Guidelines for resistance training programme design for body recomposition and weight loss.
\r\n\tVarious disciplines characterize the constituent components comprising mechatronics, which include physical systems modeling, sensors and actuators, signals and systems, computers and logic systems, and software and data acquisition.
\r\n\tMany new MEMS and Nanotechnology applications will emerge, expanding beyond that which is currently identified or known. Here are a few applications of current interest: new phenomena are addressed nowadays in science and technology.
\r\n\tIn this book, we will deal with physical systems modeling., discuss the physical phenomena involved, the adequate methodology to deal with them, and report a selection of papers recently published for possible applications for MEMS and Nanotechnology.
\r\n\r\n\tIn summary, Nano- and micro-electromechanical systems (NEMS/MEMS) are useful for applications ranging from: The design of MEMS accelerometers, gyroscopes, electrostatic actuators, and microresonators; Interfacial engineering for NEMS/MEMS; Biosensors, magnetic biochips, in vitro diagnostics, cell sorting, magnetic nanoparticles, spin electronic materials and sensors, magnetic inductive heads, and magnetic integrated inductors and transformer’s; Flexible substrates for electronics, sensors, and energy conversion platforms; Nanofabrication and nanopatterning technologies, including self-assembly for device fabrication.
\r\n\t
The human immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) pandemic is one of the most serious health crisis faced by the world today. An estimated 34 million people were living with HIV/AIDS as at 2010 [1]. A disproportionate burden has been placed on women and children who continue to experience high rates of new infection and HIV-related illness and death. Availability and use of antiretroviral drugs has changed the landscape of HIV/AIDS bringing about a change in the perception of HIV from an incurable deadly disease to a chronic manageable illness. As effective HIV treatments become more widespread, HIV-infected individuals in sub Saharan Africa are living longer, healthier lives. Many HIV-affected couples (sero-discordant and sero-concordant) are now considering long-term life projects including options for safer reproduction or procreation. There has also been increase in advocacy to expand the capacity for the health care system particularly in Africa to provide the sexual and reproductive health services that HIV infected persons in Africa desperately need [2]. This decade has witnessed greater commitment to sexual and reproductive health and HIV linkages particularly in the developed world. More recent opportunities include policy developments within the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria to accept proposals that form linkages with sexual and reproductive health within the overall frameworks of HIV, tuberculosis (TB) and malaria. There has also been a renewed commitment by the United States of America to international sexual and reproductive health through support of the United Nations Population Fund and the repeal of the Mexico City Policy, also known as the “global gag rule”, a United States government policy that hitherto prohibited non-governmental organizations from receiving federal funding for performing or promoting abortion services in other countries. A large body of evidence suggests that reproductive technologies can help HIV-affected couples to safely conceive with minimal risk of HIV transmission to their partner and baby. However, for most couples particularly in low income countries in sub Saharan Africa, such technologies are neither geographically nor economically accessible. In sub-Saharan Africa where HIV is endemic, 63% of women have an unmet need for sexual and reproductive health services, there is a high incidence of unintended pregnancies, a significant number of women do not know their HIV status, many women have limited access to sexual and reproductive health information and services (family planning, management of sexually transmitted diseases, HIV prevention and maternal health) to help them protect themselves from the triad of unwanted pregnancy, HIV infection and HIV transmission to their sexual partners and their children. With HIV now considered to be a chronic manageable disease, attention is shifting to offering and improving quality of life particularly by the provision of reproductive health options/care to men and women living with HIV-1.
\nA healthcare workforce that is highly motivated and well informed on the evidence –based practices in sexual and reproductive health options for persons living with HIV/AIDS is crucial to meeting the sexual and reproductive needs of PLWHA in Africa. A high morale and productive workforce are the driving force for the success of any reproductive health programme. Unless these staffs are motivated and have high morale, they may become a stumbling block to the success and scaling –up of sexual and reproductive health services [3]. There are several challenges associated with meeting the sexual and reproductive health needs of persons living with HIV/AIDS in Africa; suboptimal antenatal care, absence of evidence-based and affordable assisted reproductive technologies, inadequate number of appropriately trained healthcare workers, suboptimal health infrastructure, lack of enabling legislation and policies on sexual and reproductive health of HIV-infected persons, challenge of stigmatization and discrimination, unprofessional negative attitudes towards PLWHA desiring to procreate. The aim of this chapter is to highlight the reproductive health concerns associated with living with HIV infection in sub Saharan Africa.
\nAfrica is the world\'s second-largest and second-most-populous continent in the planet, after Asia. With 1,032,532,874 billion people as at 2011 [4]. It accounts for about 14.72% of the world\'s human population. At about 30.2 million km² (11.7 million sq miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of the Earths’ total surface area and 20.4% of the total land area [5]. It is made up of 54 member states. Western Sahara although a member of the African union, its sovereignty is being disputed by Morocco. South Sudan has become Africa newest nation having recently separated from North Sudan. The population of Africa is estimated at greater than one billion people. Africa account for a significant 14% of the world’s population. Africa contains the Nile River system which is the worlds longest. It also prides itself as the continent with the world’s largest Sahara desert. Africa is surrounded by the Mediterranean Sea (north) and the Suez Canal and the Red sea (northwest), the Indian Ocean (east) and the Atlantic Ocean (west). Although endowed with abundant natural resources, Africa remains the world\'s poorest and most underdeveloped continent, the result of a variety of causes that may include the spread of deadly viruses and diseases (HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis), corruption in government that have often committed serious human right abuses and violations, failed central planning, high levels of illiteracy, lack of access to foreign capital, and frequent tribal and military conflict (ranging from guerrilla warfare to genocide). According to the United Nation’s Human Development Report in 2003, the bottom 25 ranked nations (151st to 175th) were all African [6].Poverty, illiteracy, malnutrition and inadequate water supply and sanitation, as well as poor health, affect a large proportion of the people who reside in the African continent. About 80.5% of the Sub-Saharan Africa population lives on less than $2.50 per person per day in 2005 [7]. Africa faces several daunting challenges with regards to access to basic health services like their counterparts in most developed countries of the world. The healthcare system and infrastructure are suboptimal. This is often due to fundamental limitations in funding, lack of adequate qualified health professional and equipment as well as deep rooted, institutionalized and chronic corruption among the political class and bureaucratic compensation and corruption among civil servants [8]. Africa remains the world\'s most corrupt continent. Corruption is the abuse of entrusted power for private gain, in public and private sectors [9]. This vice has contributed to a large extent to the stunted development and impoverishment seen in many African states. The African union estimates that corruption among the political class is costing the continent more than $150 billion dollars per year. These are funds that could be used to improve the health infrastructure and quality of life of people of people in the continent but rather are laundered out of developing countries to banks in the developed world thus perpetrating poverty among African people. Industrialized countries have continued to encourage corruption in Africa and perpetuation of poverty among people in the African continent by providing crooked African leaders with a safe haven for their looted funds rather than repatriating such funds back and ensuring that they are used to enhance the infrastructural development of the continent. Corruption is endemic and continues to thrive in the African continent for several reasons; institutional weakness and criminal collaboration between the executive and the legislative and judicial arms of government, non-existence of the principle of rule of law, political god fatherism, institutional failure and criminal collaboration between civil servants and politicians. Corruption is a cankerworm that continues to weaken societies, ruins lives, and impedes development in the African continent [10]. This is further compounded by the high incidence of infectious diseases (HIV, TB and Malaria). Africa is plagued by poverty, malnutrition, poor sanitation, disease, high mortality rate, conflict, wars and crime. These challenges have a significant negative effect on life expectance in the continent. The continent has the world’s shortest life expectancy. Citizens of Sub-Saharan African countries are much more likely to die prematurely, than people in wealthier parts of the world. Children under- the age of 5 years are more likely to die from malaria, respiratory tract infections, diarrhoea, perinatal conditions, measles and HIV/AIDS while those who survive the first 5 years of life are likely to die before their 60th birthday from HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and maternal mortality (for women as a result of pregnancy-related mortality). According to the CIA World Fact book 2009 [11], the life expectancy at birth of the world is 67.2 years (65.0 years for males and 69.5 years for females). The United Nations World Population Prospects 2006 Revision put the world’s life expectancy at birth at 66.57 years (64.52 years for males and 68.76 years for females).Women on the average are found to live longer than men with the exception of Zimbabwe, Afghanistan, Swaziland and Lesotho [12].Countries in Africa particularly those with a high HIV/AIDS prevalence have must lower life expectancies [11]. Provision of low technology, safer, affordable and readily available reproductive health options particularly for PLWHA in Africa is a crucial but often unaddressed component of HIV prevention programme. The aim of this chapter is to evaluate the sexual and reproductive health challenges associated with HIV infection in sub Saharan Africa.
