein retrieval. Moreover, in our view, an important aspect to consider is also the amount of material available at the start of a protocol since this is directly related to the choice of protocol in order to minimize sample loss and maximize detection of peptides by MS. This “MS sensitivity” is of special importance when working with patient samples that are unique and often available in limited amounts making optimization of methods to analyze the proteins therein important given that their molecular information can be used in a patients’ diagnosis and treatment.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/75004",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/75004",book:{id:"10387",slug:"mass-spectrometry-in-life-sciences-and-clinical-laboratory"},signatures:"Jakub Faktor, David R. Goodlett and Irena Dapic",authors:[{id:"330188",title:"Dr.",name:"Irena",middleName:null,surname:"Dapic",fullName:"Irena Dapic",slug:"irena-dapic",email:"irena.dapic@ug.edu.pl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"330470",title:"Dr.",name:"Jakub",middleName:null,surname:"Faktor",fullName:"Jakub Faktor",slug:"jakub-faktor",email:"jakub.faktor@ug.edu.pl",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Gdańsk",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"343933",title:"Prof.",name:"David R.",middleName:null,surname:"Goodlett",fullName:"David R. Goodlett",slug:"david-r.-goodlett",email:"goodlett@uvic.ca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Victoria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Tissue preservation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Fresh frozen tissues",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissues",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Preparation of the sample for bottom-up proteomics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1 Detergents",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2 Sample digestion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Technologies for analysis of limited sample amounts",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Conclusions and future perspectives",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'M. M. Morente et al., ‘TuBaFrost 2: Standardising tissue collection and quality control procedures for a European virtual frozen tissue bank network’, Eur. J. Cancer Oxf. Engl. 1990, vol. 42, no. 16, pp. 2684-2691, Nov. 2006, doi: 10.1016/j.ejca.2006.04.029'},{id:"B2",body:'S. R. 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International Centre for Cancer Vaccine Science, University of Gdańsk, Poland
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"David R. Goodlett",address:null,affiliation:'
International Centre for Cancer Vaccine Science, University of Gdańsk, Poland
Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Victoria, Canada
University of Victoria Genome BC Proteome Centre, Canada
International Centre for Cancer Vaccine Science, University of Gdańsk, Poland
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1. Urban agriculture
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Urban agriculture (UA) can be defined as the growing of plants and rearing of livestock within a city (intra-urban) or on the areas surrounding the cities (peri-urban agriculture), involving input provision and processing of raw materials into edible forms followed by marketing activities [1, 2].
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2. Need for urban agriculture/importance of urban agriculture
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The proportion of the world’s population living in cities is increasing dramatically. It is predicted that by 2030, the worldwide population of urban dwellers will be nearly 5 billion [3], and by 2050 it may reach 9 billion [4]. The increased rate of urbanization has important economic, social, and political implications: A large number of people residing in the cities can approach toward education and employment easily; they can trust the healthcare industry and can see cultural evolution. But this rapid growth of population is often integrated with communal challenges and also climate change: cities may fail to provide the basic facilities resulting in communal riots leading to inferior and undesirable living conditions. Therefore, in order to deal with the challenges of rapid urbanization, urban agriculture is in demand nowadays.
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The need or importance of urban agriculture is broadly discussed with the following advantages associated with it [5].
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2.1 Fighting environmental challenges
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Today, cities consume more than two-thirds of the world’s energy and are responsible for 70% of global CO2 emissions. Recently, UA is considered to deal with the difficult situations like climate change as it plays sufficiently in greening the metros and improving the warmer city climate while encouraging the reuse of organic wastes that reduces the urban energy footprint [2].
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The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) suggested that more urban farming should take place as a response to climate change and as a way to build more resilient cities.
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UA helps cities to improve the urban environment and become more resilient by [2, 6]:
UA reduces the weakness of specific urban groups and diversifies urban food sources and income opportunities of the urban poor and forms a source of innovation and learning about new strategies/technologies for land- and water-efficient food production.
UA helps in keeping the open areas covered with greeneries that might reduce the severity of the climatic conditions. UA also makes the microclimate worth living and also forbids the construction of buildings on risky areas, and by this not only flooding, landslides, and other disasters are reduced but also urban biodiversity and living conditions are improved. Such open green spaces also help to control storm water flows by allowing water storage and increased infiltration of excess storm water [7]. In these open green spaces in and around urban areas, food production can be combined with other services to city dwellers, such as agro-tourism or park and landscape maintenance, e.g., “productive parks.”
UA produces fresh green foods that reduces the green-house gas emission and also uses limited energy in the process of getting food from the farm to the plate in industrially developed countries [8].
Productive reuse of waste water in UA helps to combat the freshwater crisis and also saves rivers, canals, and other water bodies from being polluted by the waste water. On the other hand, waste water as a source of irrigation might decrease the risk of water scarcity [9]. Use of urban waste water as a source of irrigation will help to adapt to risks of drought and flood. Urban waste water can be recycled for irrigation/fertilization of horticultural crops, i.e., floriculture and fruit crops, as well as for irrigation of forest plantations that provide wood for fuel.
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2.2 Food security and nutrition
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UA contributes to enhance urban food security and nourishment of the poor class. Families that are involved in UA are exposed to better quality and variety of diet. They consume more herbs and greens than the others. Production of food by urban families can supply up to 20–60% of their total food consumption especially in green vegetables, medicinal and aromatic plants, eggs, and milk and meat from small animals. Involvement in UA may also cause better mitigation of diseases as it has better nutritional and medicinal properties in homegrown medicinal plants, it causes more physical exercise, and people do not have to depend on gifts and food aid which may enhance their self-esteem. UA also increases the accessibility of fresh and affordable food for other urban consumers, as most of the food produced by urban farmers is bartered or sold locally. UA also ensures food requirement during natural calamities and wars. In Sierra Leone, the residents devoted themselves in UA in order to meet their daily foods during the civil war that lasted for about 10 years. UA acts as a survival strategy for the refugees and helps them to live in a state of being worthy for honor [1, 2, 6].
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2.3 Poverty alleviation
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The world’s urban population is expected to reach 6–9 billion by 2050. It is estimated that poverty will progress from villages to the metro cities by 2030 as 60% of the Earth’s population will reside in the cities. Moreover, in most developing countries, urbanization has led to the growth of slum population which has almost doubled in the past 15 years [3]. Also this rapid urbanization in developing countries created difficulty in making sufficient employment opportunities creating very poor living conditions in the slum areas. The presence of UA can definitely meet the requirement of employment to some extent in the cities of developing countries. The effects of UA on poverty alleviation vary with the type of participants involved, the products produced, and the degree of market orientation, among other things. UA often plays an important role in the survival strategies of the urban dwellers, who might be benefited from UA in various ways: Firstly, when a household produces edible crops, their food expenses are reduced and they can do a huge amount of savings. Moreover, the surplus produce can be sold by them in order to make a profitable business [2, 6].
