Practices and different activities taking place in communities of practice.
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
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\r\n\tSatellite radar altimetry, with its global coverage and level of precision, has been a key technique for observing the ocean surface and many aspects of land surfaces over the last three decades. Together with Earth sciences, it has integrated the efforts of international researchers to demonstrate the techniques, missions, measurements, and satellite altimetry accuracy, including orbit determination and ocean circulation models. Satellite altimetry has revolutionized our understanding of the Earth’s sea-level shape and its change over time, monitoring the natural and human-induced water mass balance change, marine gravity computations, and high-resolution seafloor bathymetry reconstruction, plate tectonics, etc., thus providing significant impact for climate and environmental studies. For researchers in geodesy and geophysics, oceanography, and other space and earth sciences, satellite radar altimetry is critical for unifying the vertical height systems, regional and global geoid modelling, and monitoring the sea level rise impact but also the ice sheet melting and others. This book gives a state-of-the-art overview of the technology itself and recent developments, including the applied studies utilizing the altimeter data for ice sheet monitoring, vertical land motion estimating, bathymetric computations, and marine geoid modelling, but also Synthetic Aperture Radar altimetry, coastal altimetry tracking methods and new satellite missions (e.g., Sentinel-6).
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Building effective working relationships among academics through their participation in communities of practice is very important as ways of collaborating, sharing ideas, mutual engagements as well as knowledge sharing. Good working relationships among colleagues in an organisation help to achieve the aims and objectives as well as promoting good outcomes among members of the organisation. This chapter will be on communities of practice and how to build effective working relationships among academics through their participation. The types of communities of practice existing among universities’ lecturers, especially towards maintaining effective working relationships will be considered. Also, social learning theory which primarily focused on theorising the concept of community of practice will be considered as part of the scope of this chapter. The activities the academics engaged in such communities of practice and how such activities are carried out will also form the scope of this chapter. In addition, why focus on communities of practice among academics as well as relevance of communities of practice to their professional development will also be considered.
\nThe CoP are expedient ways of building working relationships among academics as university teachers. Building effective working relationships can only be achievable through commitment, engagement, mutual understanding, interactions, collaborations, willingness to participate and contribute, and the determination to assist others for the sake of their professional development. CoP may exist among academics within the same department or other departments in the same university. Sometimes, CoP could extend to other universities where academics from various departments in different universities relate and collaborate as groups. The common adage that says “a tree cannot make a forest”, is so true and real when it comes to CoP. People must come together as a group and before such group can evolve, they must have aims and objectives to achieve. Creating such a group must be purposive, vision and mission driven. Such a group should operate informed by the guiding rules and principles for actions of group members. Hence, CoP are imperative, purposive and cannot just be accidental.
\nAs a model of professional development, CoP is an approach to teachers’ professional development which enable academics to learn from and with their colleagues within their universities’ communities [1]. The concept of CoP dates back to early 1990s. [2] in their work draw from the situated learning. Situated learning came into light as a result of learning among practitioners which take place in social relationships in their workplace instead of classroom. [2] view this concept as fostering interactions among workers which is inclusive of workers that are experts and trainees. It involves forming and norming which is necessary for the process of creating professional identity for trainees. The forming stage is the initial stage of putting the group together. At this stage, each member learns about their group needs, expectations and challenges. The norming stage is the phase where the team actually starts to function and work as a team. At this stage, members begin to understand each other’s work practices and ethic. Group members’ roles and responsibilities are clearly defined at this stage, rules guiding the members are defined, expectations from the members are set and teamwork begin among group members. In the interactions, experts serve as professionals who are consulted by new members and offer them professional advices. Through such interactions, problems were identified, experts learn more while new members also became experts through professional support offered to them. Few years later, Wenger developed on the situated learning through an empirical study of one insurance firm where Etienne focused primarily on theorising the concept of community of practice [3]. The key premise of his theoretical work is that CoP can arise in any domain of human endeavour, or organisation. This speaks to the wider scope of application of CoP as a framework that informs, frames, and focuses on professional development activities in different organisations, including educational settings.
\nIt is also expected that universities’ lecturers who have experience should build strong CoP where they will groom young graduates who have passion for research and teaching especially those who are willingly to go into teaching profession in higher education institutions. The willingness to embark on this journey of professional development is critical for the success of a CoP. Once practitioners are willing to do so, then support from senior colleagues in terms of collaboration and mutual engagement is highly recommended. [4] in their study on collaboration and mutual support as processes established by CoP to improve continuing professional teachers’ development claim that effective participation of teachers in CoP is key to having mutual relationships among members through engagement in collaborative learning activities. This implies that teachers are expected to be active members in CoP, and participation is key to forge mutual relationships among group members by engaging in collaborative learning activities for their professional development.
\nCoP are groups of people who share a concern, a set of problems, or a passion about a topic, and who deepen their knowledge and expertise in this area by interacting on an on-going basis [5]. The people involved must identify a problem, have passion for the tasks involved and must be experts in that area. One thing that is peculiar with CoP is that, the communities occur when a group of people who have desire to achieve certain things come together, interact and jointly work together to achieve their goals. Thus, CoP can occur anywhere, in a school, university, college or in an organisation. [6] note that CoP are groups of persons who have concerns or desire for certain things they engaged with and they show willingness to learn how to improve on it by interacting often with their group members.
\nLearning within CoP involves three essential processes, namely:
evolving forms of mutual engagement;
understanding and tuning (their) enterprise;
developing (their) repertoire, styles and discourses [3] (p. 95).
\n
\n
\n
In CoP, there are different activities taking place, these especially depend on the nature and purpose of such community. Table 1 below gives a clear picture of what CoP look like depending on the educational functions that they are meant to serve.
\n\nTable 1 below shows that different functions served by CoPs. Different scholars and in different organisations [4] use different names for CoPs. The different names are learning networks, teacher clusters, teacher networks, professional and affiliation networks, learning team model, workplace learning, collaborative teacher research, thematic groups, or tech clubs, networked learning communities and collaborative practices [1, 6, 7, 8, 9].
\nPractices | \nVarieties of activities | \n
---|---|
\n | \n“Can we work on this design and brainstorm some ideas; I’m stuck.” | \n
\n | \n“Where can I find the code to connect to the server?” | \n
\n | \n“Has anyone dealt with a customer in this situation?” | \n
\n | \n“I have a proposal for a local area network I wrote for a client last year. I can send it to you and you can easily tweak it for this new client.” | \n
\n | \n“Can we combine our purchases of solvent to achieve bulk discounts?” | \n
\n | \n“How do people in other countries do this? Armed with this information it will be easier to convince my Ministry to make some changes.” | \n
\n | \n“Before I do it, I’ll run it through my community first to see what they think.” | \n
\n | \n“What do you think of the new CAD system? Does it really help?” | \n
\n | \n“We have faced this problem five times now. Let us write it down once and for all.” | \n
\n | \n“Can we come and see your after-school program? We need to establish one in our city.” | \n
\n | \n“Who knows what, and what are we missing? What other groups should we connect with?” | \n
Practices and different activities taking place in communities of practice.
Adapted from [6].
Participating in a CoP should have an impact in academics’ professional development, as group members and as individuals. The benefits of communities of practice according to [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17] are as follows:
Allowing employees to manage change. CoP offer opportunities to link people with common interest and it is an avenue of maintaining connections with peers. Teachers form CoP in response to changes originating from the school system such as inadequate access to professional development.