\nOrganized preventive screening programmes for antenatal care were first introduced in Western Europe in the twentieth century with the hope that routine antenatal care would contribute to a reduction in maternal and infant mortality rates. Figures on maternal mortality in the developed world show that the risk of death as a result of pregnancy and child birth is approximately 1 in 7000 compared to 1 in 23 for women living in many parts of Africa where antenatal care is poor or non-existent [13]. Antenatal care is an opportunity to reach the mothers and young girls in a safe non-stigmatising environment. The importance of developing links between sexual and reproductive health and HIV services is widely recognized. Four priority areas for linkages has been identified– learning about one’s HIV status, promoting safer sex, optimizing links between HIV and sexually transmitted infection services and integrating HIV with maternal and infant health. These priorities could lead to significant public health benefits and improve efficient use of resources particularly in resource –constrained settings in Africa. There are many challenges and issues that affect reproductive health choices particularly for persons living with HIV in Africa. They include; paucity of evidenced-based information regarding safe pregnancy and Prevention of Mother To Child Transmission (PMTCT) of HIV, absence of universal access to Voluntary Counselling and Testing (VCT) services, negative attitudes by society and un-informed healthcare workers towards PLWHA desiring to have children, lack of universal access to condoms, contraceptives medications and Highly Active Antiretroviral Therapy (HAART), sup-optimal levels of skilled sexual and reproductive health staffs, lack of service infrastructures and absence of legislation on the reproductive health right of PLWHA. All these factors negatively affects and complicates the ability of PLWHA to make evidenced based reproductive health choices particularly in many sub Saharan African settings.
\nAntenatal care creates an opportunity for women to access HIV testing and counselling. It is the port of entry to accessing HIV prevention and care. In 2001, CDC modified the recommendations for pregnant women to emphasize HIV screening as a routine part of prenatal care, simplification of the testing process so that pre-test counselling would not pose a barrier, and flexibility of the consent process to allow multiple types of informed consent [14].Many pregnant women particularly in Africa do not know their HIV serostatus. Many particularly those in rural settings lack adequate information on the benefit of antenatal care for themselves and their babies. High level of illiteracy, inequalities in access to healthcare services, being pregnant at an early age, women dependence economically on men, limited mobility, poverty, religious and cultural restrictions, being a member of a marginalized community or population remains major barriers or stumbling blocks that militate against access to effective antenatal particularly in resource-constrained settings in sub Saharan Africa [15]. Women all over the world will most likely accept VCT services if it is offered especially in settings where there is universal access to HAART and evidenced-based effective sexual and reproductive services rendered by staff who are appropriately trained to render the best possible evidenced-based counselling about HIV and other STIs as well as affordable and readily available reproductive health options with empathy rather than being judgemental. Humiliating and stigmatising attitudes and breaches of confidentiality of antenatal women can create a barrier that can potentially prevent women from accessing sexual and reproductive health services even when they are available.
\nThere are several ways to possibly enhance the uptake of VCT services in Africa. They include approaches such as the “opt-out” approach, use of traditional voluntary counselling and testing strategies as well as making antenatal visit as interactive and activity based. These approaches are more likely to provide the much needed coverage [16]. There has been argument as to whether the “opt-out” approach negates the principle of informed consent [17] particularly in African settings where many antenatal women are reluctant to challenge health care procedures. It is important however to note that “opt-out” approach does not in any way compromise the principle of informed consent. This approach assumes that testing is an intrinsic part of an effective and holistic antenatal care. The women are informed about what test is required as well as the importance of testing to the mother and the developing baby with an opportunity given to women to refuse testing if they so desire.
\nThere is also the need to foster more male involvement in antenatal care in Africa. Evidence has shown that involving men in the reproductive health care of their partners rather than basing antenatal care exclusively on women can potentially enhance the pregnancy experience, reduces incidence of gender-based violence, promote the likelihood of getting a joint consent, facilitate HIV prevention, compliance to HAART in partner in which it is indicated as well as enables a holistic uptake of sexual and reproductive health service for couples. There are several challenges that militate against male-gender involvement in antenatal care particularly in Africa; cultural and religious beliefs, obstacles of working fathers, prevalence of polygamy and maintenance by men of multiple sex partners [18-19].
\nWhen HIV infection is diagnosed, health-care providers should strongly encourage patients to disclose their HIV status to their spouses, current sex partners, and previous sex partners and recommend that these partners be tested for HIV infection. Health departments can assist patients by notifying, counselling, and providing HIV testing for partners without disclosing the patient\'s identity [20]. Policy allowing providers to inform patients who receive a new diagnosis of HIV infection that they might be contacted by health department staff for a voluntary interview to discuss notification of their partners may play a beneficial role and facilitate uptake of sexual and reproductive health services in Africa. A disproportionate burden has been placed on women and children who continue to experience high rate of new HIV infection and HIV-related illness and death. Most children living with HIV acquire the infection through Mother to Child Transmission (MTCT) which can occur during pregnancy, during delivery or during breastfeeding.
\nBeing HIV positive has been shown to modify but not remove the reproductive desires of individuals. Diversity existed in reproductive intentions among PLWHA. Some HIV positive individuals wished to avoid pregnancy. Fears of partner and infant infection and having a previously infected baby were important factors deterring some individuals from considering having children. There is also strongly perceived community disapproval associated with HIV and reproduction. Strong desires to experience parenthood, mediated by prevailing social and cultural norms that encouraged childbearing in society have also been reported. Motherhood is seen as an important component of married women\'s identity and important for women\'s social status in Africa. Family, husbands and societal expectations for childbearing have significant influences on the African woman\'s reproductive intentions [21]. Availability and use of antiretroviral drugs has changed the landscape of HIV/AIDS bringing about a change in the perception of HIV from an incurable deadly disease to a chronic manageable illness. As effective HIV treatments become more widespread, HIV-infected individuals are living longer, healthier lives. Many HIV-affected couples (sero-discordant and sero-concordant) are considering options for safer reproduction. A large body of evidence suggests that reproductive technologies can help HIV-affected couples to safely conceive with minimal risk of HIV transmission to their partner and baby. However, for most couples particularly in low income countries in sub Saharan Africa, such technologies are neither geographically nor economically accessible. With HIV now considered to be a chronic manageable disease, attention is shifting to offering and improving quality of life particularly by the provision of reproductive health options/care to men and women living with HIV-1. Many HIV-infected men and women are now expressing their desire to father or mother a child. Assisted reproductive technologies, including intrauterine insemination (IUI), in vitro fertilisation (IVF) and intracytoplasmatic sperm injection (ICSI) in combination with semen washing have been used to decrease the risk of HIV -1 transmission in HIV-1-infected discordant couples with an HIV-1-infected man. Previous report indicates that in HIV-positive men taking HAART, seminal viral load is decreased but not eliminated and fertilization should be achieved through sperm washing to offer maximum protection for the uninfected female. Pregnant HIV-positive women on antiretroviral medication have a reduced risk of transmitting the virus, but should still be counselled about the possibility to further limit the chances of infecting their infant through elective Caesarean section. HIV sero-discordant couples with strong desire for childbearing have a dilemma of risking HIV infection or infecting their spouse. Some risk transmission of HIV infection to reproduce. Over two-thirds of 104 surveyed couple wanting to procreate reported unprotected sex with their partner in the past 6 months. Most respondents, regardless of serostatus, said that viral load testing and awareness of post-exposure prevention had no effect on their condom use. A paucity of interventions targeting sero-discordant couples on contraceptive choices is at odds with a strong cultural importance in Africa attached to having children. HIV discordance in Africa creates a serious dilemma for fertility decision-making in couples. Stigma, discrimination, and non-disclosure fuel HIV transmission between partners. A previous study [22] in Nigeria a country in the Western part of Africa that investigated the reproductive health concerns among persons living with HIV/AIDS in the Niger Delta of Nigeria has shown that a significant number of PLWHA in Nigeria have conception dreams. The main reasons for wanting to procreate included: ensuring lineage continuity and posterity (52.3%), securing relationships (27.0%) and pressure from relatives to reproduce (20.7%). Single subjects were more inclined to have children (76.3%) compared to married (51.5%), widowed (18.2%) and separated/divorced (11.1%) (p=0.03). Of the 111 subjects that indicated their desire to have children, women were more inclined to have children (64.5%) compared to men (47.7%). The major concern among the 84 (43.1%) subjects not desiring more children were the fear of infecting sero-discordant partner and baby (57.1%), fear of dying and leaving behind orphans (28.6%) and the fear that they may become too ill and unable to financially support the child (14.3%). Persons with no formal education were more likely to have children irrespective of their positive HIV status (66.7%) compared to persons educated to tertiary education level (37.0%) (p=0.01). Out of the 111 subjects that desired to have more children, only 58% had gone for reproductive health counselling with HIV counsellors. Reasons for not seeking advice were anticipated negative reactions and discrimination from the counsellors. A significant number of subjects were only aware of some reproductive health options available to reduce risk of infecting their partners and or baby such as artificial vaginal insemination, intrauterine insemination, caesarean section, avoidance of breast feeding and offering prenatal pre-exposure prophylaxis to the foetus. They were unaware of other options such as sperm washing, IVF and ICSI. Of the 43.1% not anticipating more children, 36.9% were anticipating adoption.
\nA significant number of PLWHA in Africa desire to have children irrespective of the HIV positive status. Women are more inclined to have children compared to men. Persons with no formal education are more inclined to have children irrespective of their positive HIV status compared to persons educated to tertiary education level. The main reasons for wanting a child included: ensuring lineage continuity and posterity, securing relationships and pressure from relatives to reproduce. There may be several reasons for this association, including the fact that better educated people generally having greater access to information particularly the mode of transmission of HIV than those who have less formal education, and are more likely to make informed decisions and act on information given. In addition, better educated people generally have better jobs and greater access to money and other resources which can help them lead healthier lives. Also single persons living with HIV are more likely to want to have children compared to married, separated and widowed subjects. Regardless of interpersonal and public health concerns, studies in both resource-rich and resource-limited settings suggest that HIV-infected men and women desire children [23 – 25]. In addition, in resource limited settings, couples often desire larger families. The reasons for this are debated but likely include among others, the strong cultural attachment to having children, stigmatization associated with childlessness, role of children with inheritance, the importance of children in agricultural economies, the importance of childbearing on the status of women, the role of children as caretakers of the elderly, and high rates of infant mortality [26]. Previous report indicated that forty percent of HIV infected women desired more children and women with fewer children were more likely to become pregnant [27].