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2.4 Proper land use
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In addition to climate change and urbanization, food production is confronted with decrease in productive agricultural land. Large-scale urban food production could provide opportunities and take the pressure off agricultural land. Consequently, researchers and practitioners are aiming to separate arable land from production and produce food on a larger scale in and on buildings in high-density urban areas. Scientists visualized the “edible city” and introduced the concept of continuous productive urban landscape (CPUL), recommending the coherent introduction of interlinked productive landscapes into cities as an essential element of sustainable urban infrastructure. One major challenge of urban food production is land availability and access. Principally, there might be large resources of land that could be made accessible for agricultural purposes, but for densely built-up areas and where availability of space often limits the area of production unit, no-space or low-space technologies provide opportunities for space-confined growing [5, 10, 11].
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Besides its so many advantages, there are some disadvantages of UA associated with potential health risks [2]:
Reuse of contaminated, untreated irrigation water from urban streams gives rise to potential health risks. This can be managed through complementary health risk reduction measures as explained in the 2006 WHO guidelines for safe use of excreta and waste water.
Insufficient or improper management of livestock leads to health risks. Proper management of animals, manure, urine, and slaughterhouse procedures will reduce the rate of the associated health risks.
Intensive use of fertilizers, pesticides, and fungicides in UA may lead to residues of agrochemicals in crops or in the groundwater. The risk mainly occurs in areas with commercial urban farming. In subsistence and semicommercial urban farming, this risk is limited because the producers rarely apply agrochemicals due to poverty. They use composted organic wastes as they prefer a clean product for self-consumption.
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3. Vertical farming: an urban farming technology
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With rapid worldwide population growth, there is scarcity of agricultural lands. It increases the demand for both more food and more land to grow food. But some entrepreneurs and farmers are beginning to find a solution to this problem, one of which can be found in the abandoned warehouses in our cities, in new buildings built on environmentally damaged lands, and even in used shipping containers from ocean transports. This solution is called vertical farming, which is an UA technology involving growing crops in controlled indoor environments, with precise light, nutrients, and temperatures.
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In vertical farming, growing plants are arranged in layers that may reach several stories high. Although small-scale, residential vertical gardening (including window farms) is under practice for several years, commercial-scale vertical farms have become an important topic of discussion for the past few years in the United States. This new farming technology is growing rapidly, and entrepreneurs in many cities are taking an interest in this innovative farming system [12].
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Vertical farming is gaining its importance throughout several urban cities around the world due to the beneficial role it plays in the field of agriculture. Vertical farming can reduce the transportation costs due to its adjacency to the buyer; planned production of herbs and their growing conditions can be enhanced by adjusting the temperature, humidity, lighting conditions, etc. Indoor farming in a controlled environment needs much less amount of water than outdoor farming because it involves recycling of waste water. Because of these features, vertical farming is widely implemented initially in desert and drought-stricken regions, such as some Middle Eastern countries, Africa, Israel, Japan, and the Netherlands [13].
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4. Types of vertical farms
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4.1 Hydroponics
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It is the predominant growing system used in vertical farms, involving growing plants in nutrient solutions that are devoid of soil. The plant roots are submerged in a nutrient solution, which is frequently examined and circulated to ensure that the correct chemical composition is maintained [12].
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Urban hydroponics is not a recent invention. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Floating Gardens of the Aztecs were beautifying the cities for quite a long period of time. Also, fruits and vegetables were cultivated in those areas. Nowadays, modern cities use urban hydroponics for physical and psychological relaxation. It is also plays an important role in managing the urban environment. In areas with arid climate, it increases humidity and lowers temperatures. It also captures dust and polluted air by the foliage of the plants. It contributes to the reduction of the overall discharge of CO2, hence preventing global warming to some extent. Hydroponics gardens are usually constructed vertically because city space is limited. Apart from immediate improvement in the environmental quality, vertical farms on top of traditional buildings serve as large heat sinks that radiate heat and increase ambient air temperature; hydroponic systems thermoregulate buildings by trapping heat in the winter and cooling buildings in the summer. The air quality inside the house can also be improved by growing plants on interior walls. In some modern cities, for example in Bangkok, the concrete roads and railway overpasses are covered with hydroponically grown ornamentals. Also commercial centers are decorated with indoor hydroponics for an improved air quality inside [14].
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4.2 Aquaponics
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The hydroponic system is taken one step forward by another system called aquaponics which combines plants and fish in the same ecosystem. The nutrient-rich wastes produced by the indoor-grown fish serve as feed source of the plants present in the vertical farm. On the other hand, the plant filters and purifies the waste water which is then recycled into the fish tanks [12].
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This combination of systems is cheaper and easier as mineral nutrients are not be purchased and the plants are growing totally organically and moreover no additional expenses are required to clean the fish tanks and there is no scene of pesticides harming the fish. Thus, aquaponics is not only cost-effective but also diseases in the systems can be reduced and a very suitable urban farming technology can be formed. Canadian scientist Savidov explained that possibly the organic components in the system make the trace elements readily available to the plant for proper growth and thus recirculating aquaponic system decreases root diseases in the crop with increased crop yield from aquaponics compared with conventional hydroponics. Also fruits and vegetables grown in aquaponic system qualify for organic product certification very easily since no pesticides and fertilizers are used in this system. Some scientists are planning to construct vertical farms in skyscrapers and have created the name sky farming. Such buildings may also incorporate aquaponics to ensure a good source of fresh fish [14].
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4.3 Aeroponics
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This innovative indoor growing technique was first developed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). In the 1990s, NASA started finding efficient ways to grow plants in space and coined the term “aeroponics.” Aeroponic systems are still in a growing phase in the vertical farming world, however gaining interest gradually. It is an efficient plant-growing system in vertical farms, using up to 90% less water than other efficient hydroponic systems. Plants grown in these aeroponic systems take up more minerals and vitamins, making the plants healthier and more nutritious [12].
