Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"},{slug:"intechopen-s-chapter-awarded-the-guenther-von-pannewitz-preis-2020-20200715",title:"IntechOpen's Chapter Awarded the Günther-von-Pannewitz-Preis 2020"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5500",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Genetic Diversity",title:"Genetic Diversity",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Genetic diversity is the entire amount of genes and genotypes in a group of organisms and is of vital importance for their adaptation to different living conditions. If, for example, all humans were identical, the extinction of the entire kind could happen very fast. Let us care and nourish differences! The goal of this book is to present some of the contemporary thoughts on understandings of the genetic diversity patterns and their altering in a changing world. The book is aimed to the ones inspired to study and contemplate genetic diversity and to the audience beyond any frames.",isbn:"978-953-51-2950-9",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2949-3",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5470-9",doi:"10.5772/63174",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"genetic-diversity",numberOfPages:150,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"ce1bd13553d444bb950f6c4462f98584",bookSignature:"Lidija Bitz",publishedDate:"March 1st 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5500.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6956,numberOfWosCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitations:10,numberOfDimensionsCitations:20,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:35,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 2nd 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 23rd 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 27th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 25th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 25th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"153375",title:"Dr.",name:"Lidija",middleName:null,surname:"Bitz",slug:"lidija-bitz",fullName:"Lidija Bitz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/153375/images/3846_n.jpg",biography:"Lidija Bitz is a principle research scientist of plant genomics at the Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke). She has a decade of working experience and research exchange from Bosnia and Herzegovina, Denmark, Germany, Netherlands, Sweden and Switzerland. Lidija obtained a MSc degree and defended a PhD thesis at the University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. During those times she was very active in inventory, collection and genetic diversity evaluations within different germplasm. She is active in the dissemination of achieved results through the authorship and editing of monographs, scientific papers, book chapters and professional articles. She has also been successful in implementing international and regional scientific and developmental projects, starting from her student days.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Natural Resources Institute Finland",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Finland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"419",title:"Microbial Genetics",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology-microbiology-microbial-genetics"}],chapters:[{id:"53510",title:"Diversity of Plant Virus Populations: A Valuable Tool for Epidemiological Studies",doi:"10.5772/66820",slug:"diversity-of-plant-virus-populations-a-valuable-tool-for-epidemiological-studies",totalDownloads:1436,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Fernando Escriu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53510",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53510",authors:[{id:"191603",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Escriu",slug:"fernando-escriu",fullName:"Fernando Escriu"}],corrections:null},{id:"53974",title:"Local Scale Genetic Diversity and its Role in Coping with Changing Climate",doi:"10.5772/67166",slug:"local-scale-genetic-diversity-and-its-role-in-coping-with-changing-climate",totalDownloads:1097,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,signatures:"Andrés J. Cortés",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53974",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53974",authors:[{id:"190729",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrés",surname:"Cortés",slug:"andres-cortes",fullName:"Andrés Cortés"}],corrections:null},{id:"53953",title:"Genetic Diversity within Chemokine Receptor 5 (CCR5) for Better Understanding of AIDS",doi:"10.5772/67256",slug:"genetic-diversity-within-chemokine-receptor-5-ccr5-for-better-understanding-of-aids",totalDownloads:954,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Ali A. Al-Jabri and Sidgi S. Hasson",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53953",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53953",authors:[{id:"34571",title:"Prof.",name:"Ali",surname:"Al-Jabri",slug:"ali-al-jabri",fullName:"Ali Al-Jabri"}],corrections:null},{id:"53724",title:"From the Gene Sequence to the Phylogeography through the Population Structure: The Cases of Yersinia ruckeri and Vibrio tapetis",doi:"10.5772/67182",slug:"from-the-gene-sequence-to-the-phylogeography-through-the-population-structure-the-cases-of-yersinia-",totalDownloads:664,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Asmine Bastardo, Sabela Balboa and Jesús L. Romalde",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53724",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53724",authors:[{id:"192422",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",surname:"Romalde",slug:"jesus-romalde",fullName:"Jesus Romalde"},{id:"194373",title:"Dr.",name:"Asmine",surname:"Bastardo",slug:"asmine-bastardo",fullName:"Asmine Bastardo"},{id:"194374",title:"Dr.",name:"Sabela",surname:"Balboa",slug:"sabela-balboa",fullName:"Sabela Balboa"}],corrections:null},{id:"53527",title:"Biodiversity Studies in Key Species from the African Mopane and Miombo Woodlands",doi:"10.5772/66845",slug:"biodiversity-studies-in-key-species-from-the-african-mopane-and-miombo-woodlands",totalDownloads:1624,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,signatures:"Isabel Moura, Ivete Maquia, Alfan A. Rija, Natasha Ribeiro and\nAna Isabel Ribeiro-Barros",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53527",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53527",authors:[{id:"171036",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",surname:"Ribeiro De Barros",slug:"ana-ribeiro-de-barros",fullName:"Ana Ribeiro De Barros"}],corrections:null},{id:"53443",title:"National and International Conservation of Biological Diversity in Terms of Administrative Law “Sample of Turkey”",doi:"10.5772/66846",slug:"national-and-international-conservation-of-biological-diversity-in-terms-of-administrative-law-sampl",totalDownloads:1181,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Yavuz Guloglu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/53443",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/53443",authors:[{id:"184806",title:"Dr.",name:"Yavuz",surname:"Guloglu",slug:"yavuz-guloglu",fullName:"Yavuz Guloglu"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1446",title:"Senescence",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7aa2772cf0b5653b6c599dba90f4c709",slug:"senescence",bookSignature:"Tetsuji Nagata",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1446.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"93967",title:"Dr.",name:"Tetsuji",surname:"Nagata",slug:"tetsuji-nagata",fullName:"Tetsuji Nagata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1406",title:"Antimicrobial Agents",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"716194563847e4c8e0f4a7c07ff858ed",slug:"antimicrobial-agents",bookSignature:"Varaprasad Bobbarala",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1406.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"90574",title:"Dr.",name:"Varaprasad",surname:"Bobbarala",slug:"varaprasad-bobbarala",fullName:"Varaprasad Bobbarala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3509",title:"Gene Therapy",subtitle:"Tools and Potential Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0fd8b4898c201b4a9f8e597cbcf4d968",slug:"gene-therapy-tools-and-potential-applications",bookSignature:"Francisco Martin Molina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3509.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"32294",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",surname:"Martin",slug:"francisco-martin",fullName:"Francisco Martin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"364",title:"Gene Duplication",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"79e1de88c46f703c92c157b80d886221",slug:"gene-duplication",bookSignature:"Felix Friedberg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/364.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62782",title:"Prof.",name:"Felix",surname:"Friedberg",slug:"felix-friedberg",fullName:"Felix Friedberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5090",title:"RNA Interference",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9edcfa43c752e926f9e51ecb610e34db",slug:"rna-interference",bookSignature:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5090.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"213344",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3429",title:"Senescence and Senescence-Related Disorders",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2dc962eff773b82b389299073279b4c8",slug:"senescence-and-senescence-related-disorders",bookSignature:"Zhiwei Wang and Hiroyuki Inuzuka",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3429.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"164282",title:"Dr.",name:"Wang",surname:"Zhiwei",slug:"wang-zhiwei",fullName:"Wang Zhiwei"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4558",title:"Advances in DNA Repair",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"768283d24cc5f9e965ce14d737aa0313",slug:"advances-in-dna-repair",bookSignature:"Clark C. Chen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4558.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62462",title:"Prof.",name:"Clark",surname:"Chen",slug:"clark-chen",fullName:"Clark Chen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3428",title:"Meiosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5be852a0afc01de31a5dd7164bcd025e",slug:"meiosis",bookSignature:"Carol Bernstein and Harris Bernstein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3428.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"61946",title:"Dr.",name:"Carol",surname:"Bernstein",slug:"carol-bernstein",fullName:"Carol Bernstein"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5944",title:"Applications of RNA-Seq and Omics Strategies",subtitle:"From Microorganisms to Human Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3be741447e351b9cb9dc96a133302c6b",slug:"applications-of-rna-seq-and-omics-strategies-from-microorganisms-to-human-health",bookSignature:"Fabio A. Marchi, Priscila D.R. Cirillo and Elvis C. Mateo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5944.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206664",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",surname:"Marchi",slug:"fabio-marchi",fullName:"Fabio Marchi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5354",title:"Microsatellite Markers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a53f044725f885fbb6a4f36bde2c9d65",slug:"microsatellite-markers",bookSignature:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5354.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"213344",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"74251",slug:"corrigendum-to-enhancing-soil-properties-and-maize-yield-through-organic-and-inorganic-nitrogen-and",title:"Corrigendum to: Enhancing Soil Properties and Maize Yield through Organic and Inorganic Nitrogen and Diazotrophic Bacteria",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74251.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74251",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74251",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74251",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74251",chapter:{id:"71840",slug:"enhancing-soil-properties-and-maize-yield-through-organic-and-inorganic-nitrogen-and-diazotrophic-ba",signatures:"Arshad Jalal, Kamran Azeem, Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto Teixeira Filho and Aeysha Khan",dateSubmitted:"May 29th 2019",dateReviewed:"March 6th 2020",datePrePublished:"April 20th 2020",datePublished:"June 17th 2020",book:{id:"9345",title:"Sustainable Crop Production",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Sustainable Crop Production",slug:"sustainable-crop-production",publishedDate:"June 17th 2020",bookSignature:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman, Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto Teixeira Filho, Masayuki Fujita and Thiago Assis Rodrigues Nogueira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9345.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Dr.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"190597",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto",middleName:null,surname:"Teixeira Filho",fullName:"Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto Teixeira Filho",slug:"marcelo-carvalho-minhoto-teixeira-filho",email:"mcm.teixeira-filho@unesp.br",position:null,institution:{name:"Sao Paulo State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"322298",title:"Dr.",name:"Aeysha",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",fullName:"Aeysha Khan",slug:"aeysha-khan",email:"fhw9uhfig@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"322299",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamran",middleName:null,surname:"Azeem",fullName:"Kamran Azeem",slug:"kamran-azeem",email:"gisfgiog34sg@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"322301",title:"Dr.",name:"Arshad",middleName:null,surname:"Jalal",fullName:"Arshad Jalal",slug:"arshad-jalal",email:"gisfgiog3465sg@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"71840",slug:"enhancing-soil-properties-and-maize-yield-through-organic-and-inorganic-nitrogen-and-diazotrophic-ba",signatures:"Arshad Jalal, Kamran Azeem, Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto Teixeira Filho and Aeysha Khan",dateSubmitted:"May 29th 2019",dateReviewed:"March 6th 2020",datePrePublished:"April 20th 2020",datePublished:"June 17th 2020",book:{id:"9345",title:"Sustainable Crop Production",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Sustainable Crop Production",slug:"sustainable-crop-production",publishedDate:"June 17th 2020",bookSignature:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman, Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto Teixeira Filho, Masayuki Fujita and Thiago Assis Rodrigues Nogueira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9345.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Dr.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"190597",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto",middleName:null,surname:"Teixeira Filho",fullName:"Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto Teixeira Filho",slug:"marcelo-carvalho-minhoto-teixeira-filho",email:"mcm.teixeira-filho@unesp.br",position:null,institution:{name:"Sao Paulo State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"322298",title:"Dr.",name:"Aeysha",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",fullName:"Aeysha Khan",slug:"aeysha-khan",email:"fhw9uhfig@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"322299",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamran",middleName:null,surname:"Azeem",fullName:"Kamran Azeem",slug:"kamran-azeem",email:"gisfgiog34sg@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"322301",title:"Dr.",name:"Arshad",middleName:null,surname:"Jalal",fullName:"Arshad Jalal",slug:"arshad-jalal",email:"gisfgiog3465sg@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"9345",title:"Sustainable Crop Production",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Sustainable Crop Production",slug:"sustainable-crop-production",publishedDate:"June 17th 2020",bookSignature:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman, Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto Teixeira Filho, Masayuki Fujita and Thiago Assis Rodrigues Nogueira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9345.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Dr.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"8074",leadTitle:null,title:"Lyme Disease",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book will be a self-contained collection of scholarly papers targeting an audience of practicing researchers, academics, PhD students and other scientists. The contents of the book will be written by multiple authors and edited by experts in the field.",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"900d78336110fda9e7f46f84187235ff",bookSignature:"",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8074.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 24th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 29th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 28th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 16th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 17th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"René Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"rene-mauricio-barria",fullName:"René Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"38878",title:"Materials Assessment and Process Characterization for Lead- Free Soldering",doi:"10.5772/51392",slug:"materials-assessment-and-process-characterization-for-lead-free-soldering",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
Trends in the packaging of semiconductors are towards miniaturization and high functionality. Increased functional density and reduced I/O (Input/Output) spacing are the market trends. In the assembly process with surface mount technology (SMT), a solder paste consisting of solder particles and flux is deposited onto the PCB’s bonding pads through stencil printing. The electronic components are then placed onto the printed circuit board (PCB) by a pick-and-placement machine. During reflow soldering, the solder paste melts and solidifies to form reliable solder joints. With the continuously increasing demands of electronic appliances, energy consumption and the use of hazardous substances, such as heavy metals and chemical ingredients, have become of serious concern. Traditionally used tin-lead solder is known to be harmful to human life and not compatible with an eco-environment. Environmental protection has become an international issue, and on July 1, 2006, the. European Union (EU) implemented a directive restricting hazardous substances (RoHS). One lead-free solder candidate, SAC305 (Sn96.5/Ag3.0/Cu0.5), has been widely used as a replacement for traditional tin-lead solder (Sn63/Pb37). Industry reports indicate that approximately 50–70% of soldering defects are attributed to the solder paste printing process. A sufficient amount of paste and the desired reflow soldering profile are mandatory for reliable interconnections. Solderability analysis is one of the major approaches in characterizing PCB assembly, quality control and reliability.
\n
First, the procedure of solder paste evaluation is illustrated. In the lead-free process, the flux and solder alloy play important roles in the effectiveness of electrical resistance and the strength of the solder joints. Test items include wettability, spread, solder balls, slump, tackiness, viscosity, copper minor, silver chromate, assembly test and reliability tests. This study demonstrates the use of measuring tools combined with statistical methods to investigate the effects of the laser cutting taper angle and speed on the stencil quality for the fine pitch solder paste printing process. The stencil quality is defined by the amount of stainless steel residue after laser cutting and the roundness of the stencil aperture for a circular aperture design. The solder paste inspection data is analyzed to investigate the influences of electropolishing and the stencil area ratio on the transfer ratio during solder paste deposition. The aim of this study is to determine the optimal parameters for stencil fabrication and the corresponding performance in solder paste deposition. The temperature profiles on the critical locations of the PCB during reflow soldering are also important to achieve the desired solder joint quality. This study establishes a procedure to predict the temperature profile based on given information about the PCB design and component loading. Critical factors, such as the conveyor speed and temperature settings of adjacent zones, that can influence the heating process are identified and investigated. A regression model and artificial neural network are constructed to more accurately predict the temperature profile. Results of this study will help improve the efficiency of the temperature setting process, especially in the pilot run stage. Finally, the analytical techniques used for soldering properties, including visual inspection, side-view microscopy, x-ray inspection and dye staining analysis, are also discussed. The crack size and percentage are classified according to the crack area. In this study, the solderability analysis is carried out to determine whether any cracks in the solder joints occur in the CPU and RAM of the ball grid arrays (BGAs) components. It may cause the failure symptom of no display to appear on an ultrabook while the power is on.
\n
\n
\n
2. Stencil evaluation of ultra-fine pitch solder paste printing process
\n
The surface mount technology (SMT) is commonly used in electronics industry to assemble the components onto the PCB. It (SMT) enables the production with relatively low cost. Stencil printing is known to significantly influence the process quality in Surface Mount Technology (SMT). For ultra-fine pitch applications, solder paste printing acts as one of the most critical steps in the SMT assembly process. A review of the literature indicates that solder paste printing is responsible for around 60% of the total process defects. One of the key factors for the performance of solder paste deposition is the stencil fabrication quality. Other important factors include the stencil aperture design, paste printing parameters and stainless steel raw material. The incoming inspection of the stencil typically includes a frame appearance examination and tension force measurement. Inspection of individual apertures under a microscope is not feasible due to the large size of the stencil. Related research also shows that stencil aperture and wall roughness impact the solder paste deposition quality. Laser cutting is widely used due to its advantageous performance with respect to cost and aperture quality. While electroformed stencils are typically considered for the assembly of 01005 passives, evaluations of the laser cut stencil manufacturing process through solder paste printing optimization are lacking. The stencil manufacturing process generally includes three stages, namely, screen stretching, laser cutting and electropolishing/deburring (Fig. 1).
\n
Figure 1.
Stencil manufacturing process
\n
Measuring tools combined with statistical methods were used to investigate the effects of the laser cutting taper angle and speed on the stencil quality. The stencil quality is defined by the amount of stainless steel residue after laser cutting and the roundness of the stencil aperture for a circular aperture design. The solder paste inspection data was analyzed to investigate the influence of electropolishing and stencil area ratio on the transfer ratio during solder paste deposition. Weighted ranking was adopted to indicate the variation in solder paste deposits for 01005 and 0.4/0.3mm pitch CSP pads due to the stencil fabrication process. The aim was to determine the optimal parameters for stencil fabrication and corresponding performance in solder paste deposition.