\nPLWHA are often not wanting to procreate because of the fear of infecting sero-discordant partner and baby, fear of dying and living behind orphans and the fear that they may become too ill and unable to financially support the child.Previous report indicates that the major challenges faced by HIV-infected subjects not desiring to procreate included: risk of HIV transmission to partner and child and failure of health systems to offer safe methods of reproduction [28]. Identifying the determinants of the decision to have children among sero-discordant couples will help in setting reproductive intervention priorities in resource-poor countries. The gender of the positive partner affects the factors associated with a desire for children. Interventions targeting sero-discordant couples should explore contraceptive choices, the cultural importance of children, and partner communication [29].
\nGiven the importance of procreation in African settings and the lack of low –technology and affordable assisted reproduction services, HIV-infected couples are faced with a serious dilemma about making an informed decision to procreate. Many PLWHA in Africa who have a desire to have children do not seek reproductive health counselling from HIV counsellors. Reasons for not seeking counselling were anticipated negative reactions and stigmatization from the counsellors resulting from their negative attitude towards unprotected sexual activity and child bearing by HIV-infected couples. HIV-infected individuals and their partners are requiring education and counselling regarding HIV disease and reproduction and HIV counsellors particularly in Africa do not seem to have access to evidenced -based information that the HIV-infected population desperately need to enable them make informed reproductive health decisions. Previous report suggest that there is need to draw up a protocol for reproductive counselling of HIV infected that have a desire for conception [30]. HIV counsellors need to come to terms with the fact that simply encouraging HIV- infected couples to abstain from procreation may no longer be a realistic strategy, particularly in sub Saharan Africa where there is strong cultural attachment to having children. In the absence of counselling that recognizes the desire and importance of having children, couples may knowingly take on the risks of transmission in order to have children. Sharing our evidenced- based best practices about HIV transmission and reproductive health options while recognizing patient goals may help couples minimize risk and reduce the harm of unprotected sex. However, the great risks taken by HIV –infected persons desiring to procreate could be minimized through counselling and close monitoring by reproductive health care provider.
\nReproductive health knowledge among HIV-infected subjects desiring to procreate in Africa is poor. Most PLWHA in Africa are unaware of reproductive health options such as sperm washing, in vitro fertilization (IVF) and intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) available to reduce risk of infecting their partners and or baby. A significant number of men taking HAART have lower seminal concentration of HIV, and sexual transmission may be reduced. However, a certain percentage of aviraemic men retain viral presence in semen, and unprotected intercourse to achieve fertilization must be discouraged as it carries the risk of sexual transmission of the virus. HIV-discordant couples should be informed that sperm washing can remove HIV from semen, allowing conception without the risk of infection for the seronegative female and eventually the child. In HIV-positive women, perinatal transmission of HIV can be curtailed to less than 2% by using HAART to decrease maternal viral load and offering prenatal pre-exposure prophylaxis of the foetus, and elective Caesarean section. Each intervention carries specific risks and benefits. The contribution of each preventive arm in achieving foetal protection can only be crudely measured and optimal obstetric management must involve discussion with the pregnant woman of the pros and cons of each strategy. HIV-affected couples who want to have children is presented with at least three distinct and daunting clinical challenges. The first is dealing with stigma arising from many health care providers’ negative attitude towards sexual activity and child bearing by HIV infected couples [31] and stigmatization from immediate family members and society [32]. The second is maintaining the mother’s health before, during and after pregnancy. The third is preventing vertical transmission from mother to child as well as preventing HIV transmission to the partner in sero-discordant relationship. Several approaches have been suggested to reduce risk of horizontal transmission for HIV-affected couples who want to conceive children. These approaches includes the use of ; male sperm washing, IUI, ICSI, screening and pre-treatment for Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI’s), Delay in procreation until viral load is controlled, limited, timed unprotected sexual encounters, female artificial insemination, self-insemination and circumcision. Experience among couples in whom the male was (HIV) seropositive who underwent assisted reproductive technologies (ART) in order to attain family goals while minimizing the risk of HIV transmission indicated that all female recipients tested seronegative for HIV at 3 and 6 months post-embryo transfer. All delivered babies (n = 8) tested seronegative for HIV at birth and 3 months postpartum and that ART should be considered for HIV serodiscordant couples who desire to have children in order to minimize the risk of viral infection [33]. Several people play a role in reproductive health decision making of PLWHA; the relatives who used traditional norms to encourage procreation; the health workers who violates the autonomy and human rights of HIV-infected by using their medical knowledge to dissuade clients from childbearing by preaching mandatory contraception [34] and the health care system that do not recognize and meet the sexual and reproductive health needs of their clients [35]. Health care providers in Africa must realize that it is their responsibility to offer information to enable HIV-infected persons arrive at their own informed decisions on their reproductive and sexual health needs regardless of the health professional’s opinion. Similarly, there may be need to offer additional training to enable counsellors’ particularly in sub Saharan Africa offer evidenced- based sexual and reproductive health information to their clients. Reproductive health policies in this HIV/AIDS era are lacking in most African settings. It is recommended that sero-discordant couples who desire to have children should undergo assisted fertility treatment such as sperm washing, intra uterine insemination and in-vitro fertilization to avoid HIV transmission to their partners [36]. However cost implication is a major issue affecting the feasibility of offering assisted fertility treatment such as sperm washing, intra uterine insemination and in-vitro fertilization particularly among low socioeconomic people. There is a major challenge with the development of evidenced- based, cost- effective and best-practice guidelines in most settings in Africa to optimize the sexual and reproductive health service rendered to persons living with HIV/AIDS. In resource-limited settings, couples should be counselled on ovulation cycles and may engage in timed unprotected sex only during the fertile period of the woman’s monthly cycle to facilitate conception while reducing number of exposures. If the man is HIV-negative with a positive partner, partners can be taught artificial insemination, timed to the woman’s fertile period. For couples in which both partners are positive, there may be need for a careful and informed natural conception when their viral loads have fallen to below the level of detection.
\nThere is increasing concern that Sub-Saharan Africa is the region where more women are infected by HIV than men. About 60 per cent of people living with HIV infections in Africa are women. Among young men and women aged 15 to 24 years, for every one man, four women are infected with HIV. There were 12-13 infected women to 10 infected men in 2001 [37]. Biological, cultural and socio-economic factors contribute to women’s greater vulnerability to HIV/AIDS. Women are 4 times more at risk of becoming infected with HIV during unprotected vaginal intercourse than men. The vagina’s greater area of susceptible tissue and micro trauma that occurs during sexual intercourse makes women more physiologically more vulnerable [38]. Semen has higher viral load than vaginal fluids and the semen stays longer in the female genital tract after sexual intercourse which increases the chances of HIV transmission. The synergy between HIV and sexually transmitted infection (STIs) is another biological factor that makes women more vulnerable to HIV. This is especially significant among African women. Most STI cases in women often go untreated, symptoms are often latent, women diagnosed with STIs are often stigmatised and majority have no access to medical treatments [39]. Socio-economic factors including women’s lack of access to education, personal income, and economic dependence on men perpetuate women’s lower status. Moreover widespread poverty often drives these vulnerable women into commercial sex work. Furthermore men control over condom use- the main tool for reducing the risk of sexual transmission of HIV puts women at risk of HIV. Cultural practices inherent in Africa such as forced marriage, polygamy, female genital mutilation and older men’s preferences for sex with younger women, Sexual violence coercion at home and in the work place during job hiring, promotion and to avoid dismissal are common practices, use of women as bait by companies to secure contracts, sexual abuse of orphans and domestic workers further complicates female gender vulnerability to HIV [40]. Moreover, women are more subjected to HIV stigma and discrimination. In Africa, the HIV virus that causes AIDS is transmitted through two major routes. The first, which accounts for 80 per cent of the cases, is through unprotected sex between men and women. This is followed by HIV transmission from mother to child during pregnancy, labour and breastfeeding, which is responsible for about 20 per cent of the cases. There are several biological, social and cultural reasons why women and girls in Africa are more vulnerable to HIV infection. Gender inequalities that exist in African society, women have less access to information than men, they are less likely to make informed decisions and act on information given, they have less access to education, and better jobs, money and other resources which can help them lead healthier lives. During vaginal sex, which is commonly practiced in Africa, the chance of HIV transmission from a man to a woman is two to three times greater than transmission from a woman to a man. This is due to the biological make up of the female genital tract. The female genital tract has a larger area of exposed tissue. Young girls are especially vulnerable when they have sex with older men because because the genital tract of young girls are immature, prone to tear and invasion by HIV.