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In tropical hot and humid climate, it is difficult to grow temperate vegetables like lettuce. Geoff Wilson, an agricultural journalist and Australia’s representative of a group of 16 national organizations for an international Green Roofs organization, has reported in an article that a new aeroponic system originated in Singapore can provide a solution to this difficulty. Traditional aeroponic method involved cold nutrient mixture that used to be sprayed onto the plant roots, thereby lowering the temperature causing wilting and ultimately death of the plant. But this type of cooling is expensive, even for rich cities like Singapore. To overcome this limitation, in the year 2004, Gregory Chow, lecturer at the Ngee Ann Polytechnic of Singapore invented the air dynaponics—a much less costly way of maintaining low root-zone temperatures for commercially successful aeroponics. This system gave positive outcomes. Researchers stated that the nutrients infused with oxygen “energized” the entire root system and improved the plant top biomass. Air dynaponics uses the cooling methods of Venturi nozzle effect in an air-powered operation that lowers the temperature of the nutrient mixture and supplies air from the dissolved oxygen. In Singapore, this method is used to produce valuable greens like butterhead lettuce, Batavia lettuce, and Romaine lettuce for moneymaking purposes [14].
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4.4 Vertical farming systems can be further classified on the basis of structure that houses the system
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4.4.1 Building-based vertical farms
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These are the types of vertical farms constructed in abandoned buildings in urban areas. For example, Chicago’s “The Plant” vertical farm was constructed in an old pork-packing plant. Vertical farms are also constructed in new buildings. A new multistory vertical farm is built to an existing parking lot structure in downtown Jackson Hole, Wyoming. Here, vegetables are grown throughout the year in the 13,500-square-foot hydroponic greenhouse for sale to restaurants, to local grocery stores, and also directly to consumers [12].
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4.4.2 Shipping-container vertical farms
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These types of vertical farms are becoming popular day by day. They use 40-foot shipping containers that carry goods around the world and house vertical farms with LED lights, drip irrigation systems, and vertically stacked shelves for growing a variety of plants. It contains computer-controlled growth management systems that allow users to examine all systems from a smartphone or computer. The three leading companies producing shipping-container vertical farms are Freight Farms, CropBox, and Growtainers [12].
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5. Advantages of vertical farming
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Despommier mentioned a number of environmental and social advantages in his book called “The Vertical Farm: Feeding the World in the 21st Century.” The advantages are summarized below [15]:
Vertical farming ensures production of greens all year round in nontropical countries and is better than normal farming. Despommier stated that 1 acre of vertical farm can produce products almost equal to the amount of products produced by 30 acres of normal farmland on considering the number of crops produced each season.
Vertical farming involves reduction or abandonment of the use of herbicides and pesticides. In some cases, vertical farming uses ladybugs and other biological controls when required.
As the crops in a vertical farm are grown under a controlled environment, they are safe from extreme weather conditions such as droughts, hail, and floods.
Hydroponic growing techniques help in water conservation by using about 70% less water than normal agriculture.
Indoor farming reduces or eliminates the use of tractors and other large farm equipment that are commonly used on outdoor farms, thus reducing the burning of fossil fuel. According to Despommier, large-scale vertical farming could result in a significant reduction in air pollution and in CO2 emissions.
Vertical farming is people friendly. Some hazards that can be avoided in vertical farming are accidents while operating heavy farming equipment and exposure to harmful chemicals.
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6. Disadvantages of vertical farming
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Apart from so many advantages, there are many critics of the vertical farming described by the scientists. They claimed that there are a number of problems in vertical farming. The challenges to vertical farming may be summarized as follows [13]:
Start-up costs are high in order to purchase land in central business districts.
The number of crops grown is sometimes less than rural farming.
Production volumes are also not as large as conventional farming and scaling-up may add cost and complexity.
Raising investment capitals and training a skilled workforce are also challenges in vertical farming.
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7. World-wide implementation of urban agriculture/vertical farming
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Scientists explored the motivations for urban gardening in Germany by screening 657 urban gardening project websites and characterized the types of gardeners, cultivation methods, and consumer behavior. The study also highlighted the “terrabioponic smart-garden system” where the plants grow in natural soil and in organic nutrient solution, which may facilitate social transition toward bio economy [16]. Also scientists from the United Kingdom reported that vertical farming system has increased the yield of lettuce per unit area as compared to traditional horizontal hydroponics [17]. Agriculture and food production activities in the cities of Mexico can contribute in reducing carbon footprint by creating green environment and better land use [18].
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Case study 1: The world’s largest indoor vertical farm, AeroFarms, is located in Newark, New Jersey, which grows more than 2 million pounds of greens per year without sunlight, soil or pesticides. Instead of using a huge quantity of water to grow plants, AeroFarms system sprays nutrient-rich mist to the plants. Seeds are sown, germinated, and grown on reusable sheets of cloth and are stretched out over trays stacked vertically. LED lights are used instead of the sun, and the exposure is controlled depending upon the maturity of the plant [12].
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Case study 2: Rob Laing founded Farm.One in the year 2016 in order to grow rare and hard-to-find produce to the chefs and restaurants in the middle of New York City. The first farm was set up at the Institute of Culinary Education (ICE) in downtown Manhattan, and the second farm is in Tribeca. It uses hydroponics and LED lights and aims to grow rare produce every year. The company supplies rare herbs, edible flowers and microgreens to some of the best chefs in New York [19].
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Case study 3: One of the world’s first commercial vertical farms named Sky Greens was built in Singapore. This vertical farm produces one ton of vegetables every other day. Large varieties of tropical vegetables like Chinese cabbage, spinach, lettuce, xia bai cai, bayam, kang kong, cai xin, gai lan, and nai bai are grown. Sky Greens uses a hydraulic system called “A Go-Gro,” which consists of 6-m-tall hydraulic water-driven A-shaped towers. Each tower contains 22–26 tiers of growing troughs, and is spun around the aluminum frame at a speed of 1 mm/sec for a steady radiation of sunlight, proper air flow, and irrigation for all the edibles growing in the tower. The rotation system is powered by a unique gravity-aided water-pulley system that uses only 1 L of water per 16-hour cycle, which is collected in a rainwater-fed reservoir. The water used in powering the frames is recycled and filtered before returning to the plants. The organic wastes produced on the farm are composted and reused [19].
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8. Concept of urban agriculture/vertical farming in India
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India is one of the largest producers of fruits, vegetables, and many other agricultural products. In India, vertical farming has been introduced in recent times. Experts from Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) are working on the concept of “vertical farming” which can be implemented in metros like New Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai [20].
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8.1 Current scenario of urban agriculture/vertical farming in India
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Scientists at Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya in Nadia, West Bengal, had initial success on growing brinjal and tomato hydroponically on a small scale. Punjab also has succeeded in producing potato tubers through vertical farming [20].
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In cities like Cuttack and Nagpur, the slum dwellers performed organic farming on terrace and plots and sold the surplus products to the local markets. In Delhi, on the fertile banks of Yamuna River, extensive farming is going on in spite of the fact that farmers do not have any legal sanction to do farming there. In Hyderabad, farmers living along the banks of Musi River use water from the river for urban farming and contributed rice and vegetables to the market [21].