Providing access to new knowledge. In a community of practice where teachers collaborate directly, use one another as sounding boards, and teach each other, it empowers the individual teacher, opening access to new knowledge and skills.
Fostering trust and a sense of common purpose. As teachers in the CoP share ideas and experiences, they often develop a shared way of doing things, a set of common practices and a greater sense of common purpose, thus helping them to develop professionally.
It helps in adding value to professional lives. CoP often form around topics teachers have invested many years in developing. They do not just focus on common interests alone but also on practical aspects of a particular practice, everyday problems, new tools, ideas and developments in their fields, things that are working out fine and those that are not working perfectly.
It promotes professional recognition among practitioners. In CoP, the collaborative support offered to members bring about recognition of talents and skills among group members. This gives room for showcasing talent among group members and such talents are embraced to support group members who need assistance.
Encouraging loyalty and commitment amid stakeholders. Mutual engagement among group members and willingness to support make the group members to be loyal to one another. Members are committed to achieving their stated goals, thus, it is expected of individuals to be committed to their roles to make their community successful.
Improving efficiency of processes. Working as groups with determination and dedication bring about productivity. Thus, in CoP, interactions, collaborations and mutual engagements among members bring about efficiency and development.
CoP is seen as an essential model that enhances professional development. There are different types of CoP and these depend on the nature and purpose of such CoP. [3] argues that CoP are present everywhere and different kind of people are part of such community. The CoP could be at place of work, high school, university, college, home, civic or leisure places. Different activities and engagements are meant to take place in such community, however, group members have their objectives to be achieved. For instance, CoP among university lecturers are meant to promote professional development such that professional assistance and support are rendered to group members through mutual engagements, collaborations and interactions. According to [5, 18], the different types of CoP are:
Small or big CoP
Short-lived or long-lived CoP
Co-located or distributed CoP
Homogeneous or heterogeneous CoP
Inside boundaries or across boundaries CoP
Spontaneous or intentional CoP
Unrecognised or institutionalised CoP
Virtual CoP
In order to have a clearer picture and comprehensive types of CoP and detailed activities in each type of CoP, [19] highlight different types of CoP based on structural features of CoP. The structural features of CoP are categorised into four categories namely:
Demographic Category
Organisational Category
Individual Category
Technological Category
Under demographic category, three types of CoP are recognised as:
Young or old CoP. This type of CoP specifically outlines the period of time a community has been in existence. Some CoP have been in existence over a period of time, thus, they are old CoP, while some are just being formed, hence such are referred to as young CoP.
Small or big CoP. Every community have their group members and the number of members for each community determine the extent of the size. Group members of a small community are usually few while in a big community members are many and in most cases they are up to hundreds in number.
Short-lived or long-lived CoP. Some CoP came into existence just to cater for immediate need of their group members just for a temporary arrangement for the purpose of achieving some things. These types of CoP are short-lived, because they are formed for a temporary time. Long-lived CoP are those that are formed to exist permanently and the group members did not have any time frame of how long such communities will be in existence.
The following three types of CoP are listed under organisational category:
Spontaneous or intentional CoP. This type of CoP came into being to meet the group members’ spontaneous needs through sharing and interaction. The CoP is formed intentionally for the purpose of meeting the needs of group members.
Inside boundaries or across boundaries: In some organisations, CoP exist within the organisation, this type of CoP is known as inside boundaries. The across boundaries CoP exist across the organisation unit or departments.
Unrecognised or institutionalised: In some organisations, there are some relationships that exist among workers which made them to form CoP, though such CoP are formed within the organisation, they are unrecognised because such are formed by relationships that exist among some workers. The institutionalised CoP is being recognised and official position is being given to group members.
The following two types of CoP are identified under this category
Co-located/distributed. In this type of CoP, a CoP is co-located when members meet at the same place because of the proximity they share. This is usually feasible when the community is still growing. When the community is fully grown with many members who do not stay in same location, then the CoP will be distributed. Members in distributed CoP will be expected to meet regularly by organising seminars, conferences in the same venue for their meetings.
Homogeneous or heterogeneous: This type of CoP is determined by the cultural background of members. When members are from the same discipline or areas of specialisation, such CoP is homogeneous. The CoP is heterogeneous when group members are from different disciplines and areas of specialisations.
In technological category, most CoP now meet virtually because of moving towards digital age and most organisations depend on the use of technology of different forms. Virtual CoP is an advantageous for member to meet irrespective of distance barriers unlike in face to face CoP.
\nGood working relationships are essential for production and collaborations among academics. Many times people struggle with their challenges and shortcomings in their own silos. [3] contends that CoP result in three structural elements, which are mutual engagement, joint enterprise and shared repertoire. These elements usually result in one having a sense of belonging and participation by members vary from individual to individual [5]. Sharing ideas allows for reflection, better understanding, better navigation of knowledge, creation of new knowledge and ideas, and creates confidence among participants [20]. They argue that dialogic negotiations of knowledge can result in friendships being created over time. However, constructive negotiations in CoP have nothing to do with friendship but rather common interest and goals [3].
\nCoP can either be formal or informal [2] and in both instances there is need for engagement and collaboration [3]. Research has shown that learning often takes place in non-formal situations through interaction as they share experiences and ideas [21]. CoP generate trust and positive working relationships, because group members have sense of belonging, which enable professional development among group members [22]. Trust is a key element for engagement and productivity. Without trust it is difficult for academics to engage in productive dialogue, be at liberty to share their knowledge and expertise, it is difficult for one to be vulnerable in an environment where they do not trust the people they are expected to engage with. According to Poultney [23], due to the trust that CoP generate, it is easier for participants to connect and collaborate resulting in effective professional development for academics. Research has shown that positive working relationships give participants a sense of belonging [24] and as a result take ownership and responsibility for their development [25]. Sense of belonging and ownership create positive energy among the academics and their desire for all to develop encourages collaboration and engagement. A positive environment allows participants to share their expertise, share their experiences without fear of prejudice or being judged, allowing for positive criticism from team members thereby resulting in continuous development and shorter times of task completion.
\nTips for creating successful CoP as suggested by [26] are;
Clarify who the community is for-this will help in identifying the focus and content that is needed for that particular community
Get those people together regularly-this helps build trust among the players and get easier to create a safe space for the team members to ensure that they are comfortable sharing their areas of expertise and identify strengths, which will benefit the community.
Start by sharing stories- allows you to find the gaps and new areas of interest and develop connections, which will allow for collaborations.
Create opportunities for learning, building trust, adding value, and supporting each other- allows participants to identify areas of interest that they might be interested in trying out.
See what works and turn up the good-gives room for the community to evaluate and see what is best for them and drop the things that are not working well.
It can, therefore, be concluded that it is important to create and sustain positive working relationships in CoP for effectiveness, networking, sharing of ideas and positive change. CoP allow members to work in flexible and informal environments where everyone is a potential knowledge contributor.
\nSocial learning is routinely conflated with various thoughts, between the thought itself and its potential outcomes. This nonattendance of sensible clearness has limited our capacity to assess whether social learning has occurred and given that this is valid, what kind of acknowledging has happened, how much, between whom, when, and how [27]. [27] argue that to be seen as social learning, a cycle must:
show that a change in comprehension has happened in the individuals being referred to;
display that this change goes past the individual and gets organised inside more broad social units or organisations of preparing; and
occur through social associations and cycles between performers inside a casual network.