\n
The laser machine and materials used for stencil aperture cutting and stencil materials were evaluated. Experiments included: (1) material properties assessment – to test the durability of the screen; (2) stencil quality inspection – to evaluate the occurrence of clogging, aperture roundness and taper angle; (3) electropolishing process inspection – to determine the optimal process parameters for laser cutting for various taper angles; and (4) printing process assessment – to evaluate the stencil printing performance for 01005/0201 RLC and 0.4/0.3mm pitch CSP applications.
\n
\n
2.1. Experiments
\n
\n
2.1.1. Material properties assessment
\n
The durability of various raw materials against IPA cleaning solvent was evaluated. The test samples were 736 mm square and 0.1 mm thick. The stencils (without aperture) were cleaned by the cleaning machine. After cleaning for 90 min, the samples were dried for 10 min. As the cleaning time is 10 min in the process currently in use, 90 min of cleaning was equivalent to 9 times the cleaning cycle. The criteria for acceptance were readings above -0.22 mm at the stencil center and above -0.22 mm on the other locations.
\n
\n
\n
2.1.2. Stencil quality inspection
\n
The two-factor three-level full factorial experimental design was used. The factors considered were taper angle and laser cutting speed. Details of the experimental design are shown in Table 1. The taper angle (Fig. 2.) was determined by Equation (1). Quality characteristics included the occurrence of clogging and aperture roundness, as in Fig. 3. Clogging was defined as the percentage of aperture area covered by the steel scrap, while roundness was determined by image measurement software. The stencil aperture design is shown in Fig. 4.
The d1 and d2 are the aperture sizes at the entrance side and exit side, respectively; T is the stencil thickness.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n \n
\n
\n
Table 1.
Laser cutting experimental design
\n
Figure 3.
Clogging and aperture roundness
\n
Figure 4.
Stencil design for stencil cutting evaluation
\n
\n
\n
2.1.3. Electropolishing process
\n
The anodic polarization chart (Fig. 5) shows the relationship between the applied voltage and the anode current density. When the voltage reached the polishing region (DE), further increases in voltage did not have a significant effect. The stencil aperture logging scenario considered three polishing times.
\n
Figure 5.
Anodic polarization chart
\n
\n
\n
2.1.4. Printing process assessment
\n
Three stencil thicknesses (0.08mm, 0.1mm, 0.12mm), three post treatment methods (CP: chemical polishing, EP: electropolishing, NP: no polishing) and three taper angles (2°, 4°, 7°) were considered. Details of the experimental design are shown in Table 2. Ten stencils in total were used for the printing experiments. The squeegee printing angle remained at 60°. Stencils were cleaned after every printing. The separation velocity was 0.5 mm/sec, the printing pressure was 12 Kg and the printing velocity was 40 mm/sec. The sample size was forty, i.e., there were forty identical apertures on the stencil for each treatment. The printing was duplicated 15 times. The transfer ratio of printing was used as quality performance.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n \n
\n
\n
Table 2.
Experimental design for printing performance evaluation
\n
The test board was a bare board without a solder mask in order to minimize the potential printing variation. It is not reasonable to compare the transfer ratio when evaluating the printing performance of stencils with different thicknesses. While the amount of solder paste printed is a major factor influencing the solder joint reliability, a thick stencil with a smaller transfer ratio may still have a greater amount of solder paste deposition. Therefore, a 0.1 mm stencil was used as the standard thickness (Fig. 6). The printing performance was normalized and evaluated through the steps below.
\n
The equation used to calculate the transfer ratio is shown below:
After ten printings, the average and standard deviation are calculated.
\n
The stencil with the highest average printing volume is assigned a score of 10, and the second highest is assigned a score of 9….
\n
The performance of printing variation is considered for an extra score. The top three stencils with the least printing variation (standard deviation) are assigned a score of 3, 2, 1, respectively. The results of printing for a 0.3 mm BGA are shown below.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n \n
\n
\n
Table 3.
The results of printing for a 0.3 mm BGA
\n
Figure 6.
Plot showing difference in transfer ratio for various stencil thicknesses even with similar solder volume deposition
\n
\n
\n
\n
2.2. Results
\n
\n
2.2.1. Material properties assessment
\n
After a total of 30 hours IPA cleaning (180 cleaning cycles), separation occurred to one of screen model. It showed that the test method can be an effective evaluation of the durability of raw materials.
\n
\n
\n
2.2.2. Stencil quality inspection
\n
Results show that a taper angle of 2° and a laser speed of 8 mm/s resulted in minimal stencil aperture clogging (Fig. 7(a)). A slower laser speed was preferred for better aperture roundness (Fig. 7(b)).
\n
Figure 7.
Main effects of taper angle and laser speed on (a) clogging and (b) aperture roundness
\n
\n
\n
2.2.3. Electropolishing process
\n
Results showed that clogging was minimized by increasing the polishing time (Fig. 8). The residue was found to be carbon and oxide through scanning electron microscope/energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM/EDS) analysis (Fig. 9). Therefore, the electropolishing process did not seem to be effective in removing the non-metal contamination and improving solder deposition. Also, chloride was detected and this may have introduced additional concerns.
\n
Figure 8.
Main effect of polishing time on aperture clogging
\n
Figure 9.
Residue compound SEM/EDS analysis
\n
\n
\n
2.2.4. Printing process assessment
\n
The effect of the stencil aperture shape was evaluated. For both 0.08 mm and 0.1 mm stencils, the circular aperture design was superior to the home plate shape aperture design for 01005 solder paste printing with respect to the transfer ratio (Figs. 10 and 11). For the 0.08 mm stencil, a chemical polished stencil was superior to an electropolished stencil. However, for the 0.1 mm stencil, the electropolished stencil and the stencil with no polishing performed better than the chemical polished stencil. This result was consistent with SEM/EDS analysis in that post treatment did not remove steel scraps and improve solder deposition.
\n
The solder paste transfer ratio scores for various components are shown in Table 4. The transfer ratio for the 0201, 0.5mm BGA and 0.4mm connector were all above 100%. The stencil performance was evaluated for miniaturization applications. The components with a transfer ratio above 100% were excluded. The top three scenarios with the highest scores were (1) the electropolished stencil with a 0.1 mm thickness and a 40° taper angle; (2) the stencil with no polishing, 0.1 mm thick and a 2° taper angle; and (3) the stencil with no polishing stencil, 0.12 mm thick and a 2° taper angle.
\n
Figure 10.
Influence of aperture shape on transfer ratio for stencil with thickness 0.08 mm
\n
Figure 11.
Influence of aperture shape on transfer ratio with thickness 0.1 mm
\n
Also, the 0.1 mm stencil performed better than the 0.08 mm stencil with respect to the transfer ratio. The stencil with no polishing performed better than the electropolished or chemical polished stencils.
\n
The correlations between the transfer ratio and area ratio were investigated for the stencils with three different post treatment technologies (Figs. 12 and 13). No correlation was found for either the electropolished or chemical polished stencils. The process variation of laser machine A was more severe than that of machine B. While the industry standard IPC-7525 (IPC-7525 3.2.1.1, 2000) suggests an area ratio above 0.66, stencils with an area ratio of 0.5 still achieved a 60% transfer ratio for machine B. Also, as regards stencil manufacturing, stencils with no polishing performed better than stencils that were either electropolished or chemical polished. Significant variations in the stencil manufacturing machine were observed, which may have affected the effectiveness of the stencil evaluation. The area ratio could be used to verify the process variations of stencil manufacturing in future stencil quality assessment studies. The development of printing capability contributes to the miniaturization of electronic products with greater functionality.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n \n
\n
\n
Table 4.
Solder paste transfer ratio score for various components
\n
Figure 12.
Correlation between the transfer ratio and area ratio for laser machine A
\n
Figure 13.
Correlation between the transfer ratio and area ratio for laser machine B
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
3. Characterization of reflow temperature profile
\n
During reflow soldering, the solder paste melts and solidifies to form reliable solder joints. In the reflow soldering process, the PCBs are transported by the conveyor and go through the various heating zones. Prior to mass production, the process engineer has to ensure that the desired temperature is achieved by using a profile board with the same characteristics as the real product to be assembled. This is critical to ensure that the desired solder joint is formed, while at the same time taking into consideration the heat resistibility of the PCB and the electronic components. The trial and error approach is commonly used, which involves adjusting the temperature setups at various heating zones and the conveyor speed to achieve the temperature profiles on important locations of the PCB so that all comply with the process specifications [Su 1997]. The process to determine the appropriate temperature setups is time consuming as it includes the time to measure the PCB temperature, time for the thermal tracker to cool down to room temperature and the time for the reflow chamber to reach a stabilized temperature. Therefore, the schedule for production could be detained. Characterization of the reflow heating process helps to reduce setup time and the number of trials while ensuring the quality of the solder interconnections.
\n
Temperature simulation using finite difference (FD) and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling tools can achieve a high degree of accuracy, but they are complex to generate and analysis times are unacceptably long. Whalley (2004) developed a less complex approach using simplified representations of both the product and the process. Sarva and Conway (1998) abandoned mathematical modeling and utilized the concept of What-If to forecast temperature profiles. This approach, however, is appropriate primarily at the phase of product design and process planning. Su (1997) proposed a knowledge-based approach to design and implement a profile identification decision support system. Inferences through an expert system usually apply only to certain categories of products. Gao (2008) offered a convenient method to develop an oven recipe for a specific soldering profile. The method was devised to quickly achieve the proper profile shape, but the accuracy of the profiling was constrained, especially for complicated products in real applications.
\n
Our research considered real PCBs of server applications, usually having six to eight copper layers, but sometimes up to a total of eighteen layers, which are loaded with complicated components with a large heat capacity. The algorithm suggested by Gao (2008) was used in this study as a baseline model for prediction. Data (real temperature setups) of a total of twelve server models collected from production environments were then employed to make the needed modifications to the baseline model. A ‘correction value’ for the baseline model was the ‘response’, and the temperature setting of the heating zone, conveyor speed and the total PCBA heat capacity were the independent variables. Stepwise regression analysis (SRA) was used to effectively express the relationship between the response variable and the independent variables (for each heating zone).
\n
\n
3.1. Preliminary experiments
\n
Preliminary experiments were conducted to assess the stability of the reflow oven under study and the influence of the heating zone setup on the resulting temperature profile. The effect of the PCB carrier was also considered. The three preliminary experiments considered a total of five heating zone setups (Table 5). The oven used in these experiments had nine heating zones and natural cooling (Fig. 14). The test vehicle was a bare board with eight stacking layers (Fig. 15). The length, width and thickness were 241 mm, 335 mm and 1 mm, respectively. The thickness of the copper layers on the PCB surface was 0.5 oz, and 1 oz for the inner layers. Six thermal couples were attached at four corners on the top side and center locations of both the top and bottom sides. The fixture used in this study is shown in Fig. 16.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n \n
\n
\n
Table 5.
Heating zone setups considered in the preliminary experiments
\n
Figure 14.
Reflow oven used in the preliminary experiments
\n
Figure 15.
PCB used in the preliminary experiments
\n
Figure 16.
Fixture used in this study
\n
In the first experiment, the temperature setting for all heating zones was maintained at 180℃. The measured preheating and cooling temperature slopes for the PCB samples with a carrier were smaller than those for PCB samples without a carrier. The peak temperature (Tp) during the reflow zone for the PCB samples with a carrier was also lower than that for PCB samples without a carrier and with less variation (∆T). The above mentioned observations showed the inconsistency in heating phenomena due to the carrier’s heat capacity. Secondly, the measured temperatures near the adjustable side of the conveyor were higher than those near the fixed side of the conveyor. This was because the adjustable side of the conveyor was close to the center of the heater and the heating source was more stable and effective (Fig. 17). In the second experiment, the temperature setting at Z4~Z6 was 200℃ and all the other zones maintained at 180℃. The results showed that the PCB temperature also increased by approximately 20℃ when the temperature setting at the heating zone increased by 20℃. This indicated that the heating zone was stabilized and that the heat transfer was effective. The third experiment, in reference to Cho (2008) (Fig. 18), considered three temperature settings: (1) reflow heating zones Z7-Z9 maintained at 240℃; (2) reflow zone Z7 at 250℃ and the remaining zones (Z8 and Z9) decreasing 5℃ progressively; and (3) reflow zone Z7 at 260℃ and the remaining zones decreasing 20℃ progressively. The purpose was to investigate the effect of the temperature setting at the reflow zones on the reflow time (time above 217℃) and the peak temperature. Temperature setting (2) resulted in a higher reflow peak temperature, a longer reflow time and the least variation in peak temperature for the various PCB locations (Table 6), i.e., the reflow temperature setting decreasing 5℃ progressively resulted in the desired stable (hat type) temperature profile.
\n
Figure 17.
Plot showing location of heater and the PCB
\n
Figure 18.
Temperature setting at reflow zone from Cho (2008)
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n \n
\n
\n
Table 6.
Results of the third experiment
\n
\n
3.2. Reflow process specification
\n
The specifications used in this study are shown in Fig. 19 and described below: (1) the temperature slope increase from 50℃ to 120℃ during the preheat stage should be less than 3℃/s to prevent damaging the PCB/component due to thermal shock; (2) a slow temperature rise at the soak stage reduces temperature variation across the PCB before the reflow soldering commences. A temperature rise from 150℃ to 180℃ should be within 60s to 120s; (3) the time above soldering material SAC305’s melting point 217℃ should be within 40s to 90s; and (4) rapid cooling is preferred to achieve the desired solder joint metallurgy. The temperature slope from 210℃ to 170℃ should not exceed 3℃/s to reduce thermal shock.
\n
Figure 19.
Reflow temperature profile process specifications
\n
\n
\n
3.3. Basic model suggested temperature settings
\n
This study started with calculations of the suggested temperature settings based on the reflow profile prediction algorithm proposed by Gao (2008). The results were compared with the real temperature settings in the manufacturing process so that the measured PCB temperature complied with the process specifications. The result of a sample product is shown in Table 7. This task was then duplicated for a total of twelve server products.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n \n
\n
\n
Table 7.
Basic algorithm suggested temperature settings versus real settings
\n
\n
3.4. Constructing the function of the correction value through stepwise regression analysis
\n
The temperature settings of twelve server products used in real manufacturing environments were collected. It is noted that the settings were determined by experienced process engineers through trial and error. This was time consuming and iterative modification efforts were required to ensure that the temperatures at critical locations of the PCB were within process specifications. This was essential before the mass-production commenced. Table 7 and Fig. 20 show the basic algorithm suggested temperature settings compared to the real settings. Real temperature settings exhibited longer soak times (in a temperature range of 150℃~180℃) and reflow times (above 217℃). Apparently, PCBs with a higher layer count and loaded with complicated electronic components were more suitable. In contrast, the basic model was only appropriate for the experimental bare board and/or low-end products. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine the ‘correction value’ used to modify the suggested settings proposed by the basic algorithm and feasible for high-end products, such as a high-layer count server.
\n
Figure 20.
Basic algorithm suggested temperature settings compared to the real settings
\n
The correction value is considered as a function, f(x), of the product and process-related factors, namely, the total PCB assembly’s (PCBA’s) heat capacity, Htotal(m); the temperature setting at zone i, x1; the temperature setting at the previous zone (zone i-1), x2; the temperature setting at the following zone (zone i+1), x3; and the conveyor speed, x4. The PCBA consisted of FR4 (flame retardant-4) material, copper layer and components. The total PCBA heat capacity (J/k) is the product of the materials’ mass (g) and corresponding specific heat capacities (J/g-k) (Equation 3). In this study, the mass of PCBA was measured with a digital balance. While CAD Gerber file provided information on the total volume of copper, the mass of copper was determined by multiplying the copper density (1.9 g/cm3). The components mass could thus be determined by deducting the mass of PCBA by the masses of copper and components.
where m1, m2 and m3 are the masses of FR4, copper and components of a given product; c1, c2 and c3 are 0.6 J/g-k, 0.38 J/g-k and 0.1 J/g-k, respectively, which are the specific heat capacities of FR4, copper and components, respectively.
\n
The function of the correction value was constructed through the data of eleven server products. Data of the other server product was then used for model verification. SRA integrates the forward regression and the backward regression. First, the forward regression brings in the item with the most prediction ability; the backward regression then removes the item(s) that are not significant (expected explanation ability) from the model. The test criteria, partial F value and type I error, α, used in this study were 4 and 0.15, respectively. The cross validation continued until all the items in the complete function were tested. Statistics software Minitab was used to analyze data of the eleven server products and construct the correction value function for each heating zone. The tenth heating zone, Z10, was used for illustration (Table 8). The complete function included first power items, second power items and two way interaction items (Equation 4). The twenty items were tested for their significance, and the results showed that only item x1\n 2 was brought into the function model.