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In the urban areas of Tripura, to help the youth for income generation, a prototype model on “vertical farming system” was developed. The area of the structure was about 630 sq. ft. with two floors and two galleries. The ground floor contained two cages (50 sq. ft. each) at both corners that accommodated 100 layer chicks. The central space (140 sq. ft) housed 200 bird broiler/layer chicks per batch. Eight goats were kept on the first floor (140 sq. ft.) area. There were also 12 rabbits kept in hanging cages (4 sq. ft. each). Proper drainage facility was provided to collect wastes with storage facility where it was decomposed and used for manuring the pots. Three Azolla tanks were constructed above the rabbit cages which were the source of nutrient to the goat as well as the birds. Ten benches (30 cm each) were kept on both sides of the structure which contained 160 pots for growing small fodder, vegetables, and spices. A water tank of 400 L capacity was also provided on top of the structure for storing water for animals and poultry and also providing irrigation to each pot through drip irrigation system [22].
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Ideafarms is an Indian design-in-tech company which produces vertical farm products, and the produce is of high quality and organic and the supply is huge. A Bengaluru-based start-up company named Greenopia is selling kits with self-watering pots, enriched soil, and better quality seeds. A Mumbai-based start-up firm U-Farm Technologies is using hydroponic gardening technique to build vertical farm for an individual apartment or for a supermarket [20].
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Vertical farming is definitely a solution to critical problems in Indian farming like lack of supply of farm produce, overuse of pesticides and fertilizers, and even unemployment. But there are some challenges: The initial huge cost of infrastructure for implementing vertical farming in India is difficult. Vertical farming in India has to face other challenges like public awareness, technical knowledge, and high cost of managing and maintaining the vertical farm systems [20].
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9. Conclusion
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Urban farming, both vertical farming or farming on vacant open spaces, can be a favorable way for ensuring food security in India and around the world in the future. Although countries like Europe, the USA, and Singapore have already implemented vertical farming and are dealing with big projects for future concerns, India still has a long way to go as it is restricted to only few self-interest-driven projects. Institutional support, awareness of the benefits associated with urban agriculture, and financial and technological support from the government can only attract the city dwellers and help them to move forward with the concept of urban agriculture in India. Progressive growth of urban agriculture can act as an urban regeneration tool for the cities by providing social interaction and increasing job opportunities and environmental benefits to the urban areas across the globe. Thus, to combat the challenges associated with rapid increase in population, the topic of “urban agriculture” is being closely monitored by scientists, city planners, and the sustainable agricultural community for a better future.
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\n\n',keywords:"urban agriculture, vertical farming, hydroponics, aquaponics, aeroponics",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71024.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71024.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71024",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71024",totalDownloads:1920,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:6,dateSubmitted:"September 25th 2019",dateReviewed:"January 10th 2020",datePrePublished:"February 25th 2020",datePublished:"June 17th 2020",dateFinished:"February 11th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Urban agriculture (UA) is defined as the production of agricultural goods (crop) and livestock goods within urban areas like cities and towns. In the modern days, the urbanization process has raised a question on the sustainable development and growing of urban population. UA has been claimed to contribute to urban waste recycling, efficient water use and energy conservation, reduction in air pollution and soil erosion, urban beautification, climate change adaptation and resilience, disaster prevention, and ecological and social urban sustainability. Therefore, UA contributes to the sustainability of cities in various ways—socially, economically, and environmentally. An urban farming technology that involves the large-scale agricultural production in the urban surroundings is the vertical farming (VF) or high-rise farming technology. It enables fast growth and production of the crops by maintaining the environmental conditions and nutrient solutions to crop based on hydroponics technology. Vertical farms are able to grow food year-round because they maintain consistent growing conditions regardless of the weather outside and are much less vulnerable to climate changes. This promises a steady flow of products for the consumers and a consistent income for growers. Various advantages of VF over traditional farming, such as reduced farm inputs and crop failures and restored farmland, have enabled scientists to implement VF on a large scale.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71024",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71024",signatures:"Anwesha Chatterjee, Sanjit Debnath and Harshata Pal",book:{id:"8939",type:"book",title:"Urban Horticulture",subtitle:"Necessity of the Future",fullTitle:"Urban Horticulture - Necessity of the Future",slug:"urban-horticulture-necessity-of-the-future",publishedDate:"June 17th 2020",bookSignature:"Shashank Shekhar Solankey, Shirin Akhtar, Alejandro Isabel Luna Maldonado, Humberto Rodriguez-Fuentes, Juan Antonio Vidales Contreras and Julia Mariana Márquez Reyes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8939.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-513-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-512-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-631-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"210702",title:"Dr.",name:"Shashank Shekhar",middleName:null,surname:"Solankey",slug:"shashank-shekhar-solankey",fullName:"Shashank Shekhar Solankey"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"312477",title:"Dr.",name:"Harshata",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",fullName:"Harshata Pal",slug:"harshata-pal",email:"hpal@kol.amity.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"316680",title:"Dr.",name:"Anwesha",middleName:null,surname:"Chatterjee",fullName:"Anwesha Chatterjee",slug:"anwesha-chatterjee",email:"anwesha05@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"316681",title:"Dr.",name:"Sanjit",middleName:null,surname:"Debnath",fullName:"Sanjit Debnath",slug:"sanjit-debnath",email:"sdbckv@gmail.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Urban agriculture",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Need for urban agriculture/importance of urban agriculture",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Fighting environmental challenges",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Food security and nutrition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Poverty alleviation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Proper land use",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Vertical farming: an urban farming technology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Types of vertical farms",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1 Hydroponics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.2 Aquaponics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.3 Aeroponics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.4 Vertical farming systems can be further classified on the basis of structure that houses the system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"4.4.1 Building-based vertical farms",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"4.4.2 Shipping-container vertical farms",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15",title:"5. Advantages of vertical farming",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"6. Disadvantages of vertical farming",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"7. World-wide implementation of urban agriculture/vertical farming",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"8. Concept of urban agriculture/vertical farming in India",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"8.1 Current scenario of urban agriculture/vertical farming in India",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"9. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nSmit J, Nasr J, Ratta A. Urban agriculture: Food, jobs and sustainable cities. Urban Agriculture Yesterday and Today. 2001. Chapter 2\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nZeeuw HD. Cities, climate change and urban agriculture. Urban Agriculture magazine, number 25. September 2011;25:39-42\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nUnited Nations Population Fund. State of world population 2007, unleashing the potential of urban growth. 2007\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nUnited Nations. World population to 2300. 2004\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nSpecht K, Rosemarie S, Hartmann I, Freisinger UB, Sawicka M, Werner A, et al. Urban agriculture of the future: An overview of sustainability aspects of food production in and on buildings. Agriculture and Human Values. 2014;31:33-51. DOI: 10.1007/s10460-013-9448-4\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nZeeuw HD, Veenhuizen RV, Dubbeling M. The role of urban agriculture in building resilient cities in developing countries. Journal of Agricultural Science. 2011;149:153-163. DOI: 10.1017/S0021859610001279\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nDubbeling M, Campbell MC, Hoekstra F, René van V. Building resilient cities. Urban Agriculture magazine; June 2009;22\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nHeinberg R, Bomford M. The food & farming transition: Toward a post carbon food system. Post Carbon Institute, Spring. 2009\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nBuechler S, Mekala GD, Keraita B. Wastewater use for urban and peri-urban agriculture. Cities Farming for the Future: Urban Agriculture for Green and Productive Cities. Netherlands, Canada, Philippines: RUAF Foundation, IDRC, IIRR; 2006\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nBohn K, Viljoen A. The edible city: Envisioning the continuous productive urban landscape (CPUL). The CPUL City Concept. Field: A free Journal for Architecture. 2011;4(1):149-161\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nDubbeling M. Integrating urban agriculture in the urban landscape. Urban Agriculture Magazine. September 2011;25\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nBirkby J. Vertical Farming; 2016. pp. 1-12\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nBenke K, Tomkins B. Future food-production systems: Vertical farming and controlled-environment agriculture. Sustainability: Science, Practice and Policy. 2017;13(1):13-26. DOI: 10.1080/15487733.2017.1394054\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nSchnitzler WH. Urban hydroponics for green and clean cities and for food security. Acta Hort, ISHS 2013. 2013;2050:13-26\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nDespommier D. The vertical farm: Controlled environment agriculture carried out in tall buildings would create greater food safety and security for large urban populations. Journal für Verbraucherschutz und Lebensmittelsicherheit. 2011;6:233-236. DOI: 10.1007/s00003-010-0654-3\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nWinkler B, Maier A, Lewandowski I. Urban gardening in Germany: Cultivating a sustainable lifestyle for the societal transition to a bioeconomy. 2019;11:801. DOI: 10.3390/su11030801\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nTouliatos D, Dodd IC, Mcainsh M. Vertical farming increases lettuce yield per unit area compared to conventional horizontal hydroponics. Association of Applied Biologists; June 2016. DOI: 10.1002/fes3.83\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nAnda JD, Shear H. Potential of vertical hydroponic agriculture in Mexico. Sustainability. 2017;9:140. DOI: 10.3390/su9010140\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nLoman LJ. Vertical farming: Can it change the global food production landscape? Nuffield International Project No. 1601. 2018\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nSonawane MS. Status of vertical farming in India. International Journal of Applied Science and Technology. 2018;9(4):122-125. DOI: 10.15515/iaast.0976-4828.9.4.122125\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nAli F, Srivastava C. Futuristic urbanism—An overview of vertical farming and urban agriculture for future cities in India. International Journal of Advanced Research in Science, Engineering and Technology. 2017;4(4):3767-3775\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nSingh AK, Das D. Integrated vertical farming system an innovative way of efficient utilization of small land and farm resources in urban areas. Indian Farming. 2018;68(06):23-24\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Anwesha Chatterjee",address:null,affiliation:'
Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University, India
Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University, India
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Achilias"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10843",title:"Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)",subtitle:"Monitoring, Impact and Treatment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f5b1589f0a990b6114fef2dadc735dd9",slug:"persistent-organic-pollutants-pops-monitoring-impact-and-treatment",bookSignature:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10843.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:218,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"29369",doi:"10.5772/32373",title:"Textile Organic Dyes – Characteristics, Polluting Effects and Separation/Elimination Procedures from Industrial Effluents – A Critical Overview",slug:"textile-organic-dyes-characteristics-polluting-effects-and-separation-elimination-procedures-from-in",totalDownloads:29487,totalCrossrefCites:128,totalDimensionsCites:321,abstract:null,book:{id:"872",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",fullTitle:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention - Environmental and Analytical Update"},signatures:"Zaharia Carmen and Suteu Daniela",authors:[{id:"91196",title:"Prof.",name:"Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Zaharia",slug:"carmen-zaharia",fullName:"Carmen Zaharia"},{id:"92084",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Suteu",slug:"daniela-suteu",fullName:"Daniela Suteu"}]},{id:"42059",doi:"10.5772/54048",title:"Adsorption Technique for the Removal of Organic Pollutants from Water and Wastewater",slug:"adsorption-technique-for-the-removal-of-organic-pollutants-from-water-and-wastewater",totalDownloads:30043,totalCrossrefCites:51,totalDimensionsCites:221,abstract:null,book:{id:"3426",slug:"organic-pollutants-monitoring-risk-and-treatment",title:"Organic Pollutants",fullTitle:"Organic Pollutants - Monitoring, Risk and Treatment"},signatures:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",authors:[{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed"}]},{id:"27305",doi:"10.5772/39363",title:"Water Stress in Plants: Causes, Effects and Responses",slug:"water-stress-in-plants-causes-effects-and-responses",totalDownloads:28496,totalCrossrefCites:72,totalDimensionsCites:172,abstract:null,book:{id:"911",slug:"water-stress",title:"Water Stress",fullTitle:"Water Stress"},signatures:"Seyed Y. S. Lisar, Rouhollah Motafakkerazad, Mosharraf M. Hossain and Ismail M. M. Rahman",authors:[{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman"}]},{id:"62247",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77315",title:"Application of Biosorption for Removal of Heavy Metals from Wastewater",slug:"application-of-biosorption-for-removal-of-heavy-metals-from-wastewater",totalDownloads:7645,totalCrossrefCites:75,totalDimensionsCites:152,abstract:"Fresh water accounts for 3% of water resources on the Earth. Human and industrial activities