\nThere has never been a better time than this to target and integrate sexual and reproductive health, family planning and HIV/AIDS services particularly in Africa. Most sceptics erroneously often consider reproductive health to be a euphemism for abortion services. It is worthy to note that reproductive health covers a broad range of women’s health issues including detecting and treating sexually transmitted infections and supporting HIV-infected women’s desire to have children safely. Integration of HIV and reproductive health has the potential to produce important HIV-related outcomes. Recent international consensus statements have urged the strengthening of these linkages [41]. In order to reduce HIV-infected births, infant and child mortality, the number of children orphaned by AIDS and maternal mortality, adding family planning and reproductive health to PMTCT, VCT and ARV programmes makes a logical and a programmatic sense.
\nData from most settings in Africa increasingly demonstrate that some HIV-infected women particularly those on ARVs as they begin to feel better and function more normally due to the effect of treatment on reduction on viral load, would like to become pregnant [42]. It is a growing expectation that the health system should have the ability to counsel HIV-positive women on the risk and benefits of child bearing and to respect the reproductive intentions, choices and rights including access to contraception and other reproductive health services. Previous report [22] indicates that reproductive health knowledge among HIV-infected subjects desiring to procreate was poor. Subjects were unaware of reproductive health options such as sperm washing, in vitro fertilization (IVF) and intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) available to reduce risk of infecting their partners and or baby. A significant number of men taking HAART have lower seminal concentration of HIV, and sexual transmission may be reduced. However, a certain percentage of aviraemic men retain viral presence in semen, and unprotected intercourse to achieve fertilization must be discouraged as it carries the risk of sexual transmission of the virus. HIV-discordant couples should be informed that sperm washing can remove HIV from semen, allowing conception without the risk of infection for the seronegative female and eventually the child. In HIV-positive women, perinatal transmission of HIV can be curtailed to less than 2% by using HAART to decrease maternal viral load and offering prenatal pre-exposure prophylaxis of the foetus, and elective Caesarean section. Each intervention carries specific risks and benefits. The contribution of each preventive arm in achieving foetal protection can only be crudely measured and optimal obstetric management must involve discussion with the pregnant woman of the pros and cons of each strategy. Several approaches have been suggested to reduce risk of horizontal transmission for HIV-affected couples who want to conceive children. These approaches includes the use of ; male sperm washing, IUI, ICSI, screening and pre-treatment for Sexually Transmitted Infections (STI’s), delay in procreation until viral load is controlled, limited, timed unprotected sexual encounters, female artificial insemination, self-insemination and circumcision. Accurate and accessible information to make informed choices and safe, pleasurable sexual relationships possible is best delivered through peer education and health professionals trained on empathetic approaches to sensitive issues [43]. Interventions based on positive prevention, which combine protection of personal health with avoiding HIV/STI transmission to partners, are recommended.
\nIt is increasing clear particularly that a significant majority of PLWHA in Africa are of reproductive age, that conception and reproductive options for this population are important issues for health care delivery and research and that HIV-seropositive individuals deserve full reproductive rights like every other person [44]. International reproductive guidelines shifted a decade ago from recommending avoidance of pregnancy to recognizing conception and parenting as realistic options and rights for people with HIV infection and their partners [45]. Mindful of this indisputable fact, US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has encouraged information and support for HIV-affected couples who want to explore their reproductive options [14]. There are many persons who plays a role in reproductive health decision making of persons living with HIV/AIDS: The relatives who used traditional norms to encourage procreation; the health workers who violates the autonomy and human rights of HIV-infected by using their medical knowledge to dissuade clients from childbearing by preaching mandatory contraception [34] and health care system that does not recognize and meet the sexual and reproductive health needs of their clients [35].Health care providers in Africa must realize that it is their responsibility to offer information to enable HIV-infected persons arrive at their own informed decisions on their reproductive and sexual health needs regardless of the health professional’s opinion. Similarly, there may need to offer additional training to enable counsellors’ offer evidenced- based sexual and reproductive health information to their clients. Reproductive health policies in this HIV/AIDS era are lacking in most African settings. It is recommended that sero-discordant couples who desire to have children should undergo assisted fertility treatment such as sperm washing, intra uterine insemination and
HIV-related stigma and discrimination remains an enormous barrier to the fight against AIDS. Fear of discrimination often prevents people from getting tested, seeking treatment and admitting their HIV status publicly. Since laws and policies alone cannot reverse the stigma that surrounds HIV infection, AIDS education in Africa needs to be scaled-up to combat the ignorance that causes people to discriminate. The fear and prejudice that lies at the core of HIV and AIDS discrimination needs to be tackled at both community and national levels. There is strong ethical imperative to support the sexual and reproductive health needs of HIV-infected individuals allowing them to make informed decisions about their reproductive health. Increasingly, fertility clinics in developed countries are offering their services to HIV-serodiscordant couples where the woman is seropositive and in HIV-seroconcordant relationships. Reproductive health care workers in Africa can learn from the evidenced- based best practices in the developed world to ensure that like their counterparts in most developed countries, HIV infected persons particularly in Africa can access the best quality reproductive and sexual health service. Recent advances in HIV clinical care and assisted reproduction technique (ART) procedures directed at reducing the risk of viral transmission during gamete transfer particularly where good healthcare is available has significantly reduced the risk of transmission of HIV among discordant couples to 1-2%. Promotion of risk reduction counselling, screening for sexually transmitted diseases and lower genital tract disease, assessment of options for birth control, and pre-conception counselling should be integral components of gynaecologic health care for HIV-infected women.
\nSince the beginning of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) epidemic, stigma and discrimination (SAD) have been identified as the major obstacles to effective responses to HIV [48]. HIV-affected couples who desire sexual and reproductive health services are faced with at least three distinct and daunting challenges. The first is dealing with stigma arising from many health care providers’ negative attitude towards sexual activity and child bearing by HIV infected couples [49] and stigmatization from immediate family members and society [32]. The second is maintaining the mother’s health before, during and after pregnancy. The third is preventing vertical transmission from mother to child as well as preventing HIV transmission to the partner in sero-discordant relationship. HIV/AIDS-related SAD has been extensively documented among health care providers. There have been many reports from health care settings of HIV testing without consent, breaches of confidentiality, labelling, gossip, verbal harassment, differential treatment, and even denial of treatment. HIV-infected-individuals who feel stigmatized by health care providers face problems accessing HIV testing and other sexual and reproductive health care services [50]. The fear of stigma impedes prevention efforts, including discussions of safer sex and the prevention of mother-to-child transmission [51].
\nSexually transmitted infection including HIV have always been imbued with stigma and discrimination particularly in Africa particularly due to their negative association with behaviour considered by society as deviant or immoral [52]. Stigma generally refers to negatively perceived defining characteristics either tangible or intangible. It is an attribute used to set the infected person or group from the normalized social order. It has a way of devaluing a person [53]. Similarly; societies have historically reacted with fear to disfiguring, debilitating, and fatal diseases and have translated this aversion into discriminatory actions against the infected [54]. The HIV/AIDS pandemic has presented the world with a condition that combines these characteristics – and it has frequently been met with stigma and discrimination, a reaction dubbed “the second epidemic” [55]. HIV infection affects women and men’s view of parenthood. It has a negative impact on their ability to have children, related not only to psychosocial aspects such as stigma and discrimination and decreased sexual activity, but also to the clinical impact of HIV infection and sexually transmitted infections (STIs) on fertility [56-57]. Learning more about stigma is important given the growing assertions that testing is a \'critical gateway\' to HIV prevention and treatment. As access to HIV testing and treatment improves, providers increasingly need to understand and address how stigma acts as a barrier to services. There is need to develop programs to address the negative service provider attitudes towards HIV-positive women, especially those wanting children. Stigma and discrimination is a population and health system level barrier that discourages HIV-infected women and men from seeking reproductive health counselling and other sexual and reproductive health counselling.
\nHIV-related stigmatization, discrimination and denial continue to characterize the pandemic in Africa and present a major challenge to the effectiveness of prevention, sexual and reproductive care and treatment programmes. Much of the societal and individual reaction towards people with HIV/AIDS is stigma and discrimination oriented. Stigmatization and discrimination occurs in a variety of forms. It ranges from societal level responses such as coercive government policies and laws, to apathy and denial of the HIV epidemic. At the individual level, the internalization of these societal responses may result in an individual\'s self-exclusion from information, treatment and care. Stigmatization and discrimination are often explored through socio-cultural understandings of illness and disease transmission and its manifestations at societal and individual level. Contexts of discrimination include employment, health care systems, and travel and migration restrictions. Although there are widespread reports of HIV-related discrimination throughout the world there has also been significant progress towards reducing these practices. In addition to what is being done there is still much that we need to understand about the forms and contexts of stigmatization and discrimination if we are to succeed in our efforts to control the HIV epidemic particularly in Africa [58]. Stigma and discrimination in Africa can be challenged. One way to reduce their impact is at the legislative level, it is also vital to focus on community-based interventions. These projects target stigmatization manifested in a wide range of community contexts, including: family and immediate community, workplace, health services, religion and the media.