Data to construct correction value function for Z10
\n
The correction value functions for all heating zones determined by SRA are shown in Table 9. Firstly, the setting at Z1 was at 120℃ for an efficient temperature rise and to prevent thermal shock to the PCBA during the preheat stage. The setting at Z9 was in the range of 260℃~275℃ for the desired wetting performance and to limit the exposure of the PCBA in the elevated temperature environment during the reflow stage. Secondly, the effectiveness of the regression functions were determined by the index of model explanation ability, R-sq(adj), and model prediction ability index, R-sq(pred). The R-sq(pred) of the prediction function for the Z11 temperature setting was only 13%, and thus considered an invalid model. For heating zones Z4-Z8, no item was brought into the function with α equal to 0.15. On the other hand, prediction functions for the Z2, Z3 and Z10 temperature settings were valid. Both prediction functions for Z2 and Z3 included the interaction item of ‘total heat capacity’, Htotal(m), and ‘temperature setting’. The reason for this was as follows. Z2 and Z3 corresponded to the preheat stage of the temperature profile. PCBA at this stage had a significant heat absorption which resulted in a rapid rise in temperature. The efficiency of the heat absorption and the rise in temperature depended on the heat capacity of the PCBA; therefore, the interaction item (between ‘heat capacity’ and ‘temperature setting’) appeared as a critical item. Also, the prediction function for Z10 included only the ‘temperature setting’, x1. This was because Z9-Z11 corresponded to the reflow stage of the temperature profile. The purpose of Z10 was not to raise the PCBA temperature, but to extend the reflow time duration to ensure the complete wetting of the soldering material onto the bonding pads. The PCBA’s heat absorption and rise in temperature were slow; therefore, ‘total heat capacity’ did not play a critical role in the prediction function. Another server product was used for the verification test. The PCB temperatures were measured with the settings suggested by the baseline model and the SRA model (Table 10). The resulting temperature profiles were then compared to the process specifications. As shown in Table 11 and Fig. 21, the temperature profile resulting from the settings suggested that the SRA model was close to the target.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n \n
\n
\n
Table 9.
Correction value functions by SRA
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n \n
\n
\n
Table 10.
PCB temperatures measured with settings suggested by the baseline model and the SRA model
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n \n
\n
\n
Table 11.
Temperature profiles versus process specs
\n
Figure 21.
Temperature profiles versus process specs
\n
\n
\n
3.5. Summary
\n
This research characterized the IR-based reflow oven and calculated the desired temperature setting through a baseline algorithm proposed in reference to twelve server samples. Correction values were as suggested by the SRA model. The results of the SRA analysis indicated that the regression functions of heating zones Z2, Z3 and Z10 were valid models with significant prediction ability. Functions of Z2 and Z3 included the item of interaction between ‘total heat capacity’ and ‘temperature setting’, while functions of Z10 included only ‘temperature setting’. The results of the confirmation tests indicated that the temperature profile resulting from the settings suggested that the SRA model was close to the target.
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Solderability analysis
\n
Solderability analysis is one of the most important characterizations for PCB assembly (PCBA), quality control and reliability (Huang et al., 2009 and 2011). The analytical techniques used for soldering properties, including visual inspection, side-view microscopy, x-ray inspection and dye staining analysis, were conducted (Huang et al., 2011 and Castello et al., 2006). The crack size percentage was classified according to the crack area. In this case, the solderability analysis was carried out to determine whether any cracks in the solder joints occurred in the CPU and RAM BGAs. The one CPU and eight RAM chips were examined to clarify the suspect ones. It may cause the failure symptom of no display to appear on an ultrabook while the power is on.
\n
\n
4.1. Side-view inspection
\n
Side-view is mainly executed to observe the surface mount components, especially the exterior row BGA solder joints in detail, non-destructively, such as foreign matter, solder joint cracks, BGA shift, missing balls and soldering related defects.
\n
However, for an interior analysis or inspection of BGAs or PCBA components, side-view microscopy has blind spots and should be combined with other analysis methods, such as x-ray, dye staining and cross section, for further confirmation and judgment. In this study, from the side view inspection results, no abnormalities were found for the CPU1 and RAM1~8 BGAs. An illustration of the CPU1 inspection results is shown in Fig. 22. The corresponding and complementary analyses were characterized and are presented in the next sections.
\n
Figure 22.
Side-view inspection results from the CPU1 BGA
\n
\n
\n
4.2. X-ray inspection
\n
X-ray is mainly executed to examine soldering related defects for BGA, CSP and QFN, etc. X-ray inspection is regarded as a non-destructive method and is used when a high proportion of BGA solder joints is hidden under the IC package. As the internal material of BGA package shows different levels of absorbency, x-rays can determine the solder joint related defects, for example, solder bridges, missing balls, solder voids, insufficient solder or excessive solder volume. The presence and location of solder joint defects under these types of IC package may be determined by conventional 2-D X-ray in a production environment. X-ray inspection has become a common tool for soldering characterization analysis performed to verify product quality (Harrison et al., 2001).
\n
In this study, from the x-ray inspection results, no soldering defects (short, missing balls, etc.) were observed for the CPU1 and RAM1~8 BGAs. An illustration of the CPU1 inspection results is shown in Fig. 23. Voids may exist in the solder joints and make surface mount area arrays risky. According to IPC-A-610E (IPC-A-610E 8.3.12.4, 2010), the acceptance criterion for voids in solder joints is 25% or less voiding of the ball x-ray image area. In this case, void percentages were all within the inspection criterion (<25% ball x-ray image area). While some critical defects in BGA solder joints were not readily detectable by the side-view microscope and/or the x-ray inspections, dye staining analysis was carried out for more accurate soldering analysis.
\n
Figure 23.
X-ray inspection results from the CPU1 BGA
\n
\n
\n
4.3. Dye staining analysis
\n
The dye staining analysis is commonly applied to verify whether solder joint cracks have occurred under BGA packages (Liu et al., 2010 and Lau et al., 2004). The dye staining technology, which is a destructive test method used to reveal defects on the solder balls, relies on a liquid dye that penetrates existing micro cracks or under open solder balls. After the dyeing process, a heating process is used to dry the dye followed by prying off the BGA. The presence of the dye on solder balls shows the location of the failure within the solder joint and the degree of crack propagation. It is a commonplace method applied to grid array soldering problems (Huang et al., 2011).
\n
Since RD can not identify the failure locations, dye staining analysis is performed to determine the possible causes for the no display issue when the ultrabook power is on. If the failure locations can be identified, cross section analysis is suggested to obtain more failure symptom information from other aspects.
\n
In this study, from the dye staining analysis, solder joint cracks were found in the CPU1 (corners 2 and 3) and RAM2 (corner 4) BGAs (Figs. 24 and 25). For CPU1, the failure mode was located between PCB pad/PCB laminate (Type 5) and the crack size percentage was between 1-25%. For RAM2, the failure mode was also Type 5 and the crack size percentage was 26-50%. Cracks are one of the most important reasons for the failure symptom showing no display for the integrated chips and board in an ultrabook product.
\n
Figure 24.
Dye staining analysis results from the CPU1 BGA (a) component and (b) PCB side (corner 3), (c) failure mode
\n
Figure 25.
Dye staining analysis results from the RAM2 BGA (a) PCB and (b) component side (corner 4)
\n
\n
4.4. Summary
\n
In this study, visual inspection, side-view microscopy, x-ray inspection and dye staining analysis were successfully used to characterize the soldering quality associated with microelectronics assembly. Side-view microscopy and x-ray inspection were used for a preliminary screening for failure symptoms. Consequently, dye staining analysis was used to identify the failure mode and crack size accurately. This method facilitated determining the failure causes for most soldering problems.
\n
\n \n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/38878.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/38878.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/38878",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/38878",totalDownloads:2776,totalViews:368,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"February 28th 2012",dateReviewed:"July 8th 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"June 10th 2013",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/38878",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/38878",book:{slug:"materials-science-advanced-topics"},signatures:"Chien-Yi Huang, Chen-Liang Ku, Hao-Chun Hsieh, Ming-Shu Li,\nChia-Hsien Lee and Cheng-I Chang",authors:[{id:"52426",title:"Prof.",name:"Chien-Yi",middleName:"Jay",surname:"Huang",fullName:"Chien-Yi Huang",slug:"chien-yi-huang",email:"jayhuang@ntut.edu.tw",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Stencil evaluation of ultra-fine pitch solder paste printing process",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Experiments",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1. Material properties assessment",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.3. Electropolishing process",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.2. Results ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.2.1. Material properties assessment",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.2.2. Stencil quality inspection ",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.2.3. Electropolishing process",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"Table 4.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13",title:"3. Characterization of reflow temperature profile",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"3.1. Preliminary experiments",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.2. Reflow process specification",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.3. Basic model suggested temperature settings",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"3.4. Constructing the function of the correction value through stepwise regression analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"3.5. Summary",level:"2"},{id:"sec_19",title:"4. Solderability analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19_2",title:"4.1. Side-view inspection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"4.2. X-ray inspection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"4.3. Dye staining analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_22_2",title:"",level:"2"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\n Castello, T., Rooney, D. & Shangguan, D. (2006). Failure analysis techniques for lead-free solder joints. Soldering & Surface Mount Technology, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 21-27.\n '},{id:"B2",body:'\n Clark, D. & Rohrer, D. (2003). Specification and qualification of machine vision technology in the SMT process, Technical Paper, GSI Lumonics. pp.1-8. \n '},{id:"B3",body:'\n Gangue, Z. & Wang, C. (2009). Shape and fatigue life prediction of chip resistor solder joints, International Conference on Electronic Packaging Technology & High Density Packaging (ICEPT-HDP). \n '},{id:"B4",body:'\n Gao, J.G., Wu, Y. P., Ding H. & Wan, N.H. (2008). Thermal profiling: a reflow process based on the heating factor. Soldering & Surface Mount Technology, Vol. 20, No. 4, pp. 20-27.\n '},{id:"B5",body:'\n Harrison, M.R., Vincent, J.H., Steen, H.A.H. (2001). Lead-free reflow soldering for electronics assembly. Soldering & Surface Mount Technology, Vol. 13 Iss: 3, pp. 21–38.\n '},{id:"B6",body:'\n Huang, C.Y., Li, M.S., Ku, C.L., Hsieh, H.C. & Li, K.C. (2009). Chemical characterization of failures and process materials for microelectronics assembly. Microelectronics International, Vol. 26, No. 3, pp. 41-48.\n '},{id:"B7",body:'\n Huang, C.Y., Li, M.S., Huang, S.Y., Chang, C.I. & Huang, M.H. (2011). Material Characterization and Failure Analysis for Microelectronics Assembly Processes. Wide Spectra of Quality Control, InTech publication, ISBN 978-953-307-683-6, Chapter 26, pp. 509-532.\n '},{id:"B8",body:'\n Huang, C.Y., Lin, C.T., & Tsai, H.L. (2004). Study of Process Capability for The Stencil Printing in PCB Assembly. Fifth Asia-Pacific Industrial Engineering and Management Systems Conference, Gold Coast, Australia.\n '},{id:"B9",body:'\n IPC-7525 3.2.1.1 (2000). Area Ratio/Aspect Ratio, pp. 3.\n '},{id:"B10",body:'\n IPC-A-610E 8.3.12.4 (2010). Surface Mount Area Array – Voids, pp. 8-89.\n '},{id:"B11",body:'\n Jianbiao, P., Tonkay, G.L., Storer, R.H., Sallade, R.M. & Leandri, D.J. (2004). Critical variables of solder paste stencil printing for micro-BGA and fine-pitch QFP. IEEE Transactions on Electronics Packaging Manufacturing, Vol. 27, No. 2.\n '},{id:"B12",body:'\n Lau, J., Shangguan, D., Castello, T., Horsley, R., Smetana, J., Hoo, N., Dauksher, W., Love, D., Menis, I. & Sullivan, B. (2004). Failure analysis of lead-free solder joints for high-density packages. Soldering & Surface Mount Technology, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 69-76.\n '},{id:"B13",body:'\n Liu, F., Meng, G. & Zhao, M. (2010). Experimental investigation on the failure of lead-free solder joints under drop impact. Soldering & Surface Mount Technology,\n Vol. 22, No. 3, pp. 36-41.\n '},{id:"B14",body:'\n Rumelhart, D.E. & McClelland, J.L. (1986). Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the Micro-structure of Cognition. Cambridge: MIT Press, Vol. 1.\n '},{id:"B15",body:'\n Sarvar, F. & Conway, P.P. (1998). A modeling tool for the thermal optimization of the reflow soldering of printed circuit assemblies. Finite Elements in Analysis and Design, Vol. 30, pp. 47-63\n '},{id:"B16",body:'\n Su, Y.Y., Srihari, K. & Emerson, C.R. (1997). A profile identification system for surface mount printed circuit board assembly. Computers and Industrial Engineering,\n Vol. 33, pp.377-380.\n '},{id:"B17",body:'\n Tsai, T.N. (2008). Modeling and optimization of stencil printing operations A comparison study. Computers & Industrial Engineering,\n Vol. 54, pp. 374–389.\n '},{id:"B18",body:'\n Whalley, D.C. (2004). A simplified reflow soldering process model. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 150, pp. 134-144.\n '},{id:"B19",body:'\n Yeh, I.C. (2009). Taguchi method based on neural networks and cross validation methodology. Journal of Quality, Vol. 14, No. 4.\n '}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Chien-Yi Huang",address:null,affiliation:'
Department of Industrial Engineering and Management, National Taipei University of Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, R.O.C.
Process Technology Enabling & Materials Characterization Div., Global Operations, Wistron Corporation, Hsinchu, Taiwan, R.O.C.