produce and discharge wastes containing heavy metals into the water resources making them unavailable and threatening human health and the ecosystem. Conventional methods for the removal of metal ions such as chemical precipitation and membrane filtration are extremely expensive when treating large amounts of water, inefficient at low concentrations of metal (incomplete metal removal) and generate large quantities of sludge and other toxic products that require careful disposal. Biosorption and bioaccumulation are ecofriendly alternatives. These alternative methods have advantages over conventional methods. Abundant natural materials like microbial biomass, agro-wastes, and industrial byproducts have been suggested as potential biosorbents for heavy metal removal due to the presence of metal-binding functional groups. Biosorption is influenced by various process parameters such as pH, temperature, initial concentration of the metal ions, biosorbent dose, and speed of agitation. Also, the biomass can be modified by physical and chemical treatment before use. The process can be made economical by regenerating and reusing the biosorbent after removing the heavy metals. Various bioreactors can be used in biosorption for the removal of metal ions from large volumes of water or effluents. The recent developments and the future scope for biosorption as a wastewater treatment option are discussed.",book:{id:"6137",slug:"biosorption",title:"Biosorption",fullTitle:"Biosorption"},signatures:"Sri Lakshmi Ramya Krishna Kanamarlapudi, Vinay Kumar\nChintalpudi and Sudhamani Muddada",authors:[{id:"238433",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudhamani",middleName:null,surname:"Muddada",slug:"sudhamani-muddada",fullName:"Sudhamani Muddada"},{id:"244937",title:"Mrs.",name:"S L Ramyakrishna",middleName:null,surname:"Kanamarlapudi",slug:"s-l-ramyakrishna-kanamarlapudi",fullName:"S L Ramyakrishna Kanamarlapudi"},{id:"244938",title:"Mr.",name:"Vinay Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Chintalpudi",slug:"vinay-kumar-chintalpudi",fullName:"Vinay Kumar Chintalpudi"}]},{id:"53211",doi:"10.5772/66416",title:"Biofloc Technology (BFT): A Tool for Water Quality Management in Aquaculture",slug:"biofloc-technology-bft-a-tool-for-water-quality-management-in-aquaculture",totalDownloads:16966,totalCrossrefCites:65,totalDimensionsCites:148,abstract:"Biofloc technology (BFT) is considered the new “blue revolution” in aquaculture. Such technique is based on in situ microorganism production which plays three major roles: (i) maintenance of water quality, by the uptake of nitrogen compounds generating in situ microbial protein; (ii) nutrition, increasing culture feasibility by reducing feed conversion ratio (FCR) and a decrease of feed costs; and (iii) competition with pathogens. The aggregates (bioflocs) are a rich protein-lipid natural source of food available in situ 24 hours per day due to a complex interaction between organic matter, physical substrate, and large range of microorganisms. This natural productivity plays an important role recycling nutrients and maintaining the water quality. The present chapter will discuss some insights of the role of microorganisms in BFT, main water quality parameters, the importance of the correct carbon-to-nitrogen ratio in the culture media, its calculations, and different types, as well as metagenomics of microorganisms and future perspectives.",book:{id:"5355",slug:"water-quality",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality"},signatures:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho Emerenciano, Luis Rafael Martínez-\nCórdova, Marcel Martínez-Porchas and Anselmo Miranda-Baeza",authors:[{id:"146126",title:"Dr.",name:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho",middleName:null,surname:"Emerenciano",slug:"mauricio-gustavo-coelho-emerenciano",fullName:"Maurício Gustavo Coelho Emerenciano"},{id:"186970",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Porchas",slug:"marcel-martinez-porchas",fullName:"Marcel Martínez-Porchas"},{id:"186971",title:"Prof.",name:"Anselmo",middleName:null,surname:"Miranda-Baeza",slug:"anselmo-miranda-baeza",fullName:"Anselmo Miranda-Baeza"},{id:"195101",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Córdoba",slug:"luis-rafael-martinez-cordoba",fullName:"Luis Rafael Martínez-Córdoba"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"69568",title:"Water Quality Parameters",slug:"water-quality-parameters",totalDownloads:10201,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:37,abstract:"Since the industrial revolution in the late eighteenth century, the world has discovered new sources of pollution nearly every day. So, air and water can potentially become polluted everywhere. Little is known about changes in pollution rates. The increase in water-related diseases provides a real assessment of the degree of pollution in the environment. This chapter summarizes water quality parameters from an ecological perspective not only for humans but also for other living things. According to its quality, water can be classified into four types. Those four water quality types are discussed through an extensive review of their important common attributes including physical, chemical, and biological parameters. These water quality parameters are reviewed in terms of definition, sources, impacts, effects, and measuring methods.",book:{id:"7718",slug:"water-quality-science-assessments-and-policy",title:"Water Quality",fullTitle:"Water Quality - Science, Assessments and Policy"},signatures:"Nayla Hassan Omer",authors:null},{id:"58138",title:"Water Pollution: Effects, Prevention, and Climatic Impact",slug:"water-pollution-effects-prevention-and-climatic-impact",totalDownloads:21566,totalCrossrefCites:18,totalDimensionsCites:38,abstract:"The stress on our water environment as a result of increased industrialization, which aids urbanization, is becoming very high thus reducing the availability of clean water. Polluted water is of great concern to the aquatic organism, plants, humans, and climate and indeed alters the ecosystem. The preservation of our water environment, which is embedded in sustainable development, must be well driven by all sectors. While effective wastewater treatment has the tendency of salvaging the water environment, integration of environmental policies into the actor firms core objectives coupled with continuous periodical enlightenment on the present and future consequences of environmental/water pollution will greatly assist in conserving the water environment.",book:{id:"6157",slug:"water-challenges-of-an-urbanizing-world",title:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World",fullTitle:"Water Challenges of an Urbanizing World"},signatures:"Inyinbor Adejumoke A., Adebesin Babatunde O., Oluyori Abimbola\nP., Adelani-Akande Tabitha A., Dada Adewumi O. and Oreofe Toyin\nA.",authors:[{id:"101570",title:"MSc.",name:"Babatunde Olufemi",middleName:null,surname:"Adebesin",slug:"babatunde-olufemi-adebesin",fullName:"Babatunde Olufemi Adebesin"},{id:"187738",title:"Dr.",name:"Adejumoke",middleName:"Abosede",surname:"Inyinbor",slug:"adejumoke-inyinbor",fullName:"Adejumoke Inyinbor"},{id:"188818",title:"Dr.",name:"Abimbola",middleName:null,surname:"Oluyori",slug:"abimbola-oluyori",fullName:"Abimbola Oluyori"},{id:"188819",title:"Mrs.",name:"Tabitha",middleName:null,surname:"Adelani-Akande",slug:"tabitha-adelani-akande",fullName:"Tabitha Adelani-Akande"},{id:"208501",title:"Dr.",name:"Adewumi",middleName:null,surname:"Dada",slug:"adewumi-dada",fullName:"Adewumi Dada"},{id:"208502",title:"Ms.",name:"Toyin",middleName:null,surname:"Oreofe",slug:"toyin-oreofe",fullName:"Toyin Oreofe"}]},{id:"45422",title:"Urban Waterfront Regenerations",slug:"urban-waterfront-regenerations",totalDownloads:14246,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:null,book:{id:"3560",slug:"advances-in-landscape-architecture",title:"Advances in Landscape Architecture",fullTitle:"Advances in Landscape Architecture"},signatures:"Umut Pekin Timur",authors:[{id:"165480",title:"Dr.",name:"Umut",middleName:null,surname:"Pekin Timur",slug:"umut-pekin-timur",fullName:"Umut Pekin Timur"}]},{id:"24941",title:"Tsunami in Makran Region and Its Effect on the Persian Gulf",slug:"tsunami-in-makran-region-and-its-effect-on-the-persian-gulf",totalDownloads:7604,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:null,book:{id:"406",slug:"tsunami-a-growing-disaster",title:"Tsunami",fullTitle:"Tsunami - A Growing Disaster"},signatures:"Mohammad Mokhtari",authors:[{id:"52451",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mokhtari",slug:"mohammad-mokhtari",fullName:"Mohammad Mokhtari"}]},{id:"66307",title:"Bio-hydrogen and Methane Production from Lignocellulosic Materials",slug:"bio-hydrogen-and-methane-production-from-lignocellulosic-materials",totalDownloads:2957,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"This chapter covers the information on bio-hydrogen and methane production from lignocellulosic materials. Pretreatment methods of lignocellulosic materials and the factors affecting bio-hydrogen production, both dark- and photo-fermentation, and methane production are addressed. Last but not least, the processes for bio-hydrogen and methane production from lignocellulosic materials are discussed.",book:{id:"7608",slug:"biomass-for-bioenergy-recent-trends-and-future-challenges",title:"Biomass for Bioenergy",fullTitle:"Biomass for Bioenergy - Recent Trends and Future Challenges"},signatures:"Apilak Salakkam, Pensri Plangklang, Sureewan Sittijunda, Mallika Boonmee Kongkeitkajorn, Siriporn Lunprom and Alissara Reungsang",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"12",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82624",title:"Protective Forests for Ecosystem-based Disaster Risk Reduction (Eco-DRR) in the Alpine Space",slug:"protective-forests-for-ecosystem-based-disaster-risk-reduction-eco-drr-in-the-alpine-space",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99505",abstract:"Mountain forests are an efficient Forest-based Solution (FbS) for Ecosystem-based Disaster Risk Reduction (Eco-DRR) by lowering the frequency, magnitude, and/or intensity of natural hazards. Technical protection measures are often poor solutions as stand-alone measures to reduce disaster risk limited by material wear and fatigue or financial resources and aesthetical values. Protective forests should therefore be considered as key elements in integrated risk management strategies. However, the definition of protective forests and the understanding and assessment of their protective functions and effects differ greatly among Alpine Space countries. In this chapter, we present a short introduction to the concept of Eco-DRR and companion terms and propose a definition of FbS as a specific case of Nature-based Solutions for an ecosystem-based and integrated risk management of natural hazards. That is, we guide the reader through the maze of existing definitions and concepts and try to disentangle their meanings. Furthermore, we present an introduction to forest regulations in the Alpine Space and European protective forest management guidelines. Our considerations and recommendations can help strengthen the role of protective forests as FbS in Eco-DRR and the acknowledgment of the key protective function they have and the crucial protective effects they provide in mountain areas.",book:{id:"10812",title:"Protective forests as Ecosystem-based solution for Disaster Risk Reduction (ECO-DRR)",coverURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/cover.jpg"},signatures:"Michaela Teich, Cristian Accastello, Frank Perzl and Frédéric Berger"},{id:"82465",title:"Agroforestry: An Approach for Sustainability and Climate Mitigation",slug:"agroforestry-an-approach-for-sustainability-and-climate-mitigation",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105406",abstract:"Agroforestry Systems (AFS), or the association of trees with crops (or animals), is a strategy for land management and use that allows production within the sustainable development: (a) environmentally (production environmentally harmonic); (b) technically (integrating existing resources on the farm); (c) economically (increase in production), and (d) socially (equality of duties and opportunities, quality of life of the family group). As an intentional integration of trees or shrubs with crop and animal production, this practice makes environmental, economic, and social benefits to farmers. Given that there is a set of definitions, rather than a single definition of Agroforestry (AF) and AFS, it is justified to explore the historical evolution and the minimum coincidences of criteria to define them and apply them in the recovery of degraded areas. Knowing how to classify AFS allows us to indicate which type or group of AFS is suitable for a particular area with its characteristics. The greatest benefit that AFS can bring to degraded or sloping areas lies in their ability to combine soil conservation with productive functions. In other words, AF is arborizing agriculture and animal production to obtain more benefits including climate change adaptation and mitigation by ecosystem services.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Ricardo O. Russo"},{id:"82754",title:"Impact of Revegetation on Ecological Restoration of a Constructed Soil in a Coal Mining in Southern Brazil",slug:"impact-of-revegetation-on-ecological-restoration-of-a-constructed-soil-in-a-coal-mining-in-southern-",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105895",abstract:"The main problems in the constructed soils are the generation of acid mine drainage promoted by the presence of coal debris in the overburden layer and the compaction of the topsoil promoted by the machine traffic when the material used in the overburden cover is more clayey. This book chapter aimed to show an overview of the impact of more than a decade of revegetation with different perennial grasses on the chemical, physical, and biological quality of constructed soil after coal mining. The study was carried out in a coal mining area, located in southern Brazil. The soil was constructed in early 2003 and the perennial grasses, Hemarthria altissima; Paspalum notatum cv. Pensacola; Cynodon dactylon cv Tifton; and Urochloa brizantha; were implanted in November/December 2003. In 11.5, 17.6 and 18 years of revegetation soil samples were collected and the chemical, physical, and biological attributes were determined. Our results show that liming is an important practice in the restoration of these strongly anthropized soils because this positively impacts the plants’ development, facilitating the roots system expansion. Biological attributes such as soil fauna and the microorganism’s population are the attributes that possibly takes longer to establish itself in these areas.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Lizete Stumpf, Maria Bertaso De Garcia Fernandez, Pablo Miguel, Luiz Fernando Spinelli Pinto, Ryan Noremberg Schubert, Luís Carlos Iuñes de Oliveira Filho, Tania Hipolito Montiel, Lucas Da Silva Barbosa, Jeferson Diego Leidemer and Thábata Barbosa Duarte"},{id:"82936",title:"Soil Degradation Processes Linked to Long-Term Forest-Type Damage",slug:"soil-degradation-processes-linked-to-long-term-forest-type-damage",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106390",abstract:"Forest degradation impairs ability of the whole landscape adaptation to environmental change. The impacts of forest degradation on landscape are caused by a self-organization decline. At the present time, the self-organization decline was largely due to nitrogen deposition and deforestation which exacerbated impacts of climate change. Nevertheless, forest degradation processes are either reversible or irreversible. Irreversible forest degradation begins with soil damage. In this paper, we present processes of forest soil degradation in relation to vulnerability of regulation adaptability on global environmental change. The regulatory forest capabilities were indicated through soil organic matter sequestration dynamics. We devided the degradation processes into quantitative and qualitative damages of physical or chemical soil properties. Quantitative soil degradation includes irreversible loss of an earth’s body after claim, erosion or desertification, while qualitative degradation consists of predominantly reversible consequences after soil disintegration, leaching, acidification, salinization and intoxication. As a result of deforestation, the forest soil vulnerability is spreading through quantitative degradation replacing hitherto predominantly qualitative changes under continuous vegetation cover. Increasing needs to natural resources using and accompanying waste pollution destroy