\nMany HIV-infected men and women are now expressing their desire to have children. Although no conception methods are 100% risk -free of HIV infection other than those that use fresh sperm from an HIV negative donor or adoption. The strong desire among Africans to have their own biological children makes these options untenable for many PLWHA. However there is several risk reduction method for safer conception in which the HIV infected partner is on antiretroviral therapy to achieve a significant reduction of viral load and increase in CD4 count. Assisted reproductive technologies, including intrauterine insemination (IUI), in vitro fertilisation (IVF) and intracytoplasmatic sperm injection (ICSI) in combination with semen washing have been used to decrease the risk of HIV -1 transmission in HIV-1-infected discordant couples with an HIV-1-infected man particularly in developed countries. Previous report indicates that in HIV-positive men taking HAART, seminal viral load is decreased to undetectable limits but not eliminated and fertilization should be achieved through sperm washing to offer maximum protection for the uninfected female. Pregnant HIV-positive women on antiretroviral medication have a reduced risk of transmitting the virus, but should still be counselled about the possibility to further limit the chances of infecting their infant through elective Caesarean section. HIV sero-discordant couples with strong desire for childbearing have a dilemma of risking HIV infection or infecting their spouse. Some risk transmission of HIV infection to reproduce. Majority of HIV –infected couples wanting to procreate are having unprotected sex with their partners. Most persons living with HIV infection need information on viral load testing, awareness of post-exposure prevention and condom use. A paucity of interventions targeting HIV sero-discordant couples on contraceptive choices is at odds with a strong cultural importance in Africa attached to having children. HIV discordance creates a serious dilemma for fertility decision-making in couples. However, majority of these risk reduction method for safer conception are either unavailable regionally in Africa or unaffordable. Other low-technology and readily available and affordable option that could be used in Africa and other resource- constrained settings include; timed unprotected sexual intercourse for HIV concordant couples, vaginal insemination of fresh semen into the vagina via a disposable pipette or syringe, for HIV positive men with sero negative partners, the use of antiretroviral drugs by the HIV-infected male partner to lower HIV viral load in seminal plasma to undetectable levels, use of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) by the HIV sero-negative female partner prior to and following timed unprotected sex at the female partners ovulation period. It is vital that couples practice safer sex practices after conception and throughout the pregnancy. Previous report [59] has shown that HIV horizontal seroconversion occurred in couples who reported unsafe sex practices during pregnancy after conception. American researchers and clinicians have advocated the possibilities of using PrEP for safer conception [60]. A Recent study has indicated the potential role of PrEP in the prevention of heterosexual HIV transmission [61]. Similarly, the Pre-exposure Prophylaxis Initiative (IPrEx) trial using tenofovir/ emtricitabine has shown that PrEP is safe and capable of producing a reduction in HIV infection risk in HIV-seronegative men who have sex with men [62]. Also the CAPRISA 004 trial showed that the use of 1% tenofovir topical gel reduced the rate of HIV acquisition by 39% in heterosexual seronegative women [63]. The use of PrEP is rapidly growing as an important component of safer conception programs for HIV-serodiscordant couples [47, 64]. In the face of the high HIV prevalence in most African setting, it is expedient that low –technology, safer conception methods that is feasible, affordable and are acceptable is implemented.
\nSeveral studies have reported on the efficacy of sperm washing in combination with IUI in terms of pregnancy rates, live birth rates, and HIV transmission incidence [65- 67]. However, evaluation of the efficacy of this safer conception strategy is limited by methodological issues, including small sample sizes, lack of standardized protocols, and non-rigorous study designs. For example, most studies reported only on retrospective data and very few used control groups. Sperm washing and insemination lower transmission risk for HIV-negative women who want to have children with HIV-positive men. Data from the European experience which included a 14 years of follow up for 1,036 sero-discordant couples with an HIV-positive male resulted in 580 pregnancies and no HIV sero conversions [68].
\n\n\n
National medical societies such as the American Society of Reproductive Medicine and the American College of Obstetricians /Gynaecologist has re-affirmed that it is unethical to refuse to provide safer conception services to PLWHA [72].The protection of the sexual and reproductive health of all people including PLWHA has been recognized as a fundamental human right. PLWHA particularly in Africa have the right to choose to have children and to access non-judgemental, non-stigmatised and non-discriminatory evidenced-based quality sexual and reproductive services. There are however factors that need to be considered in implementing safer conception intervention; the feasibility, availability and affordability of the intervention, the need for antiretroviral therapy to ensure a low viral load, high CD4 count, absence of AIDS defining symptoms and STIs, the need for couple anticipating conception to be in a stable relationship [73], consideration of fertility problems in HIV-infected population, concomitant low success rate with assisted reproductive technologies in PLWHA, low pregnancy rate and high fetal death rates among HIV-infected women [74].
\nSustained and increased investment in sexual and reproductive health services in Africa promises tremendous benefits to women, families and societies. In addition to improved health, sexual and reproductive health services contribute to economic growth, societal and gender equity, and democratic governance. Evidence has shown that a significant number of HIV-infected persons in Africa desire to have children irrespective of their positive sero status. There is the need to support the sexual and reproductive rights of HIV-infected individuals. Additional training needs to be offered to HIV counsellors on evidenced- based best and affordable practices regarding reproductive health issues among persons living with HIV. There is the urgent need to develop policies that support the availability and accessibility to relevant reproductive and sexual health services including contraception and procreation. There is also the need for public enlightenment programmes on HIV to reduce the stigmatization that HIV-infected persons in sub Saharan Africa face from family members and their communities. Implementation of explicit policies recognizing reproductive rights and choice of HIV-infected in Africa as well as support for health counselling and service interventions that advance safer and healthier reproductive options for HIV positive individuals is advocated. Intrauterine insemination (IUI) and Intracytoplasmic sperm injection ICSI does not seem a cost-effective option in Africa and other resource-constrained settings. However vaginal insemination with the sperm of an HIV-seronegative male partner is highly feasible and has been found to be reasonably acceptable to both men and women and reduces the risk of transmission of HIV from infected women to their uninfected partners. This may be a practicable, affordable, low- technology, safer conception option that may need to be implemented in Africa and other resource-limited settings. There is increasing advocacy that timed, limited, unprotected sex for HIV-seroconcordant couples, and timed, unprotected sex accompanied by periconceptionPrEP for the HIV seronegative female partner in serodisconcordant relationship could form part of a harm-reduction strategy to reduce exposure to HIV when planning conception in resource-limited settings. There is the need to increase the awareness, understanding, and acceptability of readily available, affordable, evidenced-based, low-technology and safer conception strategies among PLWHA in Africa. Evidenced based –best practices needs to be implemented in Africa to avoid HIV transmission enabling HIV-affected couples to embark on safer childbearing and to prevent the risk of mother-to-child HIV transmission as well as infection of the uninfected partners particularly in sero-discordance relationships. Countries in Africa must now come to terms that failure of the health system to engage HIV-seropositive women and men in fertility management and denying safer conception services to PLWHA who want to conceive a child is unethical and a deprivation of their fundamental reproductive right.
\nOverweight and obesity are global health problems affecting more than 1.1 billion adults [1]. This is problematic in that overweight and obesity are prominent risk factors for the development of numerous conditions and diseases, including cardiovascular, pulmonary and metabolic diseases, such as diabetes mellitus [1, 2]. Consequently, overweight and obesity then result in enormous burdens on the healthcare system and burgeoning healthcare costs [3]. In weight loss regimes, it is important to note that the use of the term “overweight” is a misnomer, since overweight and obesity are situations of an individual being “overfat” and not just having a high weight [4].
Weight loss is a common aim for athletes, obese, overweight and even normal weight individuals. However, an optimal weight loss programme should concomitantly reduce body fat while maintaining lean mass [5]. As such, the relative effect of various interventions should be assessed on how they impact body composition, rather than weight loss. In this regard, body composition is the amount or percentage of tissues within in the body, primarily including body fluids, bone, fat and muscle tissue an individual has. Typically, body composition is defined as the distribution of the body tissues into extracellular water, fat-free mass/lean mass and fat mass [6]. In this regard, two individuals of the same gender, height and weight can look completely different because of differences in body composition.
Further, in addition to total fatness, fat topography or distribution in the body has been found to be even more important for health promotion and disease prevention [7, 8]. This is so since abdominal visceral fat deposition is especially associated with an increased risk for a variety of health problems and metabolic disturbances such as “syndrome x” [9]. An increased intra-abdominal visceral fat even in the absence of a high body mass index (BMI) or generalised obesity can increase mortality and morbidity from chronic diseases and health conditions such as heart disease, hypertension and diabetes mellitus [7].
The most common strategy employed globally for weight loss is the use of dietary intervention or the cutting of calories [10]. This strategy is based on the “calories in versus calories out” model and maintains that you will lose weight if you take in less calories than you use. Problematically, the human body is more complex than that. Human bodies are not static and have a multitude of fluctuations in energy needs, such as stress and activity levels. Further, even the timing and composition of meals will affect nutrient intake, such as the thermic effect of food [11].
Further reasons against the use of caloric restriction strategies for weight loss arise from research findings that treatments relying only on energy restriction commonly cause substantial loss of lean mass [12]. Further, severe caloric restriction is also associated with impairment of muscle dysfunction and aerobic capacity, which is especially detrimental for athletes [13].
Thankfully, the addition of exercise, has frequently been shown to mitigate this loss in lean mass and physiological impairments [12], and potentially offset athletic performance decrements. Exercise is especially useful with weight loss in that it acutely increases energy and lipid utilisation and contributes to increases in lean mass and metabolic rate, which indirectly aids weight loss [14]. It is for this reason that exercise is considered an important component of weight loss and perhaps the best predictor of weight maintenance [15]. Specifically, at least 30 min a day of moderate intensity aerobic exercise per day is recommended for weight loss and maintenance but greater amounts appear to increase the magnitude of weight loss and maintenance [15].