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"3482",title:"Materials Science",subtitle:"Advanced Topics",fullTitle:"Materials Science - Advanced Topics",slug:"materials-science-advanced-topics",publishedDate:"June 10th 2013",bookSignature:"Yitzhak Mastai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3482.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"41724",title:"Prof.",name:"Yitzhak",middleName:null,surname:"Mastai",slug:"yitzhak-mastai",fullName:"Yitzhak Mastai"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"42654",title:"Conducting Polymers / Layered Double Hydroxides Intercalated Nanocomposites",slug:"conducting-polymers-layered-double-hydroxides-intercalated-nanocomposites",totalDownloads:5361,totalCrossrefCites:8,signatures:"Jairo Tronto, Ana Cláudia Bordonal, Zeki Naal and João Barros\nValim",authors:[{id:"161654",title:"Dr.",name:"Jairo",middleName:null,surname:"Tronto",fullName:"Jairo Tronto",slug:"jairo-tronto"},{id:"161656",title:"Dr.",name:"João Barros",middleName:null,surname:"Valim",fullName:"João Barros Valim",slug:"joao-barros-valim"},{id:"161680",title:"MSc.",name:"Ana Cláudia",middleName:null,surname:"Bordonal",fullName:"Ana Cláudia Bordonal",slug:"ana-claudia-bordonal"},{id:"166855",title:"Dr.",name:"Zeki",middleName:null,surname:"Naal",fullName:"Zeki Naal",slug:"zeki-naal"}]},{id:"44929",title:"Optical Properties of Multiferroic BiFeO3 Films",slug:"optical-properties-of-multiferroic-bifeo3-films",totalDownloads:4180,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Hiromi Shima, Hiroshi Naganuma and Soichiro Okamura",authors:[{id:"28619",title:"Prof.",name:"Hiroshi",middleName:null,surname:"Naganuma",fullName:"Hiroshi Naganuma",slug:"hiroshi-naganuma"},{id:"154862",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiromi",middleName:null,surname:"Shima",fullName:"Hiromi Shima",slug:"hiromi-shima"},{id:"154863",title:"Prof.",name:"Soichiro",middleName:null,surname:"Okamura",fullName:"Soichiro Okamura",slug:"soichiro-okamura"}]},{id:"44930",title:"Atomic Layer Deposition on Self-Assembled-Monolayers",slug:"atomic-layer-deposition-on-self-assembled-monolayers",totalDownloads:5070,totalCrossrefCites:5,signatures:"Hagay Moshe and Yitzhak Mastai",authors:[{id:"162562",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Hagay",middleName:"Yehuda",surname:"Moshe",fullName:"Hagay Moshe",slug:"hagay-moshe"}]},{id:"41307",title:"Plasma Electrolytic Oxidation of Valve Metals",slug:"plasma-electrolytic-oxidation-of-valve-metals",totalDownloads:4886,totalCrossrefCites:5,signatures:"Alex Lugovskoy and Michael Zinigrad",authors:[{id:"163197",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Zinigrad",fullName:"Michael Zinigrad",slug:"michael-zinigrad"}]},{id:"44932",title:"Physicochemical Analysis and Synthesis of Nonstoichiometric Solids",slug:"physicochemical-analysis-and-synthesis-of-nonstoichiometric-solids",totalDownloads:2005,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"V. P. Zlomanov, A.M. Khoviv and A.Ju. Zavrazhnov",authors:[{id:"90892",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Zlomanov",fullName:"Zlomanov",slug:"zlomanov"}]},{id:"44934",title:"Nanocrystalline Mn and Fe Doped ZnO Thin Films Prepared Using SILAR Method for Dilute Magnetic Semiconductor Application",slug:"nanocrystalline-mn-and-fe-doped-zno-thin-films-prepared-using-silar-method-for-dilute-magnetic-semic",totalDownloads:3710,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Rathinam Chandramohan, Jagannathan Thirumalai and\nThirukonda Anandhamoorthy Vijayan",authors:[{id:"97517",title:"Prof.",name:"R.",middleName:null,surname:"Chandramohan",fullName:"R. Chandramohan",slug:"r.-chandramohan"},{id:"99242",title:"Prof.",name:"Jagannathan",middleName:null,surname:"Thirumalai",fullName:"Jagannathan Thirumalai",slug:"jagannathan-thirumalai"},{id:"99248",title:"Prof.",name:"T. A.",middleName:null,surname:"Vijayan",fullName:"T. A. Vijayan",slug:"t.-a.-vijayan"},{id:"125614",title:"Prof.",name:"Rathinam",middleName:null,surname:"Chandramohan Pillai",fullName:"Rathinam Chandramohan Pillai",slug:"rathinam-chandramohan-pillai"}]},{id:"44936",title:"Layers of Inhibitor Anion – Doped Polypyrrole for Corrosion Protection of Mild Steel",slug:"layers-of-inhibitor-anion-doped-polypyrrole-for-corrosion-protection-of-mild-steel",totalDownloads:2740,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Le Minh Duc and Vu Quoc Trung",authors:[{id:"78661",title:"Dr.",name:"Vu",middleName:null,surname:"Trung",fullName:"Vu Trung",slug:"vu-trung"},{id:"167510",title:"Dr.",name:"Minh Duc",middleName:null,surname:"Le",fullName:"Minh Duc Le",slug:"minh-duc-le"}]},{id:"44940",title:"Mechanochemical Synthesis of Magnetite/Hydroxyapatite Nanocomposites for Hyperthermia",slug:"mechanochemical-synthesis-of-magnetite-hydroxyapatite-nanocomposites-for-hyperthermia",totalDownloads:3355,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Tomohiro Iwasaki",authors:[{id:"82680",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomohiro",middleName:null,surname:"Iwasaki",fullName:"Tomohiro Iwasaki",slug:"tomohiro-iwasaki"}]},{id:"44947",title:"Nonlinear Image Filtering for Materials Classification",slug:"nonlinear-image-filtering-for-materials-classification",totalDownloads:1598,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Giovanni F. Crosta",authors:[{id:"91151",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanni Franco",middleName:null,surname:"Crosta",fullName:"Giovanni Franco Crosta",slug:"giovanni-franco-crosta"}]},{id:"43670",title:"Multilayered Wire Media: Generalized Additional Boundary Conditions and Applications",slug:"multilayered-wire-media-generalized-additional-boundary-conditions-and-applications",totalDownloads:1776,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Alexander B. Yakovlev, Yashwanth R. Padooru, George W. Hanson\nand Chandra S.R. Kaipa",authors:[{id:"110510",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:"B.",surname:"Yakovlev",fullName:"Alexander Yakovlev",slug:"alexander-yakovlev"},{id:"115422",title:"Mr.",name:"Yashwanth R.",middleName:null,surname:"Padooru",fullName:"Yashwanth R. Padooru",slug:"yashwanth-r.-padooru"},{id:"115423",title:"Prof.",name:"George W.",middleName:null,surname:"Hanson",fullName:"George W. Hanson",slug:"george-w.-hanson"},{id:"115424",title:"Mr.",name:"Chandra S. R.",middleName:null,surname:"Kaipa",fullName:"Chandra S. R. Kaipa",slug:"chandra-s.-r.-kaipa"}]},{id:"44942",title:"Progressive Failure Analysis of Glass/Epoxy Composites at Low Temperatures",slug:"progressive-failure-analysis-of-glass-epoxy-composites-at-low-temperatures",totalDownloads:6283,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Mohammad Amin Torabizadeh and Abdolhossein Fereidoon",authors:[{id:"161431",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Amin",middleName:null,surname:"Torabizadeh",fullName:"Mohammad Amin Torabizadeh",slug:"mohammad-amin-torabizadeh"}]},{id:"38878",title:"Materials Assessment and Process Characterization for Lead- Free Soldering",slug:"materials-assessment-and-process-characterization-for-lead-free-soldering",totalDownloads:2776,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Chien-Yi Huang, Chen-Liang Ku, Hao-Chun Hsieh, Ming-Shu Li,\nChia-Hsien Lee and Cheng-I Chang",authors:[{id:"52426",title:"Prof.",name:"Chien-Yi",middleName:"Jay",surname:"Huang",fullName:"Chien-Yi Huang",slug:"chien-yi-huang"}]},{id:"44944",title:"Tensile Mechanical Properties and Failure Behaviors of Friction Stir Processing (FSP) Modified Mg-Al-Zn and Dual-Phase Mg-Li-Al-Zn Alloys",slug:"tensile-mechanical-properties-and-failure-behaviors-of-friction-stir-processing-fsp-modified-mg-al-z",totalDownloads:4208,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Chung-Wei Yang",authors:[{id:"103467",title:"Prof.",name:"Chung-Wei",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",fullName:"Chung-Wei Yang",slug:"chung-wei-yang"}]},{id:"44964",title:"Photothermal Techniques in Material Characterization",slug:"photothermal-techniques-in-material-characterization",totalDownloads:1917,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Marios Nestoros",authors:[{id:"168092",title:"Dr.",name:"Marios",middleName:null,surname:"Nestoros",fullName:"Marios Nestoros",slug:"marios-nestoros"}]},{id:"38865",title:"Laser Soldering",slug:"laser-soldering",totalDownloads:5161,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Ezeonu Stella Ogochukwu",authors:[{id:"151874",title:"Dr.",name:"Stella",middleName:null,surname:"Ezeonu",fullName:"Stella Ezeonu",slug:"stella-ezeonu"}]},{id:"38577",title:"Automatic Optical Inspection of Soldering",slug:"automatic-optical-inspection-of-soldering",totalDownloads:10409,totalCrossrefCites:5,signatures:"Mihály Janóczki, Ákos Becker, László Jakab, Richárd Gróf and Tibor\nTakács",authors:[{id:"151695",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mihály",middleName:null,surname:"Janóczki",fullName:"Mihály Janóczki",slug:"mihaly-janoczki"},{id:"153071",title:"MSc.",name:"Ákos",middleName:null,surname:"Becker",fullName:"Ákos Becker",slug:"akos-becker"},{id:"153072",title:"Dr.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Jakab",fullName:"László Jakab",slug:"laszlo-jakab"},{id:"165112",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Richárd",middleName:null,surname:"Gróf",fullName:"Richárd Gróf",slug:"richard-grof"},{id:"165113",title:"MSc.",name:"Tibor",middleName:null,surname:"Takács",fullName:"Tibor Takács",slug:"tibor-takacs"}]},{id:"42651",title:"Computational Methods for Creation Materials with Required Composition and Structure",slug:"computational-methods-for-creation-materials-with-required-composition-and-structure",totalDownloads:1810,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Konstantin Borodianskiy and Michael Zinigrad",authors:[{id:"163197",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Zinigrad",fullName:"Michael Zinigrad",slug:"michael-zinigrad"},{id:"163362",title:"Dr.",name:"Konstantin",middleName:null,surname:"Borodianskiy",fullName:"Konstantin Borodianskiy",slug:"konstantin-borodianskiy"}]},{id:"40886",title:"New Approaches to Modeling Elastic Media",slug:"new-approaches-to-modeling-elastic-media",totalDownloads:1819,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"G. J. Martin, J. Hussan and M. McKubre-Jordens",authors:[{id:"161929",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Gaven",middleName:null,surname:"Martin",fullName:"Gaven Martin",slug:"gaven-martin"}]},{id:"44966",title:"Bamboo Based Biocomposites Material, Design and Applications",slug:"bamboo-based-biocomposites-material-design-and-applications",totalDownloads:13317,totalCrossrefCites:5,signatures:"S. Siti Suhaily, H.P.S. Abdul Khalil, W.O. Wan Nadirah and M. Jawaid",authors:[{id:"140848",title:"Prof.",name:"H.P.S.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdul Khalil",fullName:"H.P.S. Abdul Khalil",slug:"h.p.s.-abdul-khalil"},{id:"140857",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Jawaid",fullName:"Mohammad Jawaid",slug:"mohammad-jawaid"},{id:"167590",title:"Ms.",name:"S S",middleName:null,surname:"Suhaily",fullName:"S S Suhaily",slug:"s-s-suhaily"},{id:"167591",title:"Ms.",name:"W.O.",middleName:null,surname:"Wan Nadirah",fullName:"W.O. Wan Nadirah",slug:"w.o.-wan-nadirah"}]},{id:"44974",title:"Investigation of Subterranean Termites Nest Material Composition, Structure and Properties",slug:"investigation-of-subterranean-termites-nest-material-composition-structure-and-properties",totalDownloads:3206,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Petr Ptáček, Jiří Brandštetr, František Šoukal and Tomáš Opravil",authors:[{id:"76186",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Petr",middleName:null,surname:"Ptáček",fullName:"Petr Ptáček",slug:"petr-ptacek"},{id:"91076",title:"Dr.",name:"František",middleName:null,surname:"Šoukal",fullName:"František Šoukal",slug:"frantisek-soukal"},{id:"91078",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomáš",middleName:null,surname:"Opravil",fullName:"Tomáš Opravil",slug:"tomas-opravil"},{id:"91079",title:"Prof.",name:"Jiří",middleName:null,surname:"Brandštetr",fullName:"Jiří Brandštetr",slug:"jiri-brandstetr"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"2283",title:"Advances in Crystallization Processes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fbac03612cea22d52fd05bd8ebace89c",slug:"advances-in-crystallization-processes",bookSignature:"Yitzhak Mastai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2283.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"41724",title:"Prof.",name:"Yitzhak",surname:"Mastai",slug:"yitzhak-mastai",fullName:"Yitzhak Mastai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"36350",title:"Separation of the Mixtures of Chiral Compounds by Crystallization",slug:"separation-of-the-mixtures-of-chiral-compounds-by-crystallization",signatures:"Emese Pálovics, Ferenc Faigl and Elemér Fogassy",authors:[{id:"96278",title:"Prof.",name:"Elemér",middleName:null,surname:"Fogassy",fullName:"Elemér Fogassy",slug:"elemer-fogassy"}]},{id:"36351",title:"Crystallization on Self Assembled Monolayers",slug:"crystallization-on-self-assembled-monolayers",signatures:"Michal Ejgenberg and Yitzhak Mastai",authors:[{id:"41724",title:"Prof.",name:"Yitzhak",middleName:null,surname:"Mastai",fullName:"Yitzhak Mastai",slug:"yitzhak-mastai"},{id:"124203",title:"MSc.",name:"Michal",middleName:null,surname:"Ejgenberg",fullName:"Michal Ejgenberg",slug:"michal-ejgenberg"}]},{id:"36352",title:"Asymmetric Reaction Using Molecular Chirality Controlled by Spontaneous Crystallization",slug:"asymmetric-reaction-using-molecular-chirality-controlled-by-spontaneous-crystallization",signatures:"Masami Sakamoto and Takashi Mino",authors:[{id:"110949",title:"Prof.",name:"Masami",middleName:null,surname:"Sakamoto",fullName:"Masami Sakamoto",slug:"masami-sakamoto"}]},{id:"36353",title:"Preparation of Na+ Superionic Conductors by Crystallization of Glass",slug:"preparation-of-na-superionic-conductors-by-crystallization-of-glass",signatures:"Toshinori Okura",authors:[{id:"108080",title:"Prof.",name:"Toshinori",middleName:null,surname:"Okura",fullName:"Toshinori Okura",slug:"toshinori-okura"}]},{id:"36354",title:"Crystallization Kinetics of Metallic Glasses",slug:"crystallization-kinetics-of-metallic-glasses",signatures:"Arun Pratap and Ashmi T. Patel",authors:[{id:"101815",title:"Prof.",name:"Arun",middleName:"Ramashish Prasad",surname:"Pratap",fullName:"Arun Pratap",slug:"arun-pratap"},{id:"135433",title:"Mrs.",name:"Ashmi",middleName:null,surname:"Patel",fullName:"Ashmi Patel",slug:"ashmi-patel"}]},{id:"36355",title:"Crystallization Kinetics of Amorphous Materials",slug:"crystallization-kinetics-of-amorphous-materials",signatures:"Miray Çelikbilek, Ali Erçin Ersundu and Süheyla Aydın",authors:[{id:"104015",title:"Dr.",name:"Miray",middleName:null,surname:"Çelikbilek Ersundu",fullName:"Miray Çelikbilek Ersundu",slug:"miray-celikbilek-ersundu"},{id:"112542",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali Erçin",middleName:null,surname:"Ersundu",fullName:"Ali Erçin Ersundu",slug:"ali-ercin-ersundu"},{id:"112543",title:"Prof.",name:"Suheyla",middleName:null,surname:"Aydin",fullName:"Suheyla Aydin",slug:"suheyla-aydin"}]},{id:"36356",title:"Thermodynamics of Enthalpy Relaxation and Hole Formation of Polymer Glasses",slug:"thermodynamics-of-enthalpy-relaxation-and-hole-formation-of-polymer-glasses",signatures:"Nobuyuki Tanaka",authors:[{id:"106641",title:"Emeritus Prof.",name:"Nobuyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Tanaka",fullName:"Nobuyuki Tanaka",slug:"nobuyuki-tanaka"}]},{id:"36357",title:"Crystallization Behavior and Control of Amorphous Alloys",slug:"crystallization-behavior-and-control-of-amorphous-alloys",signatures:"Lai-Chang Zhang",authors:[{id:"49045",title:"Dr.",name:"Lai-Chang",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Lai-Chang Zhang",slug:"lai-chang-zhang"}]},{id:"36358",title:"Influence of Crystallization on the Properties of SnO2 Thin Films",slug:"influence-of-crystallization-on-the-properties-of-sno2-thin-films",signatures:"Daniya M. Mukhamedshina and Nurzhan B. Beisenkhanov",authors:[{id:"46955",title:"Prof.",name:"Nurzhan",middleName:"B.",surname:"Beisenkhanov",fullName:"Nurzhan Beisenkhanov",slug:"nurzhan-beisenkhanov"},{id:"112083",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniya",middleName:null,surname:"Mukhamedshina",fullName:"Daniya Mukhamedshina",slug:"daniya-mukhamedshina"}]},{id:"36359",title:"Crystallization of Sub-Micrometer Sized ZSM-5 Zeolites in SDA-Free Systems",slug:"crystallization-of-sub-micrometer-sized-zsm-5-zeolites-in-sda-free-systems",signatures:"Nan Ren, Boris Subotić and Josip Bronić",authors:[{id:"105664",title:"Dr.",name:"Nan",middleName:null,surname:"Ren",fullName:"Nan Ren",slug:"nan-ren"}]},{id:"36360",title:"The Growth of Chalcedony (Nanocrystalline Silica) in Electric Organs from Living Marine Fish",slug:"the-growth-of-chalcedony-nanocrystalline-silica-in-electric-organs-from-living-marine-fish",signatures:"María Prado Figueroa",authors:[{id:"109603",title:"Dr.",name:"María",middleName:null,surname:"Prado Figueroa",fullName:"María Prado Figueroa",slug:"maria-prado-figueroa"}]},{id:"36361",title:"Synthesis and Characterization of Crystalline Zirconium Titanate Obtained by Sol-Gel",slug:"synthesis-and-characterization-of-crystalline-zirconium-titanate-obtained-by-sol-gel",signatures:"Venina dos Santos and C.P. Bergmann",authors:[{id:"108148",title:"Dr.",name:"Venina",middleName:null,surname:"Dos Santos",fullName:"Venina Dos Santos",slug:"venina-dos-santos"}]},{id:"36362",title:"Characterization of Sol-Gel-Derived and Crystallized HfO2, ZrO2, ZrO2-Y2O3 Thin Films on Si(001) Wafers with High Dielectric Constant",slug:"characterization-of-sol-gel-derived-and-crystallized-hfo2-zro2-zro2-y2o3-thin-films-on-si-001-wafers",signatures:"Hirofumi Shimizu and Toshikazu Nishide",authors:[{id:"105633",title:"Dr.",name:"Hirofumi",middleName:null,surname:"Shimizu",fullName:"Hirofumi Shimizu",slug:"hirofumi-shimizu"}]},{id:"36363",title:"Crystalization in Spinel Ferrite Nanoparticles",slug:"crystalization-in-spinel-ferrite-nanoparticles",signatures:"Mahmoud Goodarz Naseri and Elias B. Saion",authors:[{id:"105650",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmoud",middleName:null,surname:"Goodarz Naseri",fullName:"Mahmoud Goodarz Naseri",slug:"mahmoud-goodarz-naseri"}]},{id:"36364",title:"Separation of Uranyl Nitrate HexahydrateCrystal from Dissolver Solution of IrradiatedFast Neutron Reactor Fuel",slug:"separation-of-uranyl-nitrate-hexahydratecrystal-from-dissolver-solution-of-irradiatedfast-neutron-re",signatures:"Masaumi Nakahara",authors:[{id:"102162",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaumi",middleName:null,surname:"Nakahara",fullName:"Masaumi Nakahara",slug:"masaumi-nakahara"}]},{id:"36365",title:"Stable and Metastable Phase Equilibriain the Salt-Water Systems",slug:"stable-and-metastable-phase-equilibriain-the-salt-water-systems",signatures:"Tianlong Deng",authors:[{id:"105191",title:"Prof.",name:"Tianlong",middleName:null,surname:"Deng",fullName:"Tianlong Deng",slug:"tianlong-deng"}]},{id:"36366",title:'"Salt Weathering" Distress on Concrete by Sulfates?',slug:"-salt-weathering-distress-on-concrete-by-sulfates-",signatures:"Zanqun Liu, Geert De Schutter, Dehua Deng and Zhiwu Yu",authors:[{id:"115811",title:"Dr.",name:"Zanqun",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Zanqun Liu",slug:"zanqun-liu"}]},{id:"36367",title:"Crystallization, Alternation and Recrystallization of Sulphates",slug:"crystallization-alternation-and-recrystallization-of-sulphates",signatures:"Jaworska Joanna",authors:[{id:"112602",title:"Dr.",name:"Joanna",middleName:null,surname:"Jaworska",fullName:"Joanna Jaworska",slug:"joanna-jaworska"}]},{id:"36368",title:"Synthetic Methods for Perovskite Materials; Structure and Morphology",slug:"synthetic-methods-for-perovskite-materials-structure-and-morphology",signatures:"Ana Ecija, Karmele Vidal, Aitor Larrañaga, Luis Ortega-San-Martín and María Isabel Arriortua",authors:[{id:"108723",title:"Dr.",name:"Aitor",middleName:null,surname:"Larrañaga",fullName:"Aitor Larrañaga",slug:"aitor-larraaaga"},{id:"136538",title:"Mrs.