A clearer picture of what these researchers mean by social learning is that learning must take place through interactions with others within the same group by utilising the social learning hypothesis by [3].
\nThe initial work of [2] was the stepping stone for [3] social theory of learning on CoP which tested long-standing thoughts about learning. Specifically, they contended that learning is not an individual effort but a social cycle that is arranged in a social organised setting. A vital reason of his hypothetical work is that CoP can emerge in any space of human undertaking, as long as people share a common personality in their school of thought. As such, learning happens in various social practices through support in shaping the development of a bigger project some time. Etienne’s investigation of learning in settings other than formal instructive settings can help a large number of us working in education to think differently about learning.
\nThe four main premises of social learning by [28] are:
\nWe are social beings. This shows that there should be social participation of all members of the CoP.
Knowledge is a matter of competence with respect to valued enterprises.
Knowing is a matter of participating in the pursuit of such enterprises.
Meaning - our ability to experience the world and our engagement with it as meaningful.
As Wenger puts it, CoP develop in stages and phases such as formation, integration and transformation [5]. Learning develops through active participation in the different stages.
\nWenger’s framework is used to address complex 21st century learning [29]. The theory centres around the vital worth made by social learning, recognising the sorts of significant values, flowing a model learning. The recognised values are the direct value, potential value, applied value, realised value, enabled value, and transformative value. Wenger’s work is adopted from education with a view to professionalise teachers. The body of knowledge is much more alive, which is the community being engaging with the practice and hopefully to engage with each on what the practice is and what good practice is and what not good practice is and so forth. In a social theory of learning, CoP contemplate that learning takes place in a social setting and demands both participation and reification for meaningful learning.
\nThe traditional approach to learning is described as a vertical view of learn¬ing where somebody assumes that one person knows and that information is passed to somebody who does not know [30, 31]. Social learning is the horizontal view of learning assumes that you and I are in a partnership and we negotiate what is it that we know is and how we understand it in our own contexts.
\nIn this theory, learning occurs in cycles and starts in conversations, designs, problem solving, bench-marking and many more. Social learning should generate different types of values that describe a specific cycle [32] like engaging as learning partners in debating, creating a document together, going to a field trip together. Immediately you get to know each other and a person understands you, have fun, one feels inspired. This is the first cycle of learning and value one gets from just participating, called immediate value. Immediate value generates from enjoying to be in each other’s company, producing great ideas and inspirations and forming new connections and collaborations among each other. The main idea or activity will be producing a particular purpose. In the quality of the conversation among stakeholders, sharing different world views, different angles of solving a problem, and creating networks, produce a potential value. The potential value is a second cycle of learning which may or may not end up profiting participants.
\nLearning does not end with the potential value in the theory by Wenger, but proceeds to the trying of the feedbacks you receive from the gathering as the third cycle termed applied value. In this cycle one learns when going back into the organisation and applying the new ideas, follow-up in connections and do a new project together. The cycle is accompanied by the change in practice as the result of the learning partnership activity. In a way people create multiple opportunities of learning. The creative nature of the CoP is when participants put acquired knowledge into practice. Creativity involves re-learning and generation of new knowledge leading to the fourth cycle of the realised value. One can see the changes in an institution.
\nWhether the implementation of new knowledge is a success or a failure one needs to have feedback loops because it is important for further learning. The feedback develops the learning loops to make learning relevant, adaptive and dynamic. A project Support team and community leadership roles are crucial in the learning process because activities such as logistic preparation, facilities, technology, and agenda design to mention a few need to be considered. It is the key aspect of the learning process to develop the implementation strategy. To acknowledge the strategic value, the nature of the vital discussions is the fundamental piece of social learning among the partners and permit them to accommodate their exercises into the master plan. This is called the enabling value. Notwithstanding, learning is not being restricted to an improvement and execution, it can likewise create new points of view or new meanings of achievement, and it can much trigger more extensive social and institutional changes, named transformative value or reframing value [32]. The transformative value or last cycle is the most dramatic aspect of learning.
\nAs such it is significant that every one of these pieces ought to be set up and there should be a unique stream among them for figuring out how to have any kind of effect in this day and age. The value creating cycles makes one to be aware of where to focus attention. Setting of goals before you start a project with partners and choosing what conditions to follow, should be set up. The framework can also be used to evaluate the project and follow indicators to each cycle. Embedding social learning in the project is a strategic imperative. This is not only meant for students but also CoP in terms of academic staff development. The last cycle dimension takes the assumptions of where world ought to be in applying the flexible process in the ever-changing world operations especially in the academic environment. Therefore, social learning theory on communities of practice are bothered about learning in having the effect in the quickly evolving world, the principles of the game-changing: science is changing, innovation is changing, and international affairs is evolving. In reality, things are excessively powerful and complex.
\nCoP are described with three measurements [3], namely:
The mutual engagement tying individuals into a social substance. Being remembered for “what is important” in a gathering is a necessity for being occupied with a network’s training.
Community individuals build up a mutual collection, a common arrangement of shared assets, for example, schedules, words, instruments, methods of getting things done, stories, and ideas. The ideas, language and apparatuses exemplify the historical backdrop of the network and its point of view on the world.
The joint endeavour in comprehending what the network is about. The joint venture characterises the aggregate cycle in a constant arrangement and it makes among members’ relations of shared responsibility become a vital piece of the training.
Right now, there is huge, contending pressures for transformation in higher education. Numerous scholars decide to change pedagogy and curriculum mirroring pedagogical research together with supportive learning and collaboration. A few changes, be that as it may, are forced by institutional approaches reacting to the more extensive higher education setting [33]. CoP may assist educators to revise their tasks at hand and diminishing open doors for communitarianism dynamic enhancing professional skills development with common commitment as the fundamental purpose within their various communities. [33] investigation on educational program change is an example of revising tasks at hand and focus on professional development by using an integrated method to course design and supportive learning. Also, educators engaged in a joint venture to revise the curriculum plus the significant alterations in university policy. CoP model promise the accomplishment of educational objectives by tending to instructors’ necessities, as opposed to just raising requests on staff, to fortify commitment, joint efforts, assemble abilities and offer accepted procedures.
\nMutual engagement is evident in [34] who note that globally, high schools have seen themselves faced with changes relating to changing educational program systems, new plans for teacher capacitation and empowerment together with their shifting roles. In reality, changes that underlie the expansion of combined activity between instructors incorporate collective teaching, soundness between subjects, and circulated decision making. These changes call for meeting and coordination between teachers to manage late changes and the going with multifaceted nature of work and continuous cooperation.
\nOn a similar note, engagement in higher education, schools and districts that are associations in their privilege yet face expanding information challenges [6] is necessary. CoP hold the guarantee of empowering associations among individuals over these conventional structures to defeat considerable hierarchical issues. Another examination directed in [35] express that a topographically scattered yet disciplinarily affectionate community can work as a steady, non-various levelled CoP depending on the extent of mentorship, plus the creation of social resources. These scholars state that the most important imperative is to have one committed person to drive meetings and cycles of the CoP via Skype or email in a synchronous or asynchronous learning environment. It is also essential to analyse the organisation in CoP terms to gain better insight into its development, to distinguish its qualities and shortcomings, and to guarantee its continuation and shared collection.