It is critical to note that many weight loss programmes incorporating diet-only and/or even aerobic-only exercise results in weight loss as a result of a deleterious reduction in muscle mass [16], sometimes even without a decrease in fat mass [16]. When it comes to weight loss, it is clear that a combination of interventions is more effective than a single intervention strategy [17]. Thus, it is critical for clients and health professionals alike to emphasis body recomposition, rather than weight loss, since it focuses on the process of changing the ratio of fat and lean mass, with a focus on losing fat mass while gaining muscle mass. In this regard, research indicates that resistance training (RT) as an exercise modality is most effective at increasing lean mass [8]. RT, also known as strength training or weight training, is any type of exercise in which a muscle or muscle group has to overcome some sort of external resistance. This can be achieved through a variety of techniques, including incremental weight increases, the use of a variety of exercises and types of equipment to target specific muscles or muscle groups. As such, RT can also incorporate a variety of training techniques, such as callisthenics, Pilates, yoga, free weights, weight machines, resistance bands, isometrics, high-intensity interval training (HITT) and plyometrics.
Problematically, a challenge to body recomposition and RT’s unpopularity in weight management is that this loss in fat mass coupled with an increase in fat mass results in a relatively stable weight, that is undesirable by those engaged in “weight loss”. In addition, due to this stigma of an increased muscle mass following RT, many individual engaging in a weight management programme fail to engage in RT [18].
RT results in a plethora of physiological changes and adaptions that are well suited to weight loss and body recomposition. In this regard, a unique feature of RT is its ability to maintain or increase muscle mass. It is this increase in muscle mass that not only offsets declines in performance and health, but also increases metabolic rate. In this regard, while aerobic exercise may burn slightly more calories per hour than RT (i.e. running at five miles per hour burns approximately 606 calories per hour for a 73 kg individual versus a general resistance training session for 1 h that burns an average of 448 calories per hour for a 70 kg individual), each kg of muscle burns off around 13 calories per day [19]. As such, even a modest 5 kg increase in muscle mass will result in an additional 65 calories being burnt daily. Further, research has demonstrated that while caloric expenditure of RT is only slightly less than aerobic exercise, excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC) and post-exercise caloric expenditure are higher following RT (even when matched for oxygen consumption and equal durations) [20] and this may have an additional favourable consequence on weight management programmes.
Physiologists may be interested in the effect of exercise on basal metabolic.
rate, fat size and distribution, and dietary-induced thermogenesis, whereas other scientists, such as nutritionists and psychologists may be concerned about the possible effect of exercise on other factors, such as habitual nutrient intake, and effect on body image and self-concept, feelings of well-being and adherence, respectively. In this regard, the addition (but not sole use) of RT to aerobic training can reduce the amount of total calories, carbohydrates, proteins and fats consumed and as such promotes a favourable improvement in self-reported dietary intake [21].
While greater amounts of exercise appear to increase the magnitude of weight loss and maintenance [15], it must be noted that too much exercising actually prevents body fat loss due to increases in cortisol. In fact, research suggests this raised cortisol leads to overeating, weight gain and an increase in abdominal fat [22].
Further, many individuals engaging in a weight loss programme fail to utilise RT for fear of “bulking up”, “looking manly”, or “becoming muscle-bound”. While it is true that RT is the exercise of choice for bodybuilders, many individuals, and females in general, lack the hormonal and genetic profile to develop overly large muscles [23].
A particular problem amongst children and health professionals working with children is the erroneous belief that all RT results in damage to the epiphyseal or growth plates [24]. Despite the need for RT in supporting neural adaptation during normal physiological maturation, RT has proven effective at weight loss and body recomposition in children and adolescents [25, 26]. While literature and research indicate that some risk of injury from RT does exist, this is comparable to that of sports children are already participating in and that risk for injury in children is not dramatically elevated by RT and can be minimised by effective programme design (i.e. appropriate programme development) and education (i.e. on lifting technique) [24, 27].
While the term spot reduction or spot training (the localised loss of fat as a result of exercising a particular part of the body), is commonly practiced using RT, research in this area is still contradictory [28]. In this regard, the present body of knowledge is insufficient about the plastic heterogeneity of regional body tissues when a localised RT programme is applied [28].
A common prevailing myth is the belief that fat can be turned into muscle. However, this is not a physiological probability since skeletal muscle consists of numerous protein muscle fibres, which in turn, are comprised of a number of myofibrils containing multiple myofilaments [29]. On the contrary, body fat, which is known as adipose tissue consists of triglycerides, which consist of glycerol and three fatty acid chains. Fat is exclusively made up of numerous carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms [30]. As such, due to this differentiation in muscle and fat cell chemical composition, neither can be converted into the other [31].
The majority of exercise recommendations for weight loss endorse aerobic-type activities with a focus on a significant caloric expenditure during the exercise session [10]. In this regard, the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) emphasises diet restriction and aerobic exercise, while not assigning RT a major role in weight maintenance and weight loss, due to insufficient evidence. This is problematic in that RT has a multitude of health benefits and has proven effective in the short-term for modestly decreasing body fat, especially in conjunction with dietary interventions [32]. More importantly, research suggests that RT can also play a vital role in long-term weight management, especially in that it utilises additional mechanisms to that of aerobic exercise [33].
However, for any exercise programme to be effective at weight management, continuous adjustments need to be made to the programme design variables, namely; choice of exercises, order of exercises, frequency, load (weight), volume, rest periods, variation and progression [34].
While almost any RT exercise will have a positive impact on health promotion and weight management, RT exercises for weight management should focus on large muscle groups and those exercises utilising compound movements, such Olympic lifts, deadlifts and squats. Since these compound exercises require an elevated oxygen use and hormonal response and result in high-calorie-expenditure. These compound exercises should be prioritised in an effective RT programme for weight management. In addition, training the larger muscle groups will also result in an enhanced hypertrophy and increased basal metabolic rate (BMR) (i.e. minimum number of calories required for basic functions at rest) and resting metabolic rate (RMR) (i.e. the number of calories the body burns while at rest) in the long-term [35].
Further, although many programme designs exist or RT sessions, recommendations for weight loss suggest progressing from multi-joint to single-joint exercises in RT sessions. This may be especially important from a safety standpoint to prevent any undue consequences of muscle fatigue at the end of a workout [35].
Since the principal determinant of BMR is body mass, and more specifically lean mass [36], RT has important long-term implications for successful weight management. This is because RT is the primary exercise intervention for increasing muscle mass [37]. When it comes to hypertrophy, recent research indicates a dose-response relationship between the total number of weekly sets and increases in muscle growth [38]. In this regard, health professionals should consider all aspects related to increasing training volume, such as the total number of sets, reps or time under tension, and resistance (weight) utilised during a training day, month or other block of training time. Thankfully, this increased volume of training serves a dual purpose as it is also deemed high-caloric expenditure in nature. Specifically, moderate loads for hypertrophy correspond to approximately 8–15 of one-repetition maximum (1-RM) [39] and should be performed for three to five sets per exercise to increase volume [37, 40].
As the outcome of RT is the same as for that of aerobic exercise interventions for weight loss, it important to note that research indicates a graded dose-response relationship whereby increases in RT volume (i.e. increased number of weekly sets) produce greater gains in muscle hypertrophy [37]. This increase in RT dose also results in an increased caloric expenditure and improves the prognosis not only for hypertrophy but also for weight loss. As for any exercise intervention (whether RT or aerobic), cognisance should be taken of the training status of the individual, with beginners training less frequently and well-trained individuals training more frequently. RT is especially useful in this area of programme design in that it allows for split routines, whereby upper-body and lower-body can be trained on alternate days to facilitate and enhance recovery.
While 3–5 min rest periods are advocated between RT sets for multiple sets per exercise [40], well-trained individuals can consider exercise sets with minimal rest periods for optimising weight loss [41]. This is because decreasing rest periods or making use of super sets has been demonstrated to increase training intensity [40]. Problematically, while RT with minimal rest periods is considered as most effective for weight and fat loss, it can cause significant central nervous system fatigue and eventual overtraining [42].
While it is important to keep the exercises used in a programme fairly consistent for weeks or months in a particular training period to prevent overuse, health professionals must allow for new ways to stimulate muscle growth and fat utilisation. For example; this could be accomplished by manipulating the number of sets, the number or repetitions, the weight utilised during exercises or additional training days could be added as well to increase overall volume. In turn, when training at a specific repetition maximum (RM) load, it is recommended that a 2–10% increase in load be applied when the individual can perform the current workload for one to two repetitions over the desired number [40]. Progressive increases in volume should be observed for a particular training block of weeks or months, followed by a period of decreased volume. This aids in preventing training plateaus, injury and boredom [40]. Table 1 provides guidelines on the approaches for the implementation of resistance training in weight management.
Frequency | Intensity | Repetitions | Sets | Type |
---|---|---|---|---|
3 or more days/week; aim to increase volume and caloric expenditure; split routines can be utilised to enhance recovery; beginners: train less frequently; well-trained: train more frequently | Moderate loads for hypertrophy | 8–15 of 1-RM; emphasis is on volume | 3–5 per exercise; with minimal duration rest intervals; emphasis is on volume | Multi-joint/compound exercise utilising more than one muscle or muscle group |
Guidelines for resistance training programme design for body recomposition and weight loss.