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Ecija",fullName:"Ana Ecija",slug:"ana-ecija"},{id:"136539",title:"Dr.",name:"Karmele",middleName:null,surname:"Vidal",fullName:"Karmele Vidal",slug:"karmele-vidal"},{id:"136540",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Ortega-San-Martín",fullName:"Luis Ortega-San-Martín",slug:"luis-ortega-san-martin"},{id:"136541",title:"Prof.",name:"María Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Arriortua",fullName:"María Isabel Arriortua",slug:"maria-isabel-arriortua"}]},{id:"36369",title:"Phase Behavior and Crystal Structure of Binary Polycyclic Aromatic Compound Mixtures",slug:"phase-behavior-and-crystal-structure-of-binary-polycyclic-aromatic-compound-mixtures",signatures:"Jinxia Fu, James W. Rice and Eric M. Suuberg",authors:[{id:"106590",title:"Ms.",name:"Jinxia",middleName:null,surname:"Fu",fullName:"Jinxia Fu",slug:"jinxia-fu"},{id:"107884",title:"Dr.",name:"James",middleName:null,surname:"Rice",fullName:"James Rice",slug:"james-rice"},{id:"107885",title:"Prof.",name:"Eric",middleName:null,surname:"Suuberg",fullName:"Eric Suuberg",slug:"eric-suuberg"}]},{id:"36370",title:"Structure of Pure Aluminum After Endogenous and Exogenous Inoculation",slug:"structure-of-pure-aluminum-after-endogenous-and-exogenous-inoculation",signatures:"Tomasz Wrobel",authors:[{id:"105943",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Wróbel",fullName:"Tomasz Wróbel",slug:"tomasz-wrobel"}]},{id:"36371",title:"Phosphoramidates: Molecular Packing and Hydrogen Bond Strength in Compounds Having a P(O)(N)n(O)3-n (n = 1, 2, 3) Skeleton",slug:"phosphoramidates-molecular-packing-and-hydrogen-bond-strength-in-compounds-having-a-p-o-n-n-o-3-n-n-",signatures:"Mehrdad Pourayoubi, Fahimeh Sabbaghi, Vladimir Divjakovic and Atekeh Tarahhomi",authors:[{id:"105649",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehrdad",middleName:null,surname:"Pourayoubi",fullName:"Mehrdad Pourayoubi",slug:"mehrdad-pourayoubi"},{id:"113179",title:"Dr.",name:"Fahimeh",middleName:null,surname:"Sabbaghi",fullName:"Fahimeh Sabbaghi",slug:"fahimeh-sabbaghi"},{id:"113180",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Divjakovic",fullName:"Vladimir Divjakovic",slug:"vladimir-divjakovic"},{id:"113181",title:"Dr.",name:"Atekeh",middleName:null,surname:"Tarahhomi",fullName:"Atekeh Tarahhomi",slug:"atekeh-tarahhomi"}]},{id:"36372",title:"Synthesis and X-Ray Crystal Structure of α-Keggin-Type Aluminum-Substituted Polyoxotungstate",slug:"synthesis-and-x-ray-crystal-structure-of-keggin-type-aluminum-substituted-polyoxotungstate",signatures:"Chika Nozaki Kato, Yuki Makino, Mikio Yamasaki, Yusuke Kataoka, Yasutaka Kitagawa and Mitsutaka Okumura",authors:[{id:"105189",title:"Dr.",name:"Chika",middleName:"Nozaki",surname:"Kato",fullName:"Chika Kato",slug:"chika-kato"}]},{id:"36373",title:"The Diffusion Model of Grown-In Microdefects Formation During Crystallization of Dislocation-Free Silicon Single Crystals",slug:"the-diffusion-model-of-grown-in-microdefects-formation-during-crystallization-of-dislocation-free-si",signatures:"V. I. Talanin and I. E. Talanin",authors:[{id:"103029",title:"Prof.",name:"Vitalyi Igorevich",middleName:null,surname:"Talanin",fullName:"Vitalyi Igorevich Talanin",slug:"vitalyi-igorevich-talanin"},{id:"103031",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor Evgenievich",middleName:null,surname:"Talanin",fullName:"Igor Evgenievich Talanin",slug:"igor-evgenievich-talanin"}]},{id:"36374",title:"Preparation of Carvedilol Spherical Crystals Having Solid Dispersion Structure by the Emulsion Solvent Diffusion Method and Evaluation of Its in vitro Characteristics",slug:"preparation-of-carvedilol-spherical-crystals-having-solid-dispersion-structure-by-the-emulsion-solve",signatures:"Amit R. Tapas, Pravin S. Kawtikwar and Dinesh M. Sakarkar",authors:[{id:"102210",title:"Dr.",name:"Amit",middleName:null,surname:"Tapas",fullName:"Amit Tapas",slug:"amit-tapas"},{id:"119003",title:"Dr.",name:"Pravin",middleName:null,surname:"Kawtikwar",fullName:"Pravin Kawtikwar",slug:"pravin-kawtikwar"},{id:"119005",title:"Dr.",name:"Dinesh",middleName:null,surname:"Sakarkar",fullName:"Dinesh Sakarkar",slug:"dinesh-sakarkar"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"71845",title:"Strengthening of High-Alloy Steel through Innovative Heat Treatment Routes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91874",slug:"strengthening-of-high-alloy-steel-through-innovative-heat-treatment-routes",body:'
1. Introduction
Steel, because of its numerous applications, is the most important material among any engineering materials. It is mostly used in tools, automobiles, buildings, infrastructure, machines, ships, trains, appliances, etc., due to its low cost and high tensile strength. Primarily, steel is an alloy of iron and carbon, along with some other elements. The prime material of steel is iron. Iron is commonly found in the Earth’s crust in the form of ore, generally an iron oxide, i.e., magnetite or hematite. The extraction of iron from iron ore is done by removing oxygen and then reacting it with carbon to form carbon dioxide. This process is called smelting. Iron has the ability to have two crystalline forms, i.e., face-centered cubic (FCC) and body-centered cubic (BCC), depending on the operation temperature. Fe-C mixture is also added with other elements to produce steel with enhanced properties. Manganese and nickel (Ni) in steel are added to increase its tensile strength and promote stable austenite phase in Fe-C solution, chromium (Cr) increases hardness and melting temperature, and titanium (Ti), vanadium (V), and niobium (Nb) also increase the hardness. There are two types of steel depending on the alloying elements. If the alloying elements are above 10%, it is referred to as high-alloy steel, and in case of alloying element with 5–10%, it is referred to as medium-alloy steel. If the alloying element in the steel is below 5%, it is called low-alloy steel. The density of steel varies from 7.1 to 8.05 g/cm3 according to the alloying constituents.
When 0.8% of carbon-contained steels (identified as a eutectoid steel) are cooled, austenitic phase (FCC) of the combination tries to revert to the ferrite phase (BCC). The carbon is no longer contained in the FCC austenite structure, which causes excess of carbon. The alternative method to remove carbon from austenite is the precipitation of the solution like cementite and parting behind a neighboring phase of ferrite BCC iron with small quantity of carbon. A layered structure called pearlite is produced when the two, ferrite and cementite, precipitate at the same time. In case of hypereutectoid composition (>0.8% carbon), the carbon will predominantly precipitate out in the form of large inclusions of cementite on the austenite grain boundaries until the amount of carbon in the grains has reduced to the eutectoid composition (0.8% carbon), at which stage the pearlite formation takes place. For steels that have less than 0.8% carbon (called hypoeutectoid), it results in ferrite formation initially in the grains unless the residual content reaches 0.8%, at which stage pearlite formation takes place. No bulky cementite inclusion occurs in the boundaries in hypoeutectoid steel. The cooling process is assumed to be very slow due to the above reasons, hence letting adequate time for the transmission of carbon. Increased rate of cooling does not allow the carbon to migrate for the formation of carbide in the grain boundaries. Rather it will form large amount of finer structure pearlite; hence the carbide is further extensively dispersed and performs to prevent slip of defects inside those grains, ensuing in hardening of the steel. At very high rate of cooling, the carbon has no time to transfer; as a result it is confined inside the austenite and transforms to martensite. The martensite phase is the supersaturated type of carbon, the most strained as well as stressed phase which is exceptionally hard although brittle. Considering the carbon content, the martensite phase obtains various forms. Carbon below 0.2% obtains a ferrite (BCC) form, whereas at higher level of carbon, it acquires a body-centered tetragonal (BCT) structure. Thermal activation energy is not acquired for the conversion from austenite into martensite.
Martensite has a lesser density (as it expands at the time of cooling) than austenite does. As a result the conversion among them consequences a variation in amount. During the above process, growth occurs. Internal stresses as of this growth usually acquire the compressed crystal form of martensite and elongated form on the left over ferrite, along with a significant quantity of shear on the constituents. When quenching is not appropriately done, it can cause crack on cooling due to the internal stresses in a part. They cause interior work hardening and other microscopic imperfections. It is ordinary for quench cracks to appear when steel is water quenched, even though they may not always be visible.
2. Role of major alloying element in steel
2.1 Carbon
The carbon steels are composed of carbon and iron by means of carbon up to 2.1 wt%. At the same time, when the carbon content increases, steel has the capability to become harder as well as stronger by heat treating, though it undergoes less ductility. In spite of heat treatment, a higher carbon content also decreases weldability. In carbon steels, the higher carbon content lowers the melting point.
The classifications of carbon steel are on the basis of carbon content:
Low-carbon steel: carbon wt% is in the range of 0.05–0.30 (called plain carbon steel) [1].
Medium-carbon steel: 0.3–0.6% is the approximate carbon content [1]. It helps in balancing ductility and strength and also has superior wear resistance; it is used in automobiles [2, 3].
High-carbon steel: carbon content lies from 0.60 to 1.00% [1]. It has very high strength and is used for tools, edged tools, springs, and wires [4].
Ultrahigh-carbon steel: it has carbon% between 1.25 and 2.0 [1]. It can be tempered to immense hardness. It is used in various purposes like axles, punches, or knives.
2.2 Detailed study of low- and high-carbon steel
2.2.1 Mild- or low-carbon steel
Mild steel, well known as plain carbon, is at present the common variety of steel as it is cost-effective and offers material properties for a lot of applications. It contains carbon wt% in the range of 0.05–0.30, building it more malleable and ductile. It has comparatively low tensile strength, other than being contemptible and simple to produce; surface hardness can be improved by carburizing. Due to its ductile nature, the failure from yielding is less risky, so it is best applicable (e.g., structural steel). The density of mild or low steel is ~7.85 g/cm3 [5] and Young’s modulus is ~200 GPa [6]. Low-carbon steels include a smaller amount of carbon than other steels and are easy to handle as it is more deformable.
2.2.2 Higher-carbon steels
Carbon steels that successfully experience heat treatment contain carbon in between 0.30 and 1.70 wt%. The impurities of different elements also have a considerable consequence on the superiority of the ensuing steel. Small amount of sulfur content makes steel brittle and crumble on operational temperatures. Manganese is added to enhance the hardenability of the steels. The name “carbon steel” can be employed in terms of the steel that is not stainless steel; in addition to it, carbon steel can be involved in alloy steels. Current modern steels are prepared with various mixtures of alloying elements to execute in various applications. The steel is alloyed along with additional elements, typically manganese, molybdenum (Mo), nickel, or chromium up to 10 wt%, in order to develop the hardenability. High-strength low-alloy steel has small additions (<2 wt%) of added elements, usually 1.5 wt% manganese, to offer extra strength.
3. Alloying elements and their effects on steels
Alloy steel reflects a category of steel facilitated with the addition of different elements. In general, all steels are referred to as alloy steel, while the plain steel is composed of iron added up to 2.06 wt% carbon. However, the term “alloy steel” commonly refers to steels that are alloyed with elements other than carbon. The total wt% of the alloying elements can be up to 20% to provide the material enhanced properties like better wear resistance, strength, or ductility. Low-alloyed steels are distinguished by their lower content of alloys with total content below 5%, whereas in the case of high-alloyed steel, the total sum of elements can be in the range of 5–20%, with improved properties. Apart from the above alloyed steels, there are even unalloyed steels that carry very small quantity of alloys. High-alloyed steel contributes to high strength, toughness, hardness, and creep resistance at specific heat treatment temperature. It also advances machinability and corrosion resistance. In addition, it even strengthens the properties of other alloying elements.
3.1 Austenite-stabilizing alloying element
The accumulation of certain alloying elements, such as manganese and nickel, can stabilize the austenitic structure, facilitating heat treatment of low-alloy steels. In the extreme case of austenitic stainless steel, much higher alloy content makes this structure stable even at room temperature. On the other hand, such elements as silicon, molybdenum, and chromium tend to destabilize austenite, raising the eutectoid temperature.
Austenite is only stable above 910°C (1670°F) in bulk metal form. However, FCC transition metals can be grown on a face-centered cubic or diamond cubic [7]. The epitaxial growth of austenite on the diamond (100) face is feasible because of the close lattice match, and the symmetry of the diamond (100) face is FCC. More than a monolayer of γ-iron can be grown because the critical thickness for the strained multilayer is greater than a monolayer [7]. The determined critical thickness is in close agreement with theoretical prediction.
As the names suggest, austenite stabilizers are elements, which make austenite (of iron) stable at lower temperature, that would occur in pure iron. With enough amount of austenite stabilizer, you can have austenite stable at room temperature. Effectively, they decrease the austenitizing temperature of iron, in the Fe-C diagram.
Examples: Mn, Ni, C etc.
Manganese: in alloy steel, manganese is typically used in combination with sulfur and phosphorus. Manganese helps reduce brittleness and improves forgeability, tensile strength, and resistance to wear. Manganese reacts with sulfur, resulting in manganese sulfides which prevent the formation of iron sulfides. Manganese is also added for better hardenability as it leads to slower quenching rates in hardening techniques. Excess oxygen can be removed in molten steel by using manganese.
Nickel: austenitic stainless steels are most known for their high content in nickel and chromium. It is used to increase strength, hardness, impact toughness, and corrosion resistance. Nickel-alloyed steels are often found in combination with chromium, resulting in an even higher hardness.
3.2 Ferrite-stabilizing alloying element
By decreasing eutectoid composition and increasing eutectoid temperature, ferrite stabilizers are the elements which stabilize ferrite phase. Cr and Si are examples for ferrite stabilizers. Ferrite stabilizers are also called carbide former element. Stabilizing ferrite decreases the temperature range, in which austenite exists.
The elements, with the same crystal structure as that of ferrite (body-centered cubic—BCC), increase the A3 temperature and lower the A4 point. An increase in the amount of carbides in the steel is caused by decreasing the solubility of carbon in austenite by these elements. The following elements have ferrite-stabilizing effect: chromium, tungsten (W), aluminum (Al), molybdenum, silicon, and vanadium. Examples of ferritic steels are transformer sheet steel (3% Si) and F-Cr alloys.
Chromium: chromium is one of the most common alloying metals for steel because of its high hardness and corrosion resistance. Pure chromium is a gray, brittle, and hard metal with a melting point of 1907°C (3465°F) and a high-temperature resistance. In steel, hardenability is increased by the alloying chromium. Higher chromium contents up to 18% result in enhanced corrosion resistance. For example, stainless steel, which is one of the most popular steel alloys, uses at least 10.5% chromium, enhancing its resistance against water, heat, or corrosion damage. Chromium oxide does not spread and fall away from the material in contrast to iron oxide in unprotected carbon steel. It creates a film of dense chromium oxide on the surface that blocks out any further corrosion attacks.