soil self-organization through biodiversity loss, simplification in functional links among living forms and substance losses from ecosystem. We concluded that subsequent irreversible changes in ecosystem self-organization cause a change of biome potential natural vegetation and the land usability decrease.",book:{id:"11457",title:"Forest Degradation Under Global Change",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11457.jpg"},signatures:"Pavel Samec, Aleš Kučera and Gabriela Tomášová"},{id:"82828",title:"Vegetation and Avifauna Distribution in the Serengeti National Park",slug:"vegetation-and-avifauna-distribution-in-the-serengeti-national-park",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106165",abstract:"In order to examine the bird species changes within different vegetation structures, the variations were compared between Commiphora-dominated vegetations with those of Vachellia tortilis and Vachellia robusta-dominated vegetations, and also compared the birds of grassland with those of Vachellia drepanolobium and Vachellia seyal-dominated vegetations. This study was conducted between February 2010 and April 2012. A total of 40 plots of 100 m × 100 m were established. Nonparametric Mann-Whitney U-test was used to examine differences in bird species between vegetations. Species richness estimates were obtained using the Species Diversity and Richness. A total of 171 bird species representing 103 genera, 12 orders, and 54 families were recorded. We found differences in bird species distribution whereby V. tortilis has higher bird species richness (102 species), abundance, and diversity when compared with Commiphora with 66 species and V. robusta with 59 species. These results suggest that variations in bird species abundance, diversity, and distribution could be attributed to differences in the structural diversity of vegetation. Therefore it is important to maintain different types of vegetation by keeping the frequency of fire to a minimum and prescribed fire should be employed and encouraged to control wildfire and so maintain a diversity of vegetation and birds community.",book:{id:"11663",title:"Vegetation Dynamics, Changing Ecosystems and Human Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11663.jpg"},signatures:"Ally K. Nkwabi and Pius Y. 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Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. 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essential area of research in its own right, but also in relation to medicine and health sciences. The scope of this topic will range from molecular, biochemical, cellular, and physiological processes in all animal species. Work pertaining to the whole organism, organ systems, individual organs and tissues, cells, and biomolecules will be included. Medical, animal, cell, and comparative physiology and allied fields such as anatomy, histology, and pathology with physiology links will be covered in this topic. Physiology research may be linked to development, aging, environment, regular and pathological processes, adaptation and evolution, exercise, or several other factors affecting, or involved with, animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/10.jpg",keywords:"Physiology, Comparative, Evolution, Biomolecules, Organ, Homeostasis, Anatomy, Pathology, Medical, Cell Division, Cell Signaling, Cell Growth, Cell Metabolism, Endocrine, Neuroscience, Cardiovascular, Development, Aging, Development"},{id:"11",title:"Cell Physiology",scope:"
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The global picture of physiological processes in plants needs to be investigated continually to increase our knowledge, and the resulting technologies will benefit sustainable agriculture.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/13.jpg",keywords:"Plant Nutrition, Plant Hormone, Photosynthesis, Respiration, Plant Stress, Multi-omics, High-throughput Technology, Genome Editing"}],annualVolumeBook:{},thematicCollection:[],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 18th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:126,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},subseries:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"
\r\n\tThe era of antibiotics led us to the illusion that the problem of bacterial infection is over. However, bacterial flexibility and adaptation mechanisms allow them to survive and grow in extreme conditions. The best example is the formation of a sophisticated society of bacteria defined as a biofilm. Understanding the mechanism of bacterial biofilm formation has changed our perception of the development of bacterial infection but successfully eradicating biofilm remains a challenge. Considering the above, it is not surprising that bacteria remain a major public health threat despite the development of many groups of antibiotics. Additionally, increasing prevalence of acquired antibiotic resistance forces us to realize that we are far from controlling the development of bacterial infections. On the other hand, many infections are endogenous and result from an unbalanced relationship between the host and the microorganism. The increasing use of immunosuppressants, such as chemotherapy or organ transplantation, increases the incidence of patients highly susceptible to bacterial infections in the population.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis topic will focus on the current challenges and advantages in the diagnosis and treatment of bacterial infections. We will discuss the host-microbiota relationship, the treatment of chronic infections due to biofilm formation, and the development of new diagnostic tools to rapidly distinguish between colonization and probable infection.
",annualVolume:11399,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"190041",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Gutierrez Fernandez",fullName:"Jose Gutierrez Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Granada",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"156556",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Teresa",middleName:null,surname:"Mascellino",fullName:"Maria Teresa Mascellino",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/156556/images/system/156556.jpg",institutionString:"Sapienza University",institution:{name:"Sapienza University of Rome",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"164933",title:"Prof.",name:"Mónica Alexandra",middleName:null,surname:"Sousa Oleastro",fullName:"Mónica Alexandra Sousa Oleastro",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/164933/images/system/164933.jpeg",institutionString:"National Institute of Health Dr Ricardo Jorge",institution:{name:"National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}]},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",annualVolume:11400,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",annualVolume:11401,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"188881",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando José",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Narváez",fullName:"Fernando José Andrade-Narváez",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRIV7QAO/Profile_Picture_1628834308121",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Yucatán",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"269120",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:"K.",surname:"Tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRaBqQAK/Profile_Picture_1644331884726",institutionString:"CSIR - Institute of Microbial Technology, India",institution:null},{id:"336849",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Izurieta",fullName:"Ricardo Izurieta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/293169/images/system/293169.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Florida",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Novel Viruses, Virus Transmission, Virus Evolution, Molecular Virology, Control and Prevention, Virus-host Interaction",scope:"The Viral Infectious Diseases Book Series aims to provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends and discoveries in various viral infectious diseases emerging around the globe. The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",annualVolume:11402,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. 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