Despite the credible evidence that exists to suggest that RT can play an important role in a comprehensive weight loss programme, RT is not promoted as widely as aerobic interventions. Problematically, while the inclusion of RT may not optimally enhance short-term weight loss in all populations, the integration of RT with dietary interventions could facilitate long-term fat loss, while preserving lean mass while increasing RMR and BMR. This is in addition to the significant and unique health and functional benefits that RT provides. However, in order to stimulate adaptation toward weight loss and body recomposition, specific progressive RT protocols are necessary that focus on caloric expenditure through high volume training (s with other modes of exercise) and hypertrophy.
The authors would like to acknowledge the contributions made by the Non-Communicable Disease Intervention Research Unit (NCDIRU).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\n\nWe have adopted the Protocol to increase the number of readers of our publications. All our Works are more widely accessible, with resulting benefits for scholars, researchers, students, libraries, universities and other academic institutions. Through this method of exposing metadata, IntechOpen enables citation indexes, scientific search engines, scholarly databases, and scientific literature collections to gather metadata from our repository and make our publications available to a broader academic audience.
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This demand has been partly addressed by the substitution of natural alternatives to synthetic ingredients. One such example in this endeavour, is the study of the application of natural biopolymers as food emulsion stabilisers. When biopolymers such as proteins and polysaccharides or their complexes are applied as emulsion stabilisers, they exhibit different modes of action. These include acting as emulsifiers (polypeptides), increasing the viscosity of the medium (polysaccharides), reducing coalescence by coating individual droplets as well as acting as weighting agents (polysaccharides and polypeptides). Biopolymers can be covalently complexed using chemical, enzymatic or thermal treatments. These treatments generally increase the robustness and solubility of the final complexes. Biopolymer complexes have been reported to show higher stability to varying temperatures, pH and ionic strength. When two incompatible biopolymers are mixed, either associative or segregative phase separation occurs. The former involves separation of oppositely charged polymers due to electrostatic repulsion and the latter involves separation of similarly charged or neutral biopolymers. In this chapter, the stabilising effect, complexation, mode of action, phase behaviour and future application of biopolymers in emulsions are discussed.",book:{id:"6519",slug:"science-and-technology-behind-nanoemulsions",title:"Science and Technology Behind Nanoemulsions",fullTitle:"Science and Technology Behind Nanoemulsions"},signatures:"Yvonne Maphosa and Victoria A. 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Phase behavior studies of microemulsion are a very important tool in describing the interaction of an aqueous phase containing surfactant with hydrocarbon phase to form the Type III microemulsion. Microemulsion highly depends on brine salinity and the interfacial tension (IFT) changes as microemulsion phase transition occurs. At optimal salinity, Type III microemulsion forms, whereas salinity greater or lower than optimal value causes a significant increase in the IFT, resulting in insufficient oil displacement efficiency. Type III microemulsion at optimum salinity is characterized by ultra-low IFT, and extremely high oil recovery can be achieved. 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These ostensibly simple and ubiquitous processes involve numerous physics: droplet spreading and wetting, three-phase contact line motion, flow fields inside droplets, and mass transportation within droplets during drying. Meanwhile, the continuous evaporation of liquid produces inter- and/or intra-molecular interactions among suspended materials and builds up the internal stress within droplets. After drying, interesting and complex desiccation patterns form in the dried droplets. These desiccation patterns are believed to have wide applications, e.g., medical diagnosis. However, many potential applications are limited by the current understanding of wetting and drying of colloidal droplets. This chapter focuses on the complex physics associated with these processes and the pattern formation in the dried colloidal droplets. Moreover, potential applications of these desiccation patterns and prospective works of wetting and drying of the colloidal droplets are outlined in this chapter.",book:{id:"5403",slug:"advances-in-colloid-science",title:"Advances in Colloid Science",fullTitle:"Advances in Colloid Science"},signatures:"Ruoyang Chen, Liyuan Zhang, Duyang Zang and Wei Shen",authors:[{id:"187613",title:"Prof.",name:"Duyang",middleName:null,surname:"Zang",slug:"duyang-zang",fullName:"Duyang Zang"}]},{id:"59511",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74221",title:"Stresses and Strains Distribution of a Developed Cold Bituminous Emulsion Mixture Using Finite Element Analysis",slug:"stresses-and-strains-distribution-of-a-developed-cold-bituminous-emulsion-mixture-using-finite-eleme",totalDownloads:1038,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Cold bitumen emulsion mixtures (CBEMs) offer an energy-efficient, sustainable and cost-effective alternative to conventional hot asphalt mixtures, as no heating is required to produce the CBEMs. The enhancement of flexible pavements performance by modifying asphalt mixture has been considered valuable. This is due to the undesirable environmental conditions and heavy loads that will cause unsatisfactory performance of conventional mixtures. Empirical methods using layers with elastic response have been largely used to design such mixtures. Currently fast and powerful design techniques are used to reduce the limitation in determining stresses, strains and displacement in flexible pavements analysis. This research presents a simple and more practicable design procedure of CBEM and discusses limitations of this design. Also, present the properties and characteristics of modified CBEMs for surface course mixture using glass fibre as a reinforcing material. In addition, a three-dimensional (3D) finite element analysis (FEA) simulation for the prediction of pavement mechanical behaviour and performance is carried out using ABAQUS software in which element types, model dimensions and meshing have been taken to achieve appropriate accuracy and convergence.",book:{id:"6519",slug:"science-and-technology-behind-nanoemulsions",title:"Science and Technology Behind Nanoemulsions",fullTitle:"Science and Technology Behind Nanoemulsions"},signatures:"Hayder Kamil Shanbara, Felicite Ruddock and William Atherton",authors:[{id:"223414",title:"Dr.",name:"Hayder",middleName:null,surname:"Shanbara",slug:"hayder-shanbara",fullName:"Hayder Shanbara"},{id:"238617",title:"Mrs.",name:"Felicite",middleName:null,surname:"Ruddock",slug:"felicite-ruddock",fullName:"Felicite Ruddock"},{id:"238619",title:"Dr.",name:"William",middleName:null,surname:"Atherton",slug:"william-atherton",fullName:"William Atherton"}]},{id:"66492",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84538",title:"Application of Emulsions and Microemulsions in Enhanced Oil Recovery and Well Stimulation",slug:"application-of-emulsions-and-microemulsions-in-enhanced-oil-recovery-and-well-stimulation",totalDownloads:1441,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Hydrocarbons are produced and transported in a form of mixtures containing oil, gas, and water plus organic and inorganic contaminants. The flow presence of these contaminants (emulsifiers) with the continuous agitation from reservoirs up to surface facilities leads to formation of tight emulsions that need to be dealt with carefully to treat and process them adequately. Emulsions, in the other hand, are sometimes intentionally formed for using in enhanced oil recovery (EOR) and well stimulation. In EOR, emulsions are formed and injected into the reservoirs for the objective of improving both the microscopic displacement efficiency and the macroscopic sweep efficiency, which leads to higher recovery factor. In well stimulation emulsified acids are used during matrix acidizing and acid fracturing to retard acid reaction with rocks, to generate deeper penetration inside the reservoir. Microemulsion is a form of emulsion with less droplet size, and hence higher stability, that occasionally used during EOR and hydraulic fracturing to further improve the reservoir recovery and well production rate. This chapter discusses the application of emulsions and microemulsions in petroleum industry. The chapter discusses emulsions, microemulsions, emulsification processes, application of emulsions and microemulsions in enhanced oil recovery and well stimulations, and ended with conclusions.",book:{id:"6830",slug:"microemulsion-a-chemical-nanoreactor",title:"Microemulsion",fullTitle:"Microemulsion - a Chemical Nanoreactor"},signatures:"Mysara E. Mohyaldinn, Anas M. Hassan and Mohammed A. Ayoub",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"60140",title:"Factors Affecting the Stability of Emulsions Stabilised by Biopolymers",slug:"factors-affecting-the-stability-of-emulsions-stabilised-by-biopolymers",totalDownloads:2660,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:"There has been an increase in consumer demand for healthy food products made from natural ingredients. This demand has been partly addressed by the substitution of natural alternatives to synthetic ingredients. One such example in this endeavour, is the study of the application of natural biopolymers as food emulsion stabilisers. When biopolymers such as proteins and polysaccharides or their complexes are applied as emulsion stabilisers, they exhibit different modes of action. These include acting as emulsifiers (polypeptides), increasing the viscosity of the medium (polysaccharides), reducing coalescence by coating individual droplets as well as acting as weighting agents (polysaccharides and polypeptides). Biopolymers can be covalently complexed using chemical, enzymatic or thermal treatments. These treatments generally increase the robustness and solubility of the final complexes. Biopolymer complexes have been reported to show higher stability to varying temperatures, pH and ionic strength. When two incompatible biopolymers are mixed, either associative or segregative phase separation occurs. The former involves separation of oppositely charged polymers due to electrostatic repulsion and the latter involves separation of similarly charged or neutral biopolymers. In this chapter, the stabilising effect, complexation, mode of action, phase behaviour and future application of biopolymers in emulsions are discussed.",book:{id:"6519",slug:"science-and-technology-behind-nanoemulsions",title:"Science and Technology Behind Nanoemulsions",fullTitle:"Science and Technology Behind Nanoemulsions"},signatures:"Yvonne Maphosa and Victoria A. Jideani",authors:[{id:"18450",title:"Prof.",name:"Victoria",middleName:null,surname:"Jideani",slug:"victoria-jideani",fullName:"Victoria