Molybdenum: it is a silvery-white metal that is ductile and highly resistant to corrosion. It has one of the highest melting points of all pure elements—together with the elements tantalum (Ta) and tungsten. Molybdenum is also a micronutrient essential for life.
3.3 Carbide-forming alloying elements
Carbide-forming elements form hard carbides in steels. Steel hardness and strength are increased by hard (often complex) carbides formed by the elements like tungsten, niobium, molybdenum, chromium, vanadium, titanium, zirconium (Zr), and tantalum. Examples of steels containing relatively high concentration of carbides are high-speed steel and shot work tool steels. During reaction with nitrogen in steel, carbide-forming elements also form nitrides.
Tungsten is a rare metal found naturally on the Earth almost exclusively combined with other elements in chemical compounds rather than alone. It was identified as a new element in 1781 and first isolated as a metal in 1783. Its important ores include wolframite and scheelite.
The free element is remarkable for its robustness, especially the fact that it has the highest melting point of all the elements discovered, at 3422°C (6192°F, 3695 K). It also has the highest boiling point, at 5930°C (10,706°F, 6203 K). Its density is 19.25 times that of water, comparable to that of uranium and gold, and much higher (about 1.7 times) than that of lead. Polycrystalline tungsten is an intrinsically brittle and hard material (under standard conditions, when uncombined), making it difficult to work. However, pure single-crystalline tungsten is more ductile and can be cut with a hard steel.
4. Evolution of high-alloy steel
Alloy steel is added with a choice of elements in total amounts between 10 and 50 wt% to expand its mechanical properties. Alloyed steels are categorized into two groups: low- and high-alloy steels. The simplest form of steel is iron with carbon alloy (~0.1–1%). Common alloying elements comprise manganese (the most frequent one), chromium, nickel, molybdenum, silicon, aluminum, vanadium, titanium, niobium, and boron (B). Alloyed steels have improved properties such as strength, hardenability, toughness, hardness, wear resistance, corrosion resistance, and hot hardness [8]. To achieve these better-quality properties, the metal may require various heat treatment processes. Several of these are utilized in highly requiring applications, like in the turbine blades used in jet engines, in nuclear reactor, in spacecraft, etc. Iron, owing to its ferromagnetic nature, discovers major applications wherever the response to magnetism is important, like in transformers and electric motors.
4.1 Categorization of alloy steel and their heat treatments
Alloy steels are categorized into low- and high-alloy steels. High-alloy steels would be more than 10 wt% of alloying elements in steel groups [1, 5, 8, 9]. The majority of alloy steels lie under the group of low alloy. The most common alloy elements include chromium, manganese, nickel, molybdenum, vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, boron, and copper.
4.1.1 Low-alloy steel
Low-alloy steels are a group of ferrous materials that show improved mechanical properties compared to plain carbon steels, because of the alloying elements such as nickel, molybdenum and chromium. Through the development of specific alloys, low-alloy steel provides desired mechanical properties. Microstructure consists of ferrite and pearlite. Its properties are relatively soft and weak, although they have high ductility and toughness. Its various applications are auto-body components, structural shapes, sheets, etc. [2, 3, 5, 6, 10, 11, 12].
Some of the compositions of low-alloy steels are the following:
Cr 0.50% or 0.80% or 0.95%, Mo 0.12% or 0.20% or 0.25% or 0.30%, rest Fe
Mo 0.20% or 0.25% or 0.25% Mo or 0.042% S, rest Fe
Mo 0.40% or 0.52% C, rest Fe Ni 1.82%, Cr 0.50% to 0.80%, Mo 0.25% Cu, rest Fe Several low-alloy steels underwent normalizing and tempering in the manufacturing industries; however there is an increase affinity to a quenching and tempering action. Low-alloy steels are weldable, but pre-welding or post-welding heat treatment is essential to evade weld zone cracking issues.
4.1.2 High-alloy steels
In high-alloy steel, the entire alloying element content is above 10 wt%. In stainless steels, the principally alloying element is Cr (≥11 wt%). It is greatly resistant to corrosion. Nickel and molybdenum addition adds to corrosion resistance. An important property of the highly alloyed steel is the capability of alloying elements to promote the creation of a certain multiple phases and stabilize it. These elements are grouped into four major classes as discussed in the previous section: (1) austenite-forming, (2) ferrite-forming, and (3) carbide-forming.
Some varieties of the high-alloy steels are the following:
Stainless steels: Fe-18Cr-8Ni-1Mn-0.1C characteristically is γ-alloy. It stabilizes austenite for its rising temperature range, where austenite subsists. It elevates the austenite-forming temperature (A1) and reduces the A3 temperature. Mostly, this type of steels underwent solution annealing type of heat treatment primarily specified for austenitic stainless steels. The main requirement for this treatment is to dissolve all the precipitated phases, mainly chromium-rich carbides, where the precipitate of M23C6 occurs in the range of 673–1173 K. For other stainless steels, it is recommended to maintain the solution annealing temperature in the range of 1273–1393 K.
Tool steel: it provides necessary hardness with simpler heat treatment and retains hardness at high temperature. The primary alloying elements are Mo, W, and Cr. These elements have wear resistance, high strength, and toughness but have low ductility. One of the primary heat treatments provided for tool steel is tempering that requires cautious preparation. Various complex tool steels like the high-speed steel need twice over tempering to convert austenite to martensite completely. High-speed steel (18 wt%W, 4 wt%Cr, 1 wt%V, 0.7 wt%C, 5–8 wt%Co, rest Fe) suits best for high-speed machining purpose, owing to secondary hardening. Besides, high-temperature annealing is performed with majorly ferritic structure to achieve a maximum bending strength of 4700 MPa. These types of steels achieve utmost hardness after first tempering, which is followed by second tempering that lowers the hardness to the desired working level. In some cases, the third temper is needed for secondary hardening of steels to make sure that some new martensite produced as a consequence of austenite conversion in tempering is efficiently tempered. This is a subject of individual selection and includes minimum extra cost.
High-entropy alloy steel: the essential elements of the high-entropy steels are Fe, Co, Ni, Cr, Cu, and Al. The cast microstructure expands from FCC to BCC phase along with the increase in Al content. The hardness in BCC phase is greater than FCC phase; in addition to it, the corrosion resistance is also superior in BCC phase. Some of the high-entropy alloy steels like Al-Fe-Cr-Co-Ni-Ti alloy coating was equipped by laser cladding, and the effects of annealing temperature (873, 1073, and 1473 K) on structure and its properties were studied. The consequences illustrate that the intermetallic precipitation compounds in the coating are efficiently repressed through laser cladding by means of fast solidification, and the microstructure of the coating forms dendrite structure of BCC, having superior hardness (~698 HV). As a result, the grain size of the coating rises somewhat, and the microhardness reduces slightly, following various annealing temperatures at a range of 1073–1373 K. This specifies that the elevated temperature stability of the structure and microhardness of the coating are superior. Al and Fe are improved in dendritic boundary, while Co, Ni, Ti, and Cr are enhanced in interdendritic boundary. In addition, the degree of segregation rises with the enhancement of annealing temperature.
Twinning-induced plasticity (TWIP) steel: in TWIP steel (>20 wt%Mn, <1 wt%C, <3 wt%Si, <3 wt%Al, rest Fe) high-temperature thermomechanical heat treatment provides a strength greater than1000 MPa. The examination of the solution heat treatment of hot-rolled TWIP steel of the three various compositions (Fe-30Mn-3Si3Al, Fe-25Mn-4Si-2Al, and Fe-30Mn-4Si-2Al) reflected that prolonging the time of holding temperature can enhance the elongation through no change observed in strength. Prolonging the holding time facilitates both the production of additional annealing twins to amplify their areas of boundary and the boost in the number of twin boundaries that are favorable for the corrosion resistance creep and fracture.
Hadfield steel: in Hadfield steel (11–14 wt%Mn, 1–1.4 wt%C), a fully austenitic phase is obtained with a strength level of 1000 MPa. High-alloy tool steel (5 wt%Mo, 6 wt%W, 4 wt%Cr, 0.3 wt%Si, 1 wt%V, rest Fe) is provided with austenitizing, quenching, and tempering treatment to achieve a maximum hardness of 1200–1400 HV. The heat treatment processing of Hadfield manganese steel means dissolving the carbide precipitates at higher temperature, followed by fast cooling to attain austenitic carbide-free grains which is desired to be the preferred microstructure for the commercial applications.
5. Innovative heat treatment (processing)-structure–property correlation in high-alloy steel
High-temperature homogenization, complete annealing, normalizing, tempering, etc. are the usual methods in heat treatment process of steel. But there are certain modified ways of processing routes in order to enhance the mechanical properties [13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31]. The main objective of heat treatment in steel is to upgrade the mechanical properties like strength, toughness, impact resistance, etc. It is to be noted that thermal and electrical conductivities are changed to some extent, whereas Young’s modulus remains unchanged. Iron has a better solubility for carbon in the austenitic phase, so the steel is heated at which the austenite phase persists.
Some of the newly introduced high-alloyed steels like TWIP steel show excellent mechanical properties, depending on the adoption of advanced heat treatment processes. In some processes the fabricated steels are first homogenized to ~1373 K for 1 hour, followed by hot rolling at 1273 K. The steels are then cooled in the furnace and then rolled at room temperature (as shown in Figure 1). Due to the above heat treatment, the presence of duplex phases of austenite and ferrite is observed. The rolling effect contributes in grain size reduction and hence helps in enhancing the strength of the steel. Additionally, due to the high-temperature rolling, there is also an occurrence of twins on the austenitic grains that also increases the strength of the metal. The above modification in the microstructure resulted in the improved tensile properties with 1000 MPa ultimate tensile strength and up to 60% elongation [13].
Figure 1.
Illustrating the processing routes of TWIP steel.
Recently, Mazaheri et al. suggested a cold rolling, followed by various intercritical annealing techniques for the production of ultimate ultrarefined-grained steel [22]. The microstructure contains ferrite-martensite duplex steel with excellent mechanical properties. In this processing route, the fabricated steel was first heated to austenitizing temperature, i.e., 880°C for 1 hour. Then it was annealed intercritically at ~770°C for 100 minutes trailed by water quenching (as shown in Figure 2). The steel was water cooled to acquire the desired microstructure of ferrite and martensite structures, and on further annealing the aimed ultrafined-grained microstructure was achieved. The achieved strength (UTS) is ~1600 MPa with 30% elongation [13].
Figure 2.
Thermomechanical processing routes of dual-phase steel.
The temperature of deformation also plays a vital role in influencing the refinement of the microstructure through hot deformation. In Figure 3a the martensitic phase is dominated, resulting in ultrafined grains due to dynamic recrystallization (DRX) of ferrite grains. In the processing of steel as shown in Figure 3b, the martensitic content is above 30% which contributes to the strength of the steel by the varying the degree of deformation. As compared to the routes of Figure 3a and b with Figure 3c, the DRX is not necessary for the formation of ultrafined grains; the warm temperature deformation followed by intercritical annealing can also result in the formation of similar structure. Therefore, the warm rolling and high rate of intercritical annealing and high rate of cooling significantly affect the microstructural properties of the steel.
Figure 3.
Various heat treatment processes owing to different ways of thermomechanical treatments in steel.
There are various strengthening mechanisms affecting the strength of the steel. By following specific thermomechanical treatment, the occurrence of twins enhances the strength of the steel. Twinning-induced plasticity steels are FCC crystal-structured steels. The appearance of the crystallographic twins greatly depends on the stacking fault energy (SFE), and the SFE of the steel is controlled by the rate of heating treatment. Temperature is directly proportional to SFE. Low SFE (below 20 mJ/m2) results in the conversion of austenite to martensite (i.e., TRIP effect), whereas high SFE (above 20 mJ/m2) gives TWIP effect (formation of twins). The dislocation generated during the deformation is obstructed by the twins and, therefore, increases the strength of the steel [32, 33].
Thus by adopting this technique, the microstructural modification takes place by the combined effect of mechanical and thermal energy. There are also iterative thermomechanical processes where percent of deformation is applied prior to heat treatment (Table 1). This process also contributes to the resistance of corrosion with respect to the orientation of the grain [3, 14, 21, 23].
Steel type
Maximum forging temperature (°C)
Burning temperature (°C)
Carbon steel
1200
1349
Nickel steel
1249
1380
Chromium steel
1200
1370
Nickel-chromium steel
1249
1370
Stainless steel
1280
1380
TWIP steel
1200
1350
High-speed steel
1280
1400
Table 1.
Various steels corresponding to different ranges of deformation temperature.
The above heat treatments are aimed to enhance the specific properties of the high-alloyed steel to get rid of unwanted properties. Some of the microstructures evolved during processing are given in Figure 4.
Figure 4.
Various microstructures of high-alloy steels.
The behavior of steel in exterior load describes its mechanical properties. Plastic deformations are supported by the movement of dislocation and the presence of twins, and precipitates hinder the motion of dislocations and thereby increase the strength of the steel. Mechanical properties are associated with the yield stress, separating the elastic and plastic regions, where the activity of dislocation extends [15, 16, 17, 30, 31, 32]. Pinning of dislocations by random obstruction is controlled by the misfit and size of the particles. In general, larger SFE promotes dislocation gliding, which enables the dislocation to move freely. On the other hand, the smaller SFE increases the area between the two partials, thereby making the motion of dislocation difficult and resulting in the piling up of dislocation. For the duration of the dislocation union, the partials must reconnect to prevail over the obstruction [30, 31, 32, 33, 34]. The opposition of steel to plastic deformation reduces with rising SFE, and for this reason the SFE should be lowered to reinforce the strength. Based on the observation, SFE is regulated by alloyed elements in the steel for preferred enhanced properties like strength, hardness, or rate of work hardening.
6. Application of high-alloy steel
High-alloy steels have vast applications such as:
Stainless steel: it has excellent corrosion properties and is used in structural applications, refrigerator, freezers, food packaging, etc.
Tool steel: used in dies, shear blade, rollers, cutting tools, etc.
TWIP steel: used in automobiles, ship building, infrastructure, railways, aircrafts, etc.
High-entropy steel: used as structural material in low-temperature applications due to its high toughness.
Hadfield steel: used in railways, structural applications, shafts, gears, housing, cables, etc.
High-speed steel: used as cutting tool materials due to its high hardness like drilling machine, blades, etc.
7. Conclusions
High-alloyed steels are complex alloys, along with desired chemical composition and multiple phased microstructures through various heat treatment processes. Various strengthening mechanisms through controlled heat treatment techniques are adopted to achieve excellent mechanical properties. The chapter examines the advanced methods used in the field of heat treatment routes for high-alloyed steel and focuses on their structure-property relation. The high-alloy steels acquire its enhanced mechanical properties from the modified microstructures of austenite, ferrite, martensite, and some carbides. Ferrite and austenite provide the formability, whereas martensite provides strength to the steel in addition to the low-temperature transforming phases like bainite and retained austenite to achieve better combinations of mechanical properties. The advanced thermomechanical treatments used for high-alloy steels aim to explore the possible phases that contribute to the mechanical properties. In thermomechanical routes aims on heat treatment as the microstructural qualities required for the steels are mainly achieved by post-deformation controlled heat treatment processes. From the above discussions, it can be concluded that the microstructure and its properties are based on variation in chemical composition and processing conditions. Determined by latest demands for the performance of the high-alloy steel in various applications, the progress of thermomechanical processing is introduced.
8. Futuristic development of high-alloy steel
High-alloy steel has undergone significant evolution through time. Around 70% is used in various applications. These steels are highly demanding as they display various environmental, chemical, physical, and mechanical properties. Here the different proportions of alloying element in steel provide various mechanical properties. As can be seen from the foregoing, high-alloy steel plays an important role in the building and construction industries as well as in automotive industries. High-alloy steel offers economy, high performance, corrosion resistance, high strength, durability, lightweight and high performance under extreme conditions, and its wide variety of products for desirable applications.