\nThe primary importance of CoP is for teacher preparation and breaking barriers between managers and subordinates [6]. For example, there is mutual engagement among staff members in the development of manuals and publications that were absent in their profession [6]. This gathering of auditors in the public sector was from various nations in Eastern Europe and Central Asia to shared work, stories, and relics made over the seven years of their endurance time giving a feeling of coherence and reason. There was no segregation of participants based on their seniority levels because of the CoP model used. Meaning, the CoP promotes lifelong learning within the organisation to fulfil the common institutional goals and initiatives.
\nA joint undertaking is another significant movement for academics in CoP. A variety of researchers and reformers has required the reinforcing of coordinated effort between instructors by methods for advancing networks of teachers in schools [34]. The action requests that foundation chiefs should convey the command to continue or create networks of training in their orders considering variety contemplations regarding instructive level, residency, word related insight, and gender in the arrangement of teacher groups for creating organised responsibility on accomplishing learning results. Notwithstanding sorting out different groups, school pioneers could expand teachers’ joint duty and responsibility for undertakings and group execution. The joint venture in administration, for example, choices are not made by a solitary individual; rather, choices arise out of collective exchanges between numerous people, occupied with commonly subordinate exercises. [36] converses with the school-based insight and the joint endeavour that scholastics could take part in. CoP can drive methodology, create new lines of business, take care of issues, advance the spread of best practices, build up individuals’ expert aptitudes, and assist organisations with selecting and holding ability [11].
\nThe joint venture can be experience in community projects are also activities academics can create solid associations with guardians and communities implies another method of working for governments, for administration organisations, and teachers [37]. For instance, in Thailand, such CoP resulted in upgrading of educational programs, employing volunteer teachers for co-curricular exercises, and raising funds for assets [37] in adjusted congruity. It is the kind of CoP model that administrations can advance through preparing, consolation and backing, yet in addition to stretch out the result of gathering pledges and upkeep and development of structures. Thus, CoP in schools enhances opportunities of collaboration among staff in implementing changes to educational programs, new plans for teacher professional development and to the instructors’ functions. The collaborative effort deepens understanding in teachers’ responsibilities. Therefore, there is shared collection of responsibilities between instructors by implanting coordinated effort into the school culture.
\nThe idea of collaboration of academics from various disci¬plines (psychology, anthropology, computer science, and education) embarking on research with a purpose of changing teaching and learning processes and approaches is supported by [38]. [39] recommend CoP sighting examples like addressing faculty challenges and concerns related to academic writing. The writing communities were created across-disciplines holding dialogues for the process of academic writing departments, then facilitating conversation and collaborative activities connected to the process of academic writing. Therefore, in a joint venture activity, there is mutual engagement and mutual collection of ideas towards achieving the institutional goals.
\nAccording to [3], five key function are offered in CoP. These are:
Educate members through sharing of experiences and ideas within the practice
Support members through collaborative engagements
Cultivate members’ imaginations and ideas for them to start learning and sustain the learning process.
Encourage members through support and endorsing their work and expertise through dialogue
Integrate members’ new knowledge and ideas to enable change within the practice or organisation
There are a number of characteristics which promote and drive the CoP for teams. These characteristics create opportunities for team members to develop. Figure 1 below by [5] demonstrates how CoP contribute to individual members as well as for the organisations for both long term and short term.
\nWhy focus on communities of practice for members and organisations. Adapted from [
CoP offer support for team members and builds confidence. Individual member gains more information about their practice and they are able to put it into action as they know that they have a reference point, they have cheerleaders and they have literature that supports their properties in the workplace. When an individual is confident about their work from the support that they get from teammates, they constantly feel motivated to do their work effectively. The members know they are not doing work as a duty anymore but they feel in whatever they do they have the support of the teammates or of the organisation and they have some backing from the people who share with them the same beliefs, passions and goals.
\nThe nature of CoP creates opportunities for learning and development. Team members learn from each other as shown by Bandura’s social learning theory [31]. Feedback from others is essential as it helps you to develop further as you take time to reflect on your work, improve on areas that are highlighted, and come back to practice with better or improved strategies. Feedback allows one to carry out an action research on what they are doing within the workplace. CoP enables knowledge sharing and reduces duplication. An opportunity for co-contribution to knowledge is created.
\nSharing of information allows for more learning and you remember more than having idle information at the back of your mind. When you teach others, you also learn. Sharing of ideas helps an organisation when it comes to empowering employees within the organisation it reduces challenges when an individual who never shared the information that they had about their practice leaves their job without proper training to those remaining behind. When an individual leaves a job, they leave with their expertise and if not careful, you are stuck as an organisation resulting in daunting hand over take over processes. This results in the new incumbent taking longer to perform their duties effectively thereby delaying in yielding results. The community of practice adopts a common approach, which allows scaling [26]. People own the practice, decentralise things, and create consistencies. Community members can act as enablers of change. It is easier for a group to have a voice in an organisation than it is for an individual to try and convince the organisation for change [26].
\nA community of practice allows for collaboration on common issues and challenges to create better practices. As a team or as an organisation when you are collaborating it allows you to see the challenges together, brainstorm the challenges, come up with ideas on dealing with the challenges and improve based on what findings and the recommendations on what to change and how to change. This result in a continuous developmental process. According to [40], ‘human communities can develop a sort of collective intelligence that is greater than the individual members. Different experiences and sharing allows us to build on each other’s experience and improve our practices. CoP therefore are worthy focusing on as they have benefits to the individual and organisations, academic institution included.
\nThe relevance of CoP to professional development cannot be overemphasised, it is very important that in CoP, the relationships, interactions and collaborations among group members must not be taken for granted. Such relationships, interactions and collaborations have ways of moulding group members towards their professional development. For instance, academics in their various universities must value their engagements with the members of their CoP. Many achievements towards professional development could be made through CoP, thus, this must be valued and appreciated.
\nThe relevance of CoP to professional development according to [41] are;
Connect people. It gives group members opportunities to interact, most especially those who do not have the opportunity to interact, either on frequent occasions or not at all.
Provide a shared context. This serves as an avenue for easy flow of communication and sharing of information, ideas, talents, personal experiences as a means of building understanding and moulding members for better exposure and insight.
Enable dialogue. Group members have the opportunities to interact through their mutual engagements. This brings about opportunities to exploring different possibilities and new ways of solving problems, creating new ideas through collaborations.
Stimulate learning. There are diverse ways of learning in CoP among group members. This is serves as an avenue for reliable communication, mentoring, coaching, and self-reflection. Group members are mould by specialists in the CoP and they offer them professional support needed for them to be professionals in their own fields.
Capture and share existing knowledge. The continuous existence of the group made it easy to help group members to improve their practice. This is done by providing a medium to identify solutions to common problems in the group and a process to pull together and evaluate best practices.
Introduce collaborative processes. Collaborations among group members must be keen to bring about interactions, sharing of ideas, encourage trust and positive relationships.
Help people organise. Group members are determined to achieve the aims and objectives of creating their CoP and this bring about concrete results.
Generate new knowledge. The willingness for mutual engagements bring about transformation of practices among group members and also bring about opportunities to accommodate variations in needs and technologies.