Jideani"},{id:"201151",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Yvonne",middleName:null,surname:"Maphosa",slug:"yvonne-maphosa",fullName:"Yvonne Maphosa"}]},{id:"52371",title:"Manganese Sulfide (MnS) Nanocrystals: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications",slug:"manganese-sulfide-mns-nanocrystals-synthesis-properties-and-applications",totalDownloads:2814,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"Manganese(II) sulfide (MnS) is an interesting material for both fundamental and applicative research, especially when its bulk properties are modulated by reducing the size into the nanometric region (< 100 nm). Due to its polymorphism, MnS is an attractive material to develop synthetic strategies for polymorphism control. We have reviewed the literature concerning MnS nanosystems having at least one dimension smaller than 100 nm. Successful synthetic techniques for the preparation of zero- and one-dimensional MnS nanosystems (either homogeneous and heterogeneous) with size, shape, and polymorphism control are presented with emphasis on solvothermal techniques and on studies devoted to understanding the growth mechanism and the polymorphism. Properties and applications are collected in three broad areas corresponding to nanosize MnS used as an optical, electric, and magnetic material. MnS has attracting properties such as its large bandgap, which makes it promising for emission in the ultraviolet region. The magnetic properties have also arisen attention since MnS is antiferromagnetic at low temperature and (super)paramagnetic at room temperature. Finally, the layered structure of the hexagonal polymorph is responsible for the good performance of nanosize MnS as a lithium-ion battery electrode or supercapacitor material since the insertion/exchange of small ions is easy.",book:{id:"5403",slug:"advances-in-colloid-science",title:"Advances in Colloid Science",fullTitle:"Advances in Colloid Science"},signatures:"Anna M. Ferretti, Sara Mondini and Alessandro Ponti",authors:[{id:"189155",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandro",middleName:null,surname:"Ponti",slug:"alessandro-ponti",fullName:"Alessandro Ponti"},{id:"194648",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna M.",middleName:null,surname:"Ferretti",slug:"anna-m.-ferretti",fullName:"Anna M. Ferretti"},{id:"194649",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Mondini",slug:"sara-mondini",fullName:"Sara Mondini"}]},{id:"60144",title:"Effects of Interfacial Tension Alteration on the Destabilization of Water-Oil Emulsions",slug:"effects-of-interfacial-tension-alteration-on-the-destabilization-of-water-oil-emulsions",totalDownloads:1438,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Resolution of water-in-oil emulsion is a major crude oil processing requirement in oil industry. To improve the quality of the oil and fulfill regulatory requirements numerous chemical demulsifiers of varying efficiencies and effectiveness have been developed over the years. In this study, we have investigated the effects of water content, temperature, and different concentrations of Sodium Methyl Ester Sulfonate (SMES) on emulsion viscosity profiles and stability under distinct levels of salinities. The water content was measured with the American Standard Testing Method ASTM D4928 while SARA analysis was conducted using the ASTM D3279 and ASTM D6591 methods. The density and viscosity of the samples were measured following the ASTM D5002 and ASTM D445 techniques respectively while the emulsion stability was evaluated based on the rate of sedimentation, flocculation and coalescence from Turbiscan classic MA 2000. Refractometer with the aid of a light-emitting diode, a sapphire prism and a high-resolution optical sensor was used to measure the refractive index while interfacial tension was measured with spinning drop tensiometer. The emulsion samples were investigated at 25, 50 and 75°C. Analyses show that the interactions of the constituents of a crude oil system, the produced water system and the emulsion system play major roles in the characterization of water-in-crude oil emulsions. Hence, the stability of water-in-crude oil emulsions is related to the viscous force presented by the continuous phase, water cut and salinity.",book:{id:"6519",slug:"science-and-technology-behind-nanoemulsions",title:"Science and Technology Behind Nanoemulsions",fullTitle:"Science and Technology Behind Nanoemulsions"},signatures:"Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon and Bamikole Joshua Adeyemi",authors:[{id:"228105",title:"Dr.",name:"Aliyu",middleName:null,surname:"Adebayo Sulaimon",slug:"aliyu-adebayo-sulaimon",fullName:"Aliyu Adebayo Sulaimon"},{id:"239984",title:"Mr.",name:"Bamikole",middleName:null,surname:"Adeyemi",slug:"bamikole-adeyemi",fullName:"Bamikole Adeyemi"}]},{id:"71462",title:"Thermal and Acoustic Numerical Simulation of Foams for Constructions",slug:"thermal-and-acoustic-numerical-simulation-of-foams-for-constructions",totalDownloads:743,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Cellular foams are widely employed as insulation materials, both thermal and acoustic, often in competition with traditional fibrous insulation material, e.g., rock wool. As for the acoustic and thermal properties, several models have been developed to predict acoustic properties of poroelastic materials, but they are usually applied to fibrous layers or polyurethane foams, whereas their application to new materials like complex cellular foams has not been assessed due to the different cell microstructures. There is a very strong interest both in industrial and academic in developing novel insulation materials; accordingly, the possibility of ideally designing the cellular foam microstructure to achieve desired acoustic performances appears a highly attractive target. The paper will first discuss the state-of-the-art acoustic and thermal models and their application to cellular foam materials. Then a novel sustainable alginate-based foam material will be analyzed as a case study, by focusing the aspects related to their microstructure and acoustic properties. For the derivation of an acoustic model, the determination of the parameters of Johnson-Champoux-Allard (JCA) acoustic model (tortuosity, viscous characteristic length, thermal characteristic length, porosity, and flow resistivity) was performed using five different forecasting methods, including traditional analytical model for fibrous materials as well as inverse procedure.",book:{id:"8111",slug:"foams-emerging-technologies",title:"Foams",fullTitle:"Foams - Emerging Technologies"},signatures:"Marco Caniato, Giada Kyaw Oo D’Amore and Jan Kašpar",authors:null},{id:"66314",title:"Effect of Surfactants on Bubble-Particle Interactions",slug:"effect-of-surfactants-on-bubble-particle-interactions",totalDownloads:1096,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"The interaction of air bubbles with solid particles is an important mechanism in many industrial processes, e.g., in flotation, fermentation, wetting, multiphase reactors, columns, etc. The surface-active agents are adsorbed both on air-liquid and solid-liquid interfaces and significantly influence the bubble-particle interaction. In this chapter, the mechanism, dynamics, and fundamental steps of bubble adhesion onto the solid surface are described. The first part is devoted to the description of influence of surfactants on the bubble behavior during the collision, as well as their influence on thinning and breaking of liquid film. The second part describes the effect of surfactants on the formation and expansion of the three-phase contact line between the bubble and the hydrophobic solid particle. The important role of surfactant type, concentration, and purity is discussed.",book:{id:"7735",slug:"surfactants-and-detergents",title:"Surfactants and Detergents",fullTitle:"Surfactants and Detergents"},signatures:"Pavlína Basařová and Mária Zedníková",authors:[{id:"289395",title:"Dr.",name:"Pavlína",middleName:null,surname:"Basařová",slug:"pavlina-basarova",fullName:"Pavlína Basařová"},{id:"289396",title:"Dr.",name:"Mária",middleName:null,surname:"Zedníková",slug:"maria-zednikova",fullName:"Mária Zedníková"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"504",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 25th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82380",title:"Evolution of Parasitism and Pathogenic Adaptations in Certain Medically Important Fungi",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105206",signatures:"Gokul Shankar Sabesan, Ranjit Singh AJA, Ranjith Mehenderkar and Basanta Kumar Mohanty",slug:"evolution-of-parasitism-and-pathogenic-adaptations-in-certain-medically-important-fungi",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11400.jpg",subseries:{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. Soogun, Ayesha B.M. Kharsany, Temesgen Zewotir and Delia North",slug:"spatial-variation-and-factors-associated-with-unsuppressed-hiv-viral-load-among-women-in-an-hiv-hype",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82193",title:"Enterococcal Infections: Recent Nomenclature and emerging trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104792",signatures:"Kavita Raja",slug:"enterococcal-infections-recent-nomenclature-and-emerging-trends",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82207",title:"Management Strategies in Perinatal HIV",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105451",signatures:"Kayla Aleshire and Rima Bazzi",slug:"management-strategies-in-perinatal-hiv",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6667",title:"Influenza",subtitle:"Therapeutics and Challenges",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6667.jpg",slug:"influenza-therapeutics-and-challenges",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. 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Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. The endocrine and nervous systems play important roles in maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Integration, which is the biological basis of physiology, is achieved through communication between the many overlapping functions of the human body's systems, which takes place through electrical and chemical means. Much of the basis of our knowledge of human physiology has been provided by animal experiments. Because of the close relationship between structure and function, studies in human physiology and anatomy seek to understand the mechanisms that help the human body function. 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His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. Her main research interest is sarcopenia in older adults, especially its association with nutritional status. Additionally, to understand how to maintain and improve physical function in older adults, to conduct studies about the mechanism of sarcopenia and determine when possible interventions are needed.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ritsumeikan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261"},editorialBoard:[{id:"213786",title:"Dr.",name:"Henrique P.",middleName:null,surname:"Neiva",slug:"henrique-p.-neiva",fullName:"Henrique P. 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