\n',keywords:"high alloy steel, heat treatment, strengthening mechanism, mechanical properties",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/71845.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/71845.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71845",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71845",totalDownloads:126,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"November 13th 2019",dateReviewed:"February 24th 2020",datePrePublished:"April 20th 2020",datePublished:"January 14th 2021",dateFinished:"April 20th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Heat treatment route is an important route for the development of high-strength alloy steel. Many heat treatment processes are applied depending on alloy compositions and desired mechanical properties. There are various high-strength alloy steels, namely, austenitic stainless steel (16–26 wt%Cr, 0.07–0.15 wt%C, 8–10 wt%Ni, rest Fe), where the heat treatment adopted is the low-temperature plasma nitriding so as to achieve a strength in a range of 800–1000 MPa. In twinning-induced plasticity (TWIP) steel (>20 wt%Mn, <1 wt%C, <3 wt%Si, <3 wt%Al, rest Fe), high-temperature thermomechanical heat treatment provides a strength greater than 1000 MPa. High-speed steel (18 wt%W, 4 wt%Cr, 1 wt%V, 0.7 wt%C, 5–8 wt%Co, rest Fe) suits best for high-speed machining purpose, owing to secondary hardening. Besides, high-temperature annealing is performed with majorly ferritic structure to achieve a maximum bending strength of 4700 MPa. Furthermore, in Hadfield steel (11–14 wt%Mn, 1–1.4 wt%C), a fully austenitic phase is obtained with a strength level of 1000 MPa. High-alloy tool steel (5 wt%Mo, 6 wt%W, 4 wt%Cr, 0.3 wt%Si, 1 wt%V, rest Fe) is provided with austenitizing, quenching, and tempering treatment to achieve a maximum hardness of 1200–1400 HV.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/71845",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/71845",signatures:"Nicky Kisku",book:{id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",fullTitle:"Welding - Modern Topics",slug:"welding-modern-topics",publishedDate:"January 14th 2021",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"315275",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nicky",middleName:null,surname:"Kisku",fullName:"Nicky Kisku",slug:"nicky-kisku",email:"kiskunicky@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Role of major alloying element in steel",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Carbon",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Detailed study of low- and high-carbon steel",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.2.1 Mild- or low-carbon steel",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.2.2 Higher-carbon steels",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Alloying elements and their effects on steels",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.1 Austenite-stabilizing alloying element",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.2 Ferrite-stabilizing alloying element",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.3 Carbide-forming alloying elements",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. Evolution of high-alloy steel",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.1 Categorization of alloy steel and their heat treatments",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"4.1.1 Low-alloy steel",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"4.1.2 High-alloy steels",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15",title:"5. Innovative heat treatment (processing)-structure–property correlation in high-alloy steel",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"6. Application of high-alloy steel",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"7. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"8. Futuristic development of high-alloy steel",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Degarmo EP, Black JT, Kohser RA. Materials and Processes in Manufacturing. 10th ed. United States of America: Wiley; 2007. pp. 150-155'},{id:"B2",body:'Subramanyam DK, Grube GW, Chapin JH. Austenitic Manganese Steel Castings. 9th ed. United States of America: ASM Metals Handbook; 1985. pp. 251-256'},{id:"B3",body:'Sun B, Aydin H, Fazeli F, Yue S. Microstructure evolution of a medium Mn steel during thermomechanical processing. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A. 2016;47:1782-1791'},{id:"B4",body:'Grassel O, Kruger L, Frommeyer G, Meyer LW. High strength Fe-Mn- (Al, Si) steel. International Journal of Plasticity. 2000;16:1391-1409'},{id:"B5",body:'Jack KH. Heat treatment Process. In: Proceeding of heat treatment (Heat treatment’73); 12-13 December 2018; London, UK; 2018. pp. 39-50'},{id:"B6",body:'Sun G, Hu S, Gao Y. Influence of direct annealing heat treatment on the mechanical properties of as cast TWIP steels. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance. 2017;26:1981-1985'},{id:"B7",body:'Aleshina EA, Sizova O. V: Formation of structural-phase states of the surface of Hadfield steel. Steel in Translation. 2007;12:989-990'},{id:"B8",body:'Smith WF, Hashemi J. Foundations of Material Science and Engineering. 4th Ed. McGraw-Hill; 2001. p. 394'},{id:"B9",body:'Groover MP. Fundamentals of modern manufacturing: Materials, processes and systems. 3rd ed. United States of America: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.; 2008. pp. 105-106'},{id:"B10",body:'Stagno E. Behaviour of sintered 410 low carbon steels towards ion nitriding. Journal of Alloys and Compounds. 2015;24:2122-2134'},{id:"B11",body:'Lee D, Kim J, Lee S, Lee K, De Cooman B. C: Microstructures and mechanical properties of Ti and Mo micro-alloyed medium Mn steel. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance. 2017;706:1-14'},{id:"B12",body:'Marandi A, Haghdadi N, Eskandari M. The prediction of hot deformation behavior in Fe-21Mn-2.5Si-1.5Al steel. Materials Science and Engineering A. 2012;554:72-78'},{id:"B13",body:'Zhao J, Jiang Z. Thermomechanical processing of advanced high strength steels. Progress in Materials Science. 2018;94:174-242'},{id:"B14",body:'Yeh JW, Chen SK. Nanostructured high-entropy alloys with multiple principal elements: Novel alloy design concepts and outcomes. Advanced Engineering Materials. 2019;5:299-303'},{id:"B15",body:'Mazaheri Y, Kermanpur A, Najafizadeh A, Saeidi N. Effects of initial microstructure and thermomechanical processing parameters on microstructures and mechanical properties of ultrafine grained dual phase steels. Materials Science and Engineering A. 2017;612:54-62'},{id:"B16",body:'Speich GR, Demarest VA, Miller RL. Formation of austenite during intercritical annealing of dual-phase steels. Metallurgical Transactions A. 1981;12:1419-1428'},{id:"B17",body:'Judd RR, Paxton HW. Kinetics of austenite formation from a spheroidized ferrite-carbide aggregate. Transactions of the Metallurgical Society of the American Institute of Mechanical Engineers. 1968;242:206-215'},{id:"B18",body:'Azizi-Alizamini H, Militzer M, Poole WJ. Formation of ultrafine grained dual phase steels through rapid heating. ISIJ International. 2011;51:958-964'},{id:"B19",body:'Movahed P, Kolahgar S, Marashi SPH, Pouranvari M, Parvin N. The effect of intercritical heat treatment temperature on the tensile properties and work hardening behavior of ferrite–martensite dual phase steel sheets. Materials Science and Engineering A. 2009;518:1-6'},{id:"B20",body:'Sun S, Pugh M. Properties of thermomechanically processed dual-phase steels containing fibrous martensite. Materials Science and Engineering A. 2016;335:298-308'},{id:"B21",body:'Sodjit S, Uthaisangsuk V. Microstructure based prediction of strain hardening behavior of dual phase steels. Materials and Design. 2012;41:370-379'},{id:"B22",body:'Mazaheri Y, Kermanpur A, Najafizadeh A. A novel route for development of ultrahigh strength dual phase steels. Materials Science and Engineering A. 2014;619:1-11'},{id:"B23",body:'Asadi M, De Cooman BC, Palkowsk H. Influence of martensite volume fraction and cooling rate on the properties of thermomechanically processed dual phase steel. Materials Science and Engineering A. 2012;538:42-52'},{id:"B24",body:'Mukherjee K, Hazra SS, Militzer M. Grain refinement in dual-phase steels. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A: Physical Metallurgy and Materials Science. 2009;40:2145-2159'},{id:"B25",body:'Beladi H, Kelly GL, Shokouhi A, Hodgson PD. The evolution of ultrafine ferrite formation through dynamic stain-induced transformation. Materials Science and Engineering: A. 2004;371:343-352'},{id:"B26",body:'Hurley PJ, Hodgson PD. Formation of ultra-fine ferrite in hot rolled strip: Potential mechanisms for grain refinement. Materials Science and Engineering A. 2017;302:206-214'},{id:"B27",body:'Choi JK, Seo DH, Lee JS, Um KK, Choo WY. Formation of ultrafine ferrite by strain-induced dynamic transformation in plain low carbon steel. ISIJ International. 2018;43:746-754'},{id:"B28",body:'Hong SC, Lim SH, Lee KJ, Lee KS. Determination of dynamic ferrite transformation during deformation in austenite. In: Zhu YT, Langdon TG, Mishra RS, Semiatin SL, Saran MJ, Lowe TC, editors. Ultrafine-Grained Materials II. Warrendale, PA: TMS; 2002. pp. 267-274'},{id:"B29",body:'Beladi H, Kelly GL, Shokouhi A, Hodgson PD. Effect of thermomechanical parameters on the critical strain for ultrafine ferrite formation through hot torsion testing. Materials Science and Engineering A. 2017;367:152-161'},{id:"B30",body:'Yang Z, Wang R. Formation of ultra-fine grain structure of plain low carbon steel through deformation induced ferrite transformation. ISIJ International. 2003;43:761-766'},{id:"B31",body:'Adamczyk J, Grajcar A. Structure and mechanical properties of DP-type and TRIP-type sheets obtained after the thermomechanical processing. Journal of Materials Processing Technology. 2005;162-163:267-274'},{id:"B32",body:'Calcagnotto M, Ponge D, Raabe D. Microstructure control during fabrication of ultrafine grained dual-phase steel: Characterization and effect of intercritical annealing parameters. ISIJ International. 2012;52:874-883'},{id:"B33",body:'Rao MP, Sarma VS, Sankaran S. Development of high strength and ductile ultra fine grained dual phase steel with nano sized carbide precipitates in a V-Nb microalloyed steel. Materials Science and Engineering A. 2018;568:171-175'},{id:"B34",body:'Karmakar A, Karani A, Patra S, Chakrabarti D. Development of bimodal ferrite-grain structures in low-carbon steel using rapid intercritical annealing. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A: Physical Metallurgy and Materials Science. 2013;44:2041-2052'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Nicky Kisku",address:"kiskunicky@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",fullTitle:"Welding - Modern Topics",slug:"welding-modern-topics",publishedDate:"January 14th 2021",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"103832",title:"Dr.",name:"Adolfo",middleName:null,surname:"Fernandez",email:"a.fernandez@itma.es",fullName:"Adolfo Fernandez",slug:"adolfo-fernandez",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:null},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Sintering to Transparency of Polycrystalline Ceramic Materials",slug:"sintering-to-transparency-of-polycrystalline-ceramic-materials",abstract:null,signatures:"Marta Suárez, Adolfo Fernández, Ramón Torrecillas and José L. Menéndez",authors:[{id:"102383",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta",surname:"Suárez",fullName:"Marta Suárez",slug:"marta-suarez",email:"m.suarez@cinn.es"},{id:"103822",title:"Dr.",name:"J.L",surname:"Menendez",fullName:"J.L Menendez",slug:"j.l-menendez",email:"jl.menendez@cinn.es"},{id:"103832",title:"Dr.",name:"Adolfo",surname:"Fernandez",fullName:"Adolfo Fernandez",slug:"adolfo-fernandez",email:"a.fernandez@itma.es"},{id:"103833",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramón",surname:"Torrecillas",fullName:"Ramón Torrecillas",slug:"ramon-torrecillas",email:"r.torrecillas@cinn.es"}],book:{title:"Sintering of Ceramics",slug:"sintering-of-ceramics-new-emerging-techniques",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"15001",title:"Dr.",name:"Faming",surname:"Zhang",slug:"faming-zhang",fullName:"Faming Zhang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/15001/images/625_n.jpg",biography:"He got his Ph.D in materials science in Harbin Institute of Technology in 2005. Then he worked two years in Shanghai Institute of ceramics, Chinese academy of science (2005-2007). Now, he is working in Institute of Physics, Rostock University, as a assistant professor. He is authors of almost 40 journal peer reviewed publications and 25 conference publications, 6 patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Rostock",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"89279",title:"Dr.",name:"Romualdo",surname:"Menezes",slug:"romualdo-menezes",fullName:"Romualdo Menezes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Paraíba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"93015",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosidah",surname:"Alias",slug:"rosidah-alias",fullName:"Rosidah Alias",position:"Senior Researcher",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"99069",title:"Prof.",name:"Ruth",surname:"Kiminami",slug:"ruth-kiminami",fullName:"Ruth Kiminami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of São Carlos",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"100537",title:"Prof.",name:"Aimin",surname:"Chang",slug:"aimin-chang",fullName:"Aimin Chang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xinjiang Technical Institute of Physics & Chemistry",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"101314",title:"Dr.",name:"Chih Ta",surname:"Tsai",slug:"chih-ta-tsai",fullName:"Chih Ta Tsai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101314/images/597_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Cheng Kung University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"103117",title:"Dr.",name:"Huimin",surname:"Zhang",slug:"huimin-zhang",fullName:"Huimin Zhang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xinjiang Technical Institute of Physics & Chemistry",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"103120",title:"Dr.",name:"Qing",surname:"Zhao",slug:"qing-zhao",fullName:"Qing Zhao",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xinjiang Technical Institute of Physics & Chemistry",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"103124",title:"MSc.",name:"Bo",surname:"Zhang",slug:"bo-zhang",fullName:"Bo Zhang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xinjiang Technical Institute of Physics & Chemistry",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"104043",title:"Dr.",name:"Pollyane",surname:"Souto",slug:"pollyane-souto",fullName:"Pollyane Souto",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of São Carlos",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"OA-publishing-fees",title:"Open Access Publishing Fees",intro:"
The Open Access model is applied to all of our publications and is designed to eliminate subscriptions and pay-per-view fees. This approach ensures free, immediate access to full text versions of your research.
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 118,000 international scientists and researchers.
\\n\\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
\\n\\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\\n\\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\\n\\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\\n
\\n\\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\\n\\n
Services included are:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\\n\\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\\n\\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
\\n\\t
English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\\n\\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\\n\\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\\n\\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\\n\\n
If your manuscript:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\\n\\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\\n
\\n\\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\\n\\n
Open Access Funding
\\n\\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\\n\\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\\n\\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\\n\\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\\n\\t
Long-term archiving
\\n\\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\\n\\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\\n\\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\\n
\\n\\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\\n\\t
+4,800 OA books published
\\n\\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\\n\\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\\n\\t
Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
\\n\\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\\n\\t
+108,170 citations in Web of Science databases
\\n\\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 130 million downloads
As a gold Open Access publisher, an Open Access Publishing Fee is payable on acceptance following peer review of the manuscript. In return, we provide high quality publishing services and exclusive benefits for all contributors. IntechOpen is the trusted publishing partner of over 118,000 international scientists and researchers.
\n\n
The Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) is payable only after your full chapter, monograph or Compacts monograph is accepted for publication.
\n\n
OAPF Publishing Options
\n\n
\n\t
1,400 GBP Chapter - Edited Volume
\n\t
10,000 GBP Monograph - Long Form
\n\t
4,000 GBP Compacts Monograph - Short Form
\n
\n\n
*These prices do not include Value-Added Tax (VAT). Residents of European Union countries need to add VAT based on the specific rate in their country of residence. Institutions and companies registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state will not pay VAT as long as provision of the VAT registration number is made during the application process. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Services included are:
\n\n
\n\t
An online manuscript tracking system to facilitate your work
\n\t
Personal contact and support throughout the publishing process from your dedicated Author Service Manager
\n\t
Assurance that your manuscript meets the highest publishing standards
\n\t
English language copyediting and proofreading, including the correction of grammatical, spelling, and other common errors
\n\t
XML Typesetting and pagination - web (PDF, HTML) and print files preparation
\n\t
Discoverability - electronic citation and linking via DOI
\n\t
Permanent and unrestricted online access to your work
What isn't covered by the Open Access Publishing Fee?
\n\n
If your manuscript:
\n\n
\n\t
Exceeds 20 pages (for chapters in Edited Volumes), an additional fee of 40 GBP per page will be required
\n\t
If a manuscript requires Heavy Editing or Language Polishing, this will incur additional fees.
\n
\n\n
Your Author Service Manager will inform you of any items not covered by the OAPF and provide exact information regarding those additional costs before proceeding.
\n\n
Open Access Funding
\n\n
To explore funding opportunities and learn more about how you can finance your IntechOpen publication, go to our Open Access Funding page. IntechOpen offers expert assistance to all of its Authors. We can support you in approaching funding bodies and institutions in relation to publishing fees by providing information about compliance with the Open Access policies of your funder or institution. We can also assist with communicating the benefits of Open Access in order to support and strengthen your funding request and provide personal guidance through your application process. You can contact us at oapf@intechopen.com for further details or assistance.
\n\n
For Authors who are still unable to obtain funding from their institutions or research funding bodies for individual projects, IntechOpen does offer the possibility of applying for a Waiver to offset some or all processing feed. Details regarding our Waiver Policy can be found here.
\n\n
Added Value of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
Choosing to publish with IntechOpen ensures the following benefits:
\n\n
\n\t
Indexing and listing across major repositories, see details ...