This chapter has pointed out the relevance, importance, and significance of CoPs for the professional development of academics as university teachers. In particular, the enablement, enhancement and support if proffers towards the realisation of a sense of community among academics as teaching and learning practitioners. How academics in their roles as teachers can improve, change, and/or further develop their teaching practices through engagement, sharing, recognition, and validation of each other’s’ work are discussed in details. The forming and norming of CoP practices, the different forms that they take, and the various educational functions that they serve are elaborated on. How a CoP comes to have a common understanding of issues that beset them, form a common agenda around the issues, operationalise and develop strategies for dealing with their substantive issues of their practice are highlighted in the chapter. More importantly, this chapter provided details of how effective working relations are developed and nurtured in a CoP.
\nThe authors are grateful to University of Fort Hare, South Africa for funding this research work.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
Cotton (
If Indian production is juxtaposed against China during 2019/20 marketing year, China accounted for just over 22 percent of total world cotton production, of which 86 percent of that was produced in Xinjiang province (just under 20 percent of the world total). China exports only a small amount of cotton lint, half-of-one-percent of production. Other than some minor exports to North Korea, China is the world’s largest importer of cotton. This provides China with a supply of cotton normally greater than one-third of world use and nearly 40 percent larger than India [1]. This scenario also clearly explains the gap which is existing in India compared to other Countries which could make the country to progress further in the yield front of cotton provided newer technologies and cropping systems are adopted
About 59 per cent of the raw material requirement of the Indian textile industry is met by cotton. It plays a major role in sustaining the livelihood of An estimated 5.8 million cotton farmers’ livelihood is sustained by cultivating cotton. Besides, this crop engages 40–50 million people in one or the other related activities. As seen, the area under cotton in India is also tremendous which is around 13.40 million hectares. Among the 53 species of
Cotton is grown in all the three different agro-ecological zones of India
Majority of the cotton produced in India is derived from nine major cotton growing states and these States fall under three diverse agro-ecological zones.
Northern Zone-Punjab - Haryana and Rajasthan.
Central Zone-Gujarat - Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh.
Southern Zone-Telangana - Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
In addition, cotton is also grown in the States of Tamil Nadu and Odisha. Recently, cotton is also being cultivate in small scale in non-traditional States such as Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Tripura, etc. Nevertheless, India is the largest producer cum leading consumer of cotton in the World. It’s very clear now that albeit having higher area under cotton, the productivity of cotton is very low compared to many of the Countries which warrants attention mainly on developing newer genotypes that would yield better on higher management condition. Strategies that could maximize the per unit area yield in cotton would include
Developing ideotypes in cotton that would suit mechanized cultivation starting from sowing to lint collection
Standardized agro-management systems for exploiting more unit area productivity
Robust management procedures to ward off pests, diseases and other nutritional disorders and
Assured price for quality produce
Primarily, the productivity enhancement in any crop depends on the development of suitable genotype and cotton is not an exception. Many of the wild species available in the crops are exploited for transferring the segments (QTLs) that harbor pests and diseases resistance
Another statistical prediction provided by Dr. M. V. Venugopalan of CICR, Nagpur [4] is that the cotton productivity during 2018–2019 would be the lowest despite the fact that almost 90% of the farmers have adopted the state of art BG II hybrids. This had been exclusively due to the increase in cost of cotton cultivation from Rs. 2233/q of seed cotton in 2002–2003 to Rs.4803/q in 2015–2016, mainly due to increase in labour wages and increased use of inputs like fertilizers and pesticides. Considering these facts, primary aim of the plant breeders has to be in designing a genotype that would fit for the given situation.
Moreover, the present day hybrids put forth biomass enormously and are of speed and spread growing in nature. Thus, the ratio of bolls to biomass if worked out would be much lesser. For having a match between the growth, water requirement, duration, yield, per unit and day productivity etc. a system was arrived at by the Central Institute of Cotton Research, Nagpur which is High Density Planting System (HDPS) with early maturing, semi compact genotypes for realizing higher yields with low production costs under rainfed condition primarily. The main tenets of this proposition covers tailoring a genotype suiting to high density planting (more than one lakh plants per hectare), its uniformity in boll development, maturation and bursting, its adoptability to the given condition and efficiency in the nutrient utilization etc.
In the forth coming discussions, let us see about the genetic, agronomic and plant protective interventions that would help in developing a suitable genotype fitting to HDPS.
The term “enhancement” was first used by [5] for defining the transfer of useful genes from exotic or wild types into agronomically acceptable background, preferably a cultivar of choice. This term of enhancement was later [6] rechristened as pre-breeding or developmental breeding to describe the same activity. Thus, having varied terminologies basically refer to the transfer or introgression of genes or gene combinations from unadapted sources, mostly the wild sources into the breeding materials, preferably an adapted background [7]. Normally, genetic enhancement is complementary to that of traditional breeding. However, these activities, as name suggests, form the base of any plant breeding programme where the gene transfer from wild species /related species is targeted. Thus enhanced germplasm can be more readily used in breeding programmes for cultivar development. Thus, pre-breeding qualifies as prior step of sustainable plant breeding which normally starts with identifying a useful character in unadapted or wild genotypes, capturing its genetic diversity and extracting the genes/QTLs that govern these variations for exploitation. Thus pre-bred materials may also be an intermediary with a value addition which could be further exploited.
Normally, wild species are exploited for transferring traits related to the improvement of yield, quality, pests and diseases resistance. In cotton, for altering the plant types, the wild species are not that much useful for the reasons that most of them are perennial with spreading habit. Hence, for breeding an ideal genotype with less/shy branching, zero monopodia, minimalistic bolls with uniform weight, luster, shape and bursting etc. which would also suit mechanized cultivation, exploring the available variability among the germplasm must be the pre-requisite.
Research on HDPS on cotton gained momentum under the leadership of ICAR – Central Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur in 2010. Shortly thereafter, in 2012, the All India Coordinated Cotton Improvement Project (AICCIP, now AICRP on Cotton) started a separate trial on the evaluation of compact genotypes for HDPS under rainfed and irrigated situation to facilitate the release of compact genotypes suitable for HDPS. Variety CSH 3075 was the first cotton variety released for HDPS in India. [4]. Subsequently, research got momentum and Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU) has also released two varieties
HDPS cotton (CO 17) being cultivated at farmer’s holding.
A high yielding
60 x 10 cm. This culture is found to be fertilizer responsive in all the location. Increasing the spacing results yield loss in almost all the centres indicating its suitability for high density planting. It registered moderate resistance to Bacterial blight and Gray mildew. The overall performance (2012–2015) revealed its superiority in mean seed cotton yield (2807 kg/ha) as against the local check Suraj (normal spacing) (2146 kg/ha). The increase in kapas yield was 30.8% over local check. Besides high seed cotton yield, it possessed higher ginning out turn of 36.6% than zonal check Suraj (34.1%). This culture comes under the medium long staple category with 2.5% span length of 27.1 mm, fiber strength of 21.5 g/tex and micronaire value of 4.3. It can spin up to 30–40’s counts.
Cotton variety CO 17 is a short duration compact plant type with synchronized boll maturity suitable for high density planting system (HDPS) released by the University during 2020. This culture was developed at Department of Cotton, TNAU, Coimbatore from the parental hybridization involving Khandwa 2 and LH 2220 followed by pedigree breeding. It matures in 125–135 days and possesses zero monopodia with short sympodial length and is highly suited for high density planting system. It recorded an average seed cotton yield of 2361 kg/ha which is 18.9% increase over the check variety Suraj (National check entry identified for HDPS). Culture TCH 1819 recorded seed cotton yield of 3427 kg/ha which was 21.7% increase over Suraj and 29.0% increase over MCU 7 under rice fallow condition. It recorded a seed cotton yield of 2051 kg/ha which was 13.8% increase over Suraj under summer irrigated conditions and also recorded 1604 kg/ha of seed cotton yield under winter rainfed which was 20.1% increase over the check Suraj.