\n\t
Long-term archiving
\n\t
Visibility on the world's strongest OA platform
\n\t
Live Performance Metrics to track readership and the impact of your chapter
\n\t
Dissemination and Promotion
\n
\n\n
Benefits of Publishing with IntechOpen
\n\n
\n\t
Proven world leader in Open Access book publishing with over 10 years experience
\n\t
+4,800 OA books published
\n\t
Most competitive prices in the market
\n\t
Fully compliant with OA funding requirements
\n\t
Optimized processes, enabling publication between 8 and 12 months
\n\t
Personal support during every step of the publication process
\n\t
+108,170 citations in Web of Science databases
\n\t
Currently strongest OA platform with over 130 million downloads
\n
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"160349",title:null,name:null,middleName:null,surname:null,slug:"",fullName:null,position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"25887",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Abbasi",slug:"abbasi",fullName:"Abbasi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"161332",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Abu-El Hassan",slug:"abu-el-hassan",fullName:"Abu-El Hassan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"212347",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Abubakar",slug:"abubakar",fullName:"Abubakar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"93806",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Adani",slug:"adani",fullName:"Adani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"158756",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Adler",slug:"adler",fullName:"Adler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"63002",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Agius",slug:"agius",fullName:"Agius",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"34637",title:"Dr.",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"ahmed",fullName:"Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"118228",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"ahmed",fullName:"Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"89784",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Ai",slug:"ai",fullName:"Ai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"158339",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Akahoshi",slug:"akahoshi",fullName:"Akahoshi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"158540",title:"Dr",name:null,middleName:null,surname:"Al-Jumaily",slug:"al-jumaily",fullName:"Al-Jumaily",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5698},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5172},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1689},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10243},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:888},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15647}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117315},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"14"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10216",title:"Paraffin - Thermal Energy Storage Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"456090b63f5ba2290e24e655abd119bf",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Elsayed Zaki and Dr. Abdelghaffar S. Dhmees",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10216.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"220156",title:"Dr.",name:"Elsayed",surname:"Zaki",slug:"elsayed-zaki",fullName:"Elsayed Zaki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10411",title:"Nanocrystals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"be29908600b7067c583ac21da1544a2d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Awadesh Mallik",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10411.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"178218",title:"Dr.",name:"Awadesh",surname:"Mallik",slug:"awadesh-mallik",fullName:"Awadesh Mallik"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10412",title:"Transition Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bd7287b801dc0ac77e01f66842dc1d99",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sajjad Haider and Dr. Adnan Haider",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10412.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"110708",title:"Dr.",name:"Sajjad",surname:"Haider",slug:"sajjad-haider",fullName:"Sajjad Haider"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10609",title:"Zeolites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"90681a8fef45a03f68f4b9276acba2d3",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Pavel Krivenko",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10609.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"180922",title:"Dr.",name:"Pavel",surname:"Krivenko",slug:"pavel-krivenko",fullName:"Pavel Krivenko"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10847",title:"Aluminium Alloys",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"22f9ea5292994565616af16fac347ba0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10847.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10848",title:"Tribology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"316ca42e0526e3c775e16b929cc702f9",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10848.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:60},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:6},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5138},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8697",title:"Virtual Reality and Its Application in Education",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ee01b5e387ba0062c6b0d1e9227bda05",slug:"virtual-reality-and-its-application-in-education",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8697.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7434",title:"Molecular Biotechnology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eceede809920e1ec7ecadd4691ede2ec",slug:"molecular-biotechnology",bookSignature:"Sergey Sedykh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7434.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8545",title:"Animal Reproduction in Veterinary Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"13aaddf5fdbbc78387e77a7da2388bf6",slug:"animal-reproduction-in-veterinary-medicine",bookSignature:"Faruk Aral, Rita Payan-Carreira and Miguel Quaresma",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8545.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25600",title:"Prof.",name:"Faruk",middleName:null,surname:"Aral",slug:"faruk-aral",fullName:"Faruk Aral"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9569",title:"Methods in Molecular Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"691d3f3c4ac25a8093414e9b270d2843",slug:"methods-in-molecular-medicine",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9569.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9839",title:"Outdoor Recreation",subtitle:"Physiological and Psychological Effects on Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5f5a0d64267e32567daffa5b0c6a6972",slug:"outdoor-recreation-physiological-and-psychological-effects-on-health",bookSignature:"Hilde G. Nielsen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"158692",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hilde G.",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"hilde-g.-nielsen",fullName:"Hilde G. Nielsen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7802",title:"Modern Slavery and Human Trafficking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"587a0b7fb765f31cc98de33c6c07c2e0",slug:"modern-slavery-and-human-trafficking",bookSignature:"Jane Reeves",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7802.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"211328",title:"Prof.",name:"Jane",middleName:null,surname:"Reeves",slug:"jane-reeves",fullName:"Jane Reeves"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8063",title:"Food Security in Africa",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cbf3d662b104d19db2efc9d59249efc",slug:"food-security-in-africa",bookSignature:"Barakat Mahmoud",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8063.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92016",title:"Dr.",name:"Barakat",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud",slug:"barakat-mahmoud",fullName:"Barakat Mahmoud"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10118",title:"Plant Stress Physiology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c68b09d2d2634fc719ae3b9a64a27839",slug:"plant-stress-physiology",bookSignature:"Akbar Hossain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10118.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"280755",title:"Dr.",name:"Akbar",middleName:null,surname:"Hossain",slug:"akbar-hossain",fullName:"Akbar Hossain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9157",title:"Neurodegenerative Diseases",subtitle:"Molecular Mechanisms and Current Therapeutic Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bc8be577966ef88735677d7e1e92ed28",slug:"neurodegenerative-diseases-molecular-mechanisms-and-current-therapeutic-approaches",bookSignature:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9157.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82778",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nagehan",middleName:null,surname:"Ersoy Tunalı",slug:"nagehan-ersoy-tunali",fullName:"Nagehan Ersoy Tunalı"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9961",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Methods, Applications and Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ed79fb6364f2caf464079f94a0387146",slug:"data-mining-methods-applications-and-systems",bookSignature:"Derya Birant",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9961.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15609",title:"Dr.",name:"Derya",middleName:null,surname:"Birant",slug:"derya-birant",fullName:"Derya Birant"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8686",title:"Direct Torque Control Strategies of Electrical Machines",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b6ad22b14db2b8450228545d3d4f6b1a",slug:"direct-torque-control-strategies-of-electrical-machines",bookSignature:"Fatma Ben Salem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"295623",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Fatma",middleName:null,surname:"Ben Salem",slug:"fatma-ben-salem",fullName:"Fatma Ben Salem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"799",title:"Industrial Engineering",slug:"industrial-engineering-and-management-industrial-engineering",parent:{title:"Industrial Engineering and Management",slug:"industrial-engineering-and-management"},numberOfBooks:3,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:62,numberOfWosCitations:26,numberOfCrossrefCitations:19,numberOfDimensionsCitations:53,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"industrial-engineering-and-management-industrial-engineering",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7454",title:"Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7008bbdc804192f8969a34deda417b05",slug:"industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Ainul Akmar Mokhtar and Masdi Muhammad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7454.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"219461",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ainul Akmar",middleName:null,surname:"Mokhtar",slug:"ainul-akmar-mokhtar",fullName:"Ainul Akmar Mokhtar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5257",title:"Joining Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"aa9de032631d6887271e067f23fdb91f",slug:"joining-technologies",bookSignature:"Mahadzir Ishak",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5257.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"104098",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahadzir",middleName:null,surname:"Ishak",slug:"mahadzir-ishak",fullName:"Mahadzir Ishak"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"51805",doi:"10.5772/64524",title:"Current Issues and Problems in the Joining of Ceramic to Metal",slug:"current-issues-and-problems-in-the-joining-of-ceramic-to-metal",totalDownloads:3923,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,book:{slug:"joining-technologies",title:"Joining Technologies",fullTitle:"Joining Technologies"},signatures:"Uday M.B., Ahmad-Fauzi M.N., Alias Mohd Noor and Srithar Rajoo",authors:[{id:"182041",title:null,name:"Uday",middleName:"M.",surname:"Basheer Al-Naib",slug:"uday-basheer-al-naib",fullName:"Uday Basheer Al-Naib"},{id:"182065",title:"Prof.",name:"Alias",middleName:null,surname:"Mohd Noor",slug:"alias-mohd-noor",fullName:"Alias Mohd Noor"},{id:"182066",title:"Dr.",name:"Srithar",middleName:null,surname:"Rajoo",slug:"srithar-rajoo",fullName:"Srithar Rajoo"},{id:"190437",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmad-Fauzi",middleName:null,surname:"M. N.",slug:"ahmad-fauzi-m.-n.",fullName:"Ahmad-Fauzi M. N."}]},{id:"51396",doi:"10.5772/64159",title:"A Mesh-Free Solid-Mechanics Approach for Simulating the Friction Stir-Welding Process",slug:"a-mesh-free-solid-mechanics-approach-for-simulating-the-friction-stir-welding-process",totalDownloads:1178,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:10,book:{slug:"joining-technologies",title:"Joining Technologies",fullTitle:"Joining Technologies"},signatures:"Kirk Fraser, Lyne St-Georges and Laszlo I. Kiss",authors:[{id:"181027",title:"Mr.",name:"Kirk",middleName:null,surname:"Fraser",slug:"kirk-fraser",fullName:"Kirk Fraser"},{id:"186075",title:"Prof.",name:"Laszlo",middleName:null,surname:"Kiss",slug:"laszlo-kiss",fullName:"Laszlo Kiss"},{id:"186076",title:"Prof.",name:"Lyne",middleName:null,surname:"St-Georges",slug:"lyne-st-georges",fullName:"Lyne St-Georges"}]},{id:"51668",doi:"10.5772/64523",title:"New Approaches to the Friction Stir Welding of Aluminum Alloys",slug:"new-approaches-to-the-friction-stir-welding-of-aluminum-alloys",totalDownloads:1522,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"joining-technologies",title:"Joining Technologies",fullTitle:"Joining Technologies"},signatures:"Marcello Cabibbo, Archimede Forcellese and Michela Simoncini",authors:[{id:"180609",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcello",middleName:null,surname:"Cabibbo",slug:"marcello-cabibbo",fullName:"Marcello Cabibbo"},{id:"185540",title:"Prof.",name:"Archimede",middleName:null,surname:"Forcellese",slug:"archimede-forcellese",fullName:"Archimede Forcellese"},{id:"185542",title:"Prof.",name:"Michela",middleName:null,surname:"Simoncini",slug:"michela-simoncini",fullName:"Michela Simoncini"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"74370",title:"Automotive Industrial Supply Chain Performance Evaluation under Uncertain Constraints on Cloud Computing System",slug:"automotive-industrial-supply-chain-performance-evaluation-under-uncertain-constraints-on-cloud-compu",totalDownloads:139,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",fullTitle:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering"},signatures:"Suthep Butdee",authors:[{id:"322601",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Suthep",middleName:null,surname:"Butdee",slug:"suthep-butdee",fullName:"Suthep Butdee"}]},{id:"51805",title:"Current Issues and Problems in the Joining of Ceramic to Metal",slug:"current-issues-and-problems-in-the-joining-of-ceramic-to-metal",totalDownloads:3923,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,book:{slug:"joining-technologies",title:"Joining Technologies",fullTitle:"Joining Technologies"},signatures:"Uday M.B., Ahmad-Fauzi M.N., Alias Mohd Noor and Srithar Rajoo",authors:[{id:"182041",title:null,name:"Uday",middleName:"M.",surname:"Basheer Al-Naib",slug:"uday-basheer-al-naib",fullName:"Uday Basheer Al-Naib"},{id:"182065",title:"Prof.",name:"Alias",middleName:null,surname:"Mohd Noor",slug:"alias-mohd-noor",fullName:"Alias Mohd Noor"},{id:"182066",title:"Dr.",name:"Srithar",middleName:null,surname:"Rajoo",slug:"srithar-rajoo",fullName:"Srithar Rajoo"},{id:"190437",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmad-Fauzi",middleName:null,surname:"M. N.",slug:"ahmad-fauzi-m.-n.",fullName:"Ahmad-Fauzi M. N."}]},{id:"73438",title:"A Hybrid Human-Data Methodology for the Conception of Operational Performance Management Systems",slug:"a-hybrid-human-data-methodology-for-the-conception-of-operational-performance-management-systems",totalDownloads:84,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",fullTitle:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering"},signatures:"Diogo Ginjo Jantarada and Antonio Grilo",authors:[{id:"321875",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Diogo Ginjo",middleName:null,surname:"Jantarada",slug:"diogo-ginjo-jantarada",fullName:"Diogo Ginjo Jantarada"},{id:"321876",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Grilo",slug:"antonio-grilo",fullName:"Antonio Grilo"}]},{id:"51459",title:"A Comprehensive Model of the Transport Phenomena in Gas Metal Arc Welding",slug:"a-comprehensive-model-of-the-transport-phenomena-in-gas-metal-arc-welding",totalDownloads:1071,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"joining-technologies",title:"Joining Technologies",fullTitle:"Joining Technologies"},signatures:"Junling Hu, Zhenghua Rao and Hai-Lung Tsai",authors:[{id:"142865",title:"Prof.",name:"Hai-Lung",middleName:null,surname:"Tsai",slug:"hai-lung-tsai",fullName:"Hai-Lung Tsai"},{id:"181838",title:"Dr.",name:"Junling",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"junling-hu",fullName:"Junling Hu"},{id:"185948",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhenghua",middleName:null,surname:"Rao",slug:"zhenghua-rao",fullName:"Zhenghua Rao"}]},{id:"74074",title:"Introductory Chapter: Background and Current Trends in Industrial Engineering",slug:"introductory-chapter-background-and-current-trends-in-industrial-engineering",totalDownloads:41,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",fullTitle:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering"},signatures:"Gary P. Moynihan",authors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}]},{id:"72898",title:"Integrated Lean-Green-Six Sigma Practices to Improve the Performance of the Manufacturing Industry",slug:"integrated-lean-green-six-sigma-practices-to-improve-the-performance-of-the-manufacturing-industry",totalDownloads:46,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",fullTitle:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering"},signatures:"Lokpriya M. Gaikwad and Vivek K. Sunnapwar",authors:[{id:"246830",title:"Prof.",name:"Lokpriya",middleName:null,surname:"Gaikwad",slug:"lokpriya-gaikwad",fullName:"Lokpriya Gaikwad"},{id:"251857",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivek",middleName:null,surname:"Sunnapwar",slug:"vivek-sunnapwar",fullName:"Vivek Sunnapwar"}]},{id:"51413",title:"Magnetic Pulse Welding: An Innovative Joining Technology for Similar and Dissimilar Metal Pairs",slug:"magnetic-pulse-welding-an-innovative-joining-technology-for-similar-and-dissimilar-metal-pairs",totalDownloads:2469,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"joining-technologies",title:"Joining Technologies",fullTitle:"Joining Technologies"},signatures:"T. Sapanathan, R. N. Raoelison, N. Buiron and M. Rachik",authors:[{id:"181191",title:"Dr.",name:"Raoelison",middleName:null,surname:"Rija",slug:"raoelison-rija",fullName:"Raoelison Rija"},{id:"182250",title:"Dr.",name:"Thaneshan",middleName:null,surname:"Sapanathan",slug:"thaneshan-sapanathan",fullName:"Thaneshan Sapanathan"},{id:"186383",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicolas",middleName:null,surname:"Buiron",slug:"nicolas-buiron",fullName:"Nicolas Buiron"},{id:"186384",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",middleName:null,surname:"Rachik",slug:"mohamed-rachik",fullName:"Mohamed Rachik"}]},{id:"51572",title:"Applying Heat for Joining Textile Materials",slug:"applying-heat-for-joining-textile-materials",totalDownloads:1724,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"joining-technologies",title:"Joining Technologies",fullTitle:"Joining Technologies"},signatures:"Simona Jevšnik, Savvas Vasiliadis, Senem Kurson Bahadir, Dragana\nGrujić and Zoran Stjepanovič",authors:[{id:"11871",title:"Dr.",name:"Savvas G.",middleName:null,surname:"Vassiliadis",slug:"savvas-g.-vassiliadis",fullName:"Savvas G. Vassiliadis"},{id:"48882",title:"Dr.",name:"Senem",middleName:null,surname:"Kurşun Bahadır",slug:"senem-kursun-bahadir",fullName:"Senem Kurşun Bahadır"},{id:"180695",title:"Prof.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Jevšnik",slug:"simona-jevsnik",fullName:"Simona Jevšnik"},{id:"181507",title:"Prof.",name:"Dragana",middleName:null,surname:"Grujić",slug:"dragana-grujic",fullName:"Dragana Grujić"},{id:"181508",title:"Prof.",name:"Zoran",middleName:null,surname:"Stjepanovič",slug:"zoran-stjepanovic",fullName:"Zoran Stjepanovič"}]},{id:"51851",title:"Laser and Hybrid Laser-Arc Welding",slug:"laser-and-hybrid-laser-arc-welding",totalDownloads:1393,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"joining-technologies",title:"Joining Technologies",fullTitle:"Joining Technologies"},signatures:"G. A. Turichin",authors:[{id:"181965",title:"Prof.",name:"Gleb",middleName:"Andreevich",surname:"Turichin",slug:"gleb-turichin",fullName:"Gleb Turichin"}]},{id:"73431",title:"An Investigation of the Metal Additive Manufacturing Issues and Perspective for Solutions Approach",slug:"an-investigation-of-the-metal-additive-manufacturing-issues-and-perspective-for-solutions-approach",totalDownloads:173,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",fullTitle:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering"},signatures:"Omar Ahmed Al-Shebeeb",authors:[{id:"322096",title:"Dr.",name:"Omar",middleName:"Ahmed Raheem",surname:"Al-Shebeeb",slug:"omar-al-shebeeb",fullName:"Omar Al-Shebeeb"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"industrial-engineering-and-management-industrial-engineering",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/103832/adolfo-fernandez",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"103832",slug:"adolfo-fernandez"},fullPath:"/profiles/103832/adolfo-fernandez",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()