It was also evaluated in All India Coordinated Cotton Improvement Project trials for two years during 2016–2017 and 2017–2018 across ten locations. It registered seed cotton yield of 1850 kg/ha which was 37.9% increase over Suraj. Adaptive Research Trials (ARTs) were conducted under three different cotton growing seasons
Considering the descriptors of these two varieties, few features can be noticed in common and they are short intermodal length with lesser distance of boll from main stem, bolls of 4–5 g in weight and lesser plant surface coverage of not exceeding 0.25 m2 ground area and synchronized maturity. Research work undertaken at the Department of Cotton, TNAU during one decade has resulted in identifying these genotypes which could exclusively fit in HDPS. Moreover, research being undertaken in the entire country had resulted in the release of varieties which are meant for HDPS which are detailed (Table 1).
Name | Year | Center/State variety Release | Institution |
---|---|---|---|
F 2383 | 2016 | State | PAU, Faridkot |
CSH 3075 | 2017 | Central | CICR, Sirsa |
Cotton CO 15 (TCH 1705) | 2018 | Central | TNAU, Coimbatore |
F 2381 | 2016 | Central | PAU, Faridkot |
ARBC 19 | 2016 | Central | UAS, Dharwad |
CO 17 | 2020 | State | TNAU, Coimbatore |
RS 2818 | 2020 | Central | SKRAU, Sriganganagar |
ARBC 1601 | 2020 | Central | UAS, Dharwad |
ARBC 1651 | 2020 | Central | UAS, Dharwad |
ARBC 1651 | 2020 | Central | UAS, Dharwad |
DSC 1651 | 2020 | Central | UAS, Dharwad |
Details of cotton varieties released for HDPS (courtesy: Central Institute of Cotton research, Regional Station, Coimbatore).
Majority of the traits that define a genotype fitting for HDPS include shy branching, 10–15 bolls per plant, boll setting nearer to the main stem, boll of 4–5 g in weight, uniform in size and shape, completion of bursting of all bolls in 3–4 days time, medium to superior medium fiber length with appreciable strength, 120 to 125 days of crop duration for fitting into various cropping programmes. These traits have been extensively studied using the available germplasm and prominent crosses have been effected to identify the genotypes that would fit in HDPS. Studies taken at the Department of Cotton by effecting crosses with genotypes fitting with HDPS and heavy yielders have indicated that crosses CO 17 x CO 14 and TCH 1926 x RB 602 showed high
Another study was taken up at the Department of Cotton during 2018–2019 to assess the spectrum of variability realized from differently yielding compact hybrids. Among the 900 observed plants in F2 population, surface covers of 689 plants were recorded as lower than the check (CO 15). The crosses viz., 343–1-1 x CO 14, 343–1-1 x RB 602, TCH 1926 x RAH 1070 and CO 17 x RB 602 were identified as elite combinations as they had more number of individuals whose plant surface was considerably lower than the check (CO 15).
Effect of Okra Leaf Shape in HDPS:
Considering the bigger leaf lamina which is available with CO 17, more pronounced leaf hoppers problem had been observed and breeding research to develop plants with HDPS traits along with okra leaf type had been the tailored programme which was started to function from 2015 to 2016. The okra leaf shape character, on an average in varieties over locations, caused a significant reduction in the incidence of boll rot in comparison with normal leaf cotton [8]. Altering, rather reducing the leaf lamina was significantly associated with an increase in yield, earliness, lint percentage and micronaire value, and a substantial increase in fruiting rate. However, it was also observed that the okra leaf shape had no effect on boll weight and fiber related attributes
At present in the Department of Cotton, work initiated on the development of compact plant type with okra leaf shape suitable for HDPS resulted in two F2 populations viz., TCH 1819 x PBH 115 and TCH 1819 x F 2382. Okra-leaf types of the upland cotton have the potential to be competitive to the normal-leaf types in yield and fiber quality, in addition to its potential resistance to insect pests and drought. In cotton, okra leaf type plants confer resistance/non-preference against insect pests. Form these two F2 populations, a total of 85 single plants were selected for compactness with okra leaf. Reciprocal crosses of above two cross combinations were also made. Forwarding these progenies would help in identifying compact plant types with the okra leaf type.
Prominent feature being considered for HDPS is that the genotype must have occupy an area of <0.25 m2 on the ground and invariably possesses the traits like optimum plant height plant (around 100 cm) with shorter sympodia, shorter intermodal length with lesser distance of boll from main stem. Albeit the fact that HDPS was worked out for rainfed eco system, it fits well in the irrigated scenario also.
In India, though the area under cultivation of cotton is higher, the seed cotton yield per unit area is very low compared to many other cotton growing countries in the world. The primary factors that attribute for this low realized yield besides the non-availability of choices of genotypes is the low plant population density. Various techniques like maintaining suitable plant density, use of optimum dose of fertilizers, growth regulators etc., are being suggested to overcome these constraints in cotton production. The optimum level of cotton productivity would, however, depends on the plant type being grown. The present day cotton genotypes are of long duration (180–200 days), late maturing, tall growing with spreading nature leading to bushy appearance besides with lesser number of bolls compared to the crop canopy. They also require wide spacing for the expression of the crop resulting in the production of netted canopy resulting in various problems in taking up plant protection measures, machine picking, and inefficiency in trapping of solar energy, physiological efficiency and harvest index.
Because of longer duration, these varieties require more number of pickings, as a result, cost of cotton cultivation upsurge especially owing to manual picking which warrants increased labour and fluctuating prices resulting in lesser realistic income. The availability of labour for clean picking is also a serious constraint. At present, in India, entire cotton is picked manually which is labour intensive and is becoming expensive day by day. About 30 per cent of world cotton being produced in Australia, Israel and USA and other developed countries are picked using machines which were sown as per the requirements of the machine. Such picking through machines would result in “Machine maximum, Man minimum” in cultivating cotton which will not only minimize cost of cultivation, but also reduce the dependency on labour. Machine picking esseentially depends on cultivation of cotton genotypes having short stature, earliness, compactness, sympodial growth habit and synchronous boll opening. Under these circumstances, compact cotton genotypes are ideally suited. They offer great scope for reducing not only row width, but also spacing between the plants in a row.
Over the last few decades, many cotton growing countries like China, USA, Australia, Brazil, Uzbekistan and Greece were able to enhance cotton yields by increasing the planting density. The planting geometry, in general adopted varies from 8 to 10 cm distance between plants in a row with the row spacing ranging from 18 to 106 cm, ideal being worked out to 100 cm at our conditions. This planting system is referred as narrow row (NR) if the row-to-row spacing is less than 75 cm and ultra-narrow-row (UNR) if the spacing is less than 45 cm. Currently in India, depending on the local conditions, hybrid cotton is planted at row spacing ranging from 90 to 120 cm and plant spacing ranging from 30 to 90 cm resulting in 15,000 to 25,000 plants/ha. In HDPS, short duration, semi–compact cotton varieties are planted at populations ranging from 1.1 lakh to 2.45 lakh plants/ha by planting at a distance of 45–90 cm between rows depending upon the soil type and growing conditions and 10 cm between plants in a row. It aims to establish around 7–8 plants/m row length. The objective is to limit the boll number to around 10/plant, maximize the number of bolls/unit area and realize high yield in the shortest possible time. If the number of bolls/plant is few, the fruiting window (or flowering period) is short (4–5 weeks) and the plant matures early, producing fibers with good quality.
Ultra narrow row (UNR) cotton production is considered as a potential strategy for reducing production costs by shortening the growing season [9]. By cultivating the genotypes that would fit for UNR, it provides the scope for increasing per unit area of plants
Adoption of HDPS amicable compact and early maturing cotton varieties offer an alternate to sustainable production at decreased production cost under Indian condition. However, availability of more determinate cultivars, more efficient options of weed control and insect pest management (including transgenics), growth regulations to modify morpho frame, planting and harvesting equipments etc., has made high density cotton planting system popular in several countries. The concept on high density cotton planting, more popularly called Ultra Narrow Row (UNR) cotton was initiated by [10] and this concept has been one of the most researched topics during the last 15 years. Availability of early maturing, compact sympodial plant types with more fruiting bodies closer to the main stem is a pre-requisite for successful HDPS.
Theoretically, higher planting density ensures earlier crop canopy cover, higher sunlight interception leading to higher and earlier yields at reduced cost. The obvious advantage of this system is earliness [11] since UNR needs less bolls/plant to achieve the same yield as conventional cotton and the crop does not have to maintain the late formed bolls till maturity. In general, it was observed that lower plant densities produced higher values of growth and yield attributes per plant, but yield per u--nit area was also higher with higher plant densities [12, 13, 14]. Fertilizer and pest management are important consideration for increased yields under high density planting system. Changes in plant density modifies the microclimate and this may alter the incidence of pests and diseases as well [15]. Studies taken up using the genotypes AKH 081,Suraj and NH 615 under HDPS revealed that these entries could yield better at 60 x10 cm spacing under medium depth soils with a planting density of 1.66 lakh plants per hectare on broad bed furrow (BBF) with 125 per cent of recommended fertilizers (75:37.5:37.5 NPK + 2.5 Zn kg/ha) along with a foliar spray of 1% urea and 1% magnesium sulphate at boll development stage [16].
The very purpose of evolving genotypes suitable for HDPS would be achieved only by manipulation of row spacing, plant density and the spatial arrangements of cotton plants for obtaining higher yields. The most commonly tested plant densities range from 5 to 15 plants per sq. m [17] resulting in a population of 50,000 to 150,000 plants per ha. The UNR cotton plants produce less number of bolls per plant than conventional cotton but retain a higher percentage of the total number of good opened bolls per unit area in the first sympodial position and a lower percentage in the second position [18]. The other advantages include better light interception, efficient leaf area development and early canopy closure which shades out the weeds and reduce their competitiveness [19]. The early maturity in soils that do not support excessive vegetative growth [20] can make this system ideal for shallow to medium soils under rainfed condition where conventional late maturity hybrids experience terminal drought.
Cotton growth must be regulated and eventually terminated by chemical means, due to the plants’ intrinsic indeterminate growth habit. Plant growth retardants are natural or synthetic organic compounds that control or modify one or more physiological events in plants. These synthetic compounds are widely used in cotton for reducing plant height. The plant growth retardants affect many physiological functions in plants. The crop growth regulator Mepiquat Chloride (MC) is commonly used in cotton production in China and elsewhere to maximize cotton yield and fiber quality [21, 22]. The application of MC increases leaf thickness, reduces leaf area [23], shortens internodes [24] and decreases plant height [25], and thus results in a more compact plant architecture [26] which had been witnessed in the CO 17 culture as well (Figure 2).
Application of Mepiquat chloride in cotton variety CO 17.
Modification of cotton structure increases the light interception in the middle part of the canopy [27]. In addition, Light Use Efficiency (LUE) of cotton is increased by MC application [28]. Furthermore, cotton canopy structure is affected by population density [29] and practices such as wheat–cotton intercropping [30] which influence the crop light interception and fruit formation, thereby biomass growth and yield.
High population densities increase leaf area index (LAI) but reduces the individual leaf area [29]. Like most species, cotton plant height increases with population density [31]. Field experiments raised with CO 17 wherein cotton plant structure was obviously affected by MC and plant density. As MC could bring in changes in the architecture of the applied plant resulting structural changes, it leads to a challenge in maintaining the cotton plant’s architecture suiting to the mechanized cultivation. Application of MC is essentially responsible for controlling cell elongation and shoot and stem growth [32]. When plant growth retardants are applied to plants, internodes become shorter and leaves become thicker and greener which leads to altered plant morphology and altered assimilate partitioning resulting in reduced plant growth. The response of plants to PGR applications can differ with plant growth stage, rates of application, and environmental conditions during the applications [33]. Cotton producers and researchers have, therefore, used plant growth retardants as a means to manage the balance between vegetative and reproductive growth for efficient cotton production. But research on application of growth retardants in conjunction high density planting will pave way for synchronized maturity of the crop with uniform plant height that may help in harvesting of seed cotton mechanically at large scale level. This research is at its nascent level in India.
Mepiquat Chloride (1,1-dimethyl-piperidinium Chloride), a plant growth regulator is widely used to manage cotton structure, regulate plant development and hasten maturity under high plating densities [34]. Although plant growth regulators have been thoroughly widely tested in cotton in India, specific recommendations regarding their dose and timing for modifying the architecture at high planting densities are yet to be arrived for adoption on a holistic perspective. Reduction in plant height, decrease in height/node ratio, an increase in boll weight and a delay in maturity with the application of growth regulators were observed with non-significant effect on yield. Application of Mepiquat Chloride reduced the leaf area and increased the number of bolls per unit area at high plant density. It also helped in retention of bolls on lower sympodia and increased the synchrony of boll maturation [29].
However, the effect of Mepiquat Chloride on cotton is affected by environmental conditions, particularly temperature [35]. Studies taken up at the Department of Cotton indicated the differential response of cultures and its performance across centres. At Coimbatore, there was a variety dependent response to Mepiquat Chloride application @ 75 g ai/ha in three splits on 45, 60 and 75 DAS in winter irrigated cotton planted at 45 x 15 cm spacing and the effect was more pronounced in CO 17 (Figure 3).
Effect of Mepiquat chloride on cotton varieties.
There was a reduction in plant height, sympodial length and LAI and an enhanced the number of burst boll/sq. m leading to an increase in yield at Coimbatore. Across the cultivars, application of Mepiquat Chloride increased seed cotton yield from 1330 kg/ha to 1530 kg/ha. Interaction effect of cultivars and application of Mepiquat Chloride was significant. Taller cultivars namely TCH 1608 and TCH 1705 (CO 15) benefitted more from the application of Mepiquat Chloride compared to the other cultivars having a compact growth habit. Cultivars with a more indeterminate growth habit responded more positively to Mepiquat Chloride application [36]. There is a need for detailed investigations on this aspect before any recommendations are given.
Arresting the growth of the cotton plant followed by the defoliation of leaves at the physiological maturity stage of the plant would facilitate in harvesting the fully opened bolls through mechanical instruments. As we know that killing and fixation of specimen are required for having cytological observations by employing a mix of acid and alcohol, the two events namely growth arrest and defoliation have to occur for effecting the harvest of bolls in cotton. Thus, cotton defoliation requires the application of certain chemicals to help prepare a cotton crop for harvest. Benefits of proper cotton defoliation include: reduction of the main sources of stain and trash (leaves), increased harvest efficiency, quicker drying of dew, potential for increased boll opening and a reduction of boll rots. As a cotton plant matures, a physiological process takes place which separates the living tissue near the leaf petiole called the abscission zone. A regulated enzyme activity under the influence of plant hormones making the leaf to fall through the creation of abscission zone is the need.
Two types of defoliants, by and large are available. A herbicidal defoliant can be used to cause injury to the leaf, upset the hormone balance resulting in the abscission process and finally the leaf drop. The other one is the application of a hormonal defoliant which increases ethylene synthesis in a plant causing the leaves to fall off. Correct application rates are important, especially with herbicidal defoliants, as over application can cause the leaf to die before the abscission process, resulting in “stuck” leaves. Conversely, when too little defoliant is applied, the abscission process may not begin, resulting in no leaf defoliation.
When applying a defoliant or desiccant or boll opener, many factors must be taken into consideration for successful application. Best results from an application occur when the factors like the type of cotton being grown, its duration, weather/climatic conditions, soil conditions, availability of inorganic fertilizers to the plant, bursting of bolls, water availability to the plants, spacing between the rows and plants, etc. are taken into consideration.
Studies taken up at TNAU utilizing the application of MC and Defoliant indicated that the combination of application of MC 50 g ai/ha at 45 and 65 DAS and Dropp ultra (Thidiazuron and Diuron) @ 200 ml/ha at maturity resulted in 90 per cent defoliation in CO 17 and prepared the crop for harvest by 135 days. This is in the preliminary stage of testing and would be tested in the years to come to arrive at a comprehensive package (Figure 4).
Application of Mepiquat chloride and defoliant in CO 17.
Because of various types of insects that attack the cotton crop, especially from the young seedlings (leaf miner, gall formers etc.) till the crop attains maturity (various borers, weevils etc.), cotton crop receives excessive rounds of pesticides spray. This results in excessive consumption of plant protection products. Many research are being taken up towards developing holistic packages including chemical, physical, biological and IPM techniques to contain these pests. Cotton is under cultivation in 69 countries and the production had exceeded 20 million tones of lint in the recent years where the cultivable area spread on 30–35 million hectares. In spite of improvement attained through chemical control strategies, harvest losses remain very high which dwindles around 30% [37, 38]. Occurrence of varied insects in the cotton system during varied crop growth stages makes it as an experimental model crop for devising plant protection strategies to be practiced under various agronomic conditions.
Albeit very many newer molecules are synthesized and tested to contain the pests, harvest losses remained high. All the pest management strategies aims to keep the pest population below the Economic Threshold Level (ETL) which is normally attained by having a judicious mix of appropriate methodologies. Total pest management is achievable only when the pest prefers a single crop, say cotton and there are no significant alternate hosts available in the vicinity of the crop system. However, the application of IPM principles greatly depends on the concept of an intervention threshold and the limitations of many of the specific non-chemical techniques proposed but the application of IPM modules/principles have the advantage of taking into consideration the full pest complex in a cropping system [37].
Biological control by introducing beneficial arthropods has not been notably successful in all the crop based systems, which is true for cotton also. This is because of the difficulty in identifying and acclimatizing the predators/parasites, developing a bunch of beneficial organisms capable of responding effectively, the nature of the crop grown and the disrupting effects of chemical control measures directed against the remaining pests [39]. More benefit is to be obtained from the active conservation of the indigenous fauna of beneficial organisms. In spite of an increased general environmental awareness, the practice of using insecticides could not be resisted as pests evolve resistance to pesticides and a combinatory approach to contain the pest is the need of the hour.
Suggested strategies were adopted throughout the growing season in Australia. Primary target of reducing the pesticides consumption in cotton ecosystem was brought out by the introduction of Bt gene engineered cotton hybrids which allows the co-existence of natural enemies. However, the least affected species by the Bt toxins, the sucking pests took a prominent place in cotton based production system displacing the vegetative and fruit feeding caterpillars as key pests of Bt cotton [40]. The spatio-temporal dimension of natural population regulatory factors has led to changes in agricultural practices and production systems. In cotton, for example, production systems maintaining a permanent ground cover, are having increasing success. Many a times, farmers leave the crop in the field after harvest of bolls alone, especially for getting a second flush with the onset of rains resulting in enhanced outbreak. Intercropping and trap cropping have been favorable to the maintenance of beneficial arthropod complexes and unfavorable to the growth of pest populations. Thus for having an effective control over the pests, a changed strategy towards a total systems approach, characterized by a movement from a paradigm of pest control field-by-field, through farm-by-farm and agroecosystem-by-agroecosystem, to a landscape by landscape approach is required as reported by [38].
The rich and diverse insect fauna found in cotton harbors more than one thousand species. However, very few are designated as significant potential pests. These pests damage the flowers and fruiting bodies or consumes the leaves or mine the leaves and sucks the juice of the leaves of young plants. Some of them are monophagous species, restricted to the genus
Cultivating cotton by adopting closer spacing with the available cultivars and with those having short branches was conceived and implemented in India since sixties of the 20th century. Visits, exposures, dialogs and discussions could improvise the learning and the team’s visit to Brazil had sown the idea of researching on High Density Planting System (HDPS) and the churned idea was implemented by reorienting research through All India Coordinated Cotton Improvement Project (AICCIP) and through other schemes like Technology Mission of Cotton (TMC) or National Food Security Mission (NFSM) in India [42]. It is reiterated that the success of HDPS at varied locations solely depends on the availability of genotypes, appropriate spacing and nutrition for adopting more plants per hectare to achieve more productivity per unit area and sound pest management criteria. This necessitates the evaluation of available genotypes in varied spacing and nutrition level to the incidence of insect pests. As farmers tend to grow more Bt which are normally of spreading in nature, evaluation of both Bt and not Bt compact genotypes for their suitability to HDPS is the need of the hour. The adoption of HDPS along with better genotype and fertilizer management is a viable approach to break the current stagnation of yield.
More the synthetic fertilizer application, especially nitrogen (N) fertilizer, more the serious insect herbivores occurrence and crop damage from these insects by reducing plant resistance, the concept which has been conceived clearly [43, 44]. Reducing fertilizer applications can reduce the production costs for cotton growers, as well as nitrogen (N) leaching into the soil and contamination of surface and ground water, but altered N fertilization may also affect pests and their natural enemies [45]. Occurrence of insects and their abundance are heavily dependent on the micro climate available in the system which is primarily based on the biomass production by the plants and their nearness (spacing). Hence, it is utmost important to study the pest dynamics under closer spacings as well as increased levels of nitrogen applications.
A study taken up using GSHV-01/1338 and GBHV-164 genotypes among others revealed their ability as promising genotypes of the region suited to high density planting system due to its compact nature [42]. At two levels of closer spacings (60x15 and 45x15 cm) against the normal spacing of 120x45 cm along with two increased level of nitrogen application (i.e. 125 and 150% of RDN), these two genotypes performed better. The studies were carried out in factorial randomized block design
[46] by quoting a field experiment that was conducted to study the mean incidence of major cotton insect pests during two consecutive seasons
[47] reported in a study undertaken during 2015–2016 on High density planting demonstrations (50) which were taken up in farmers’ fields at varied close spacings (75x10 and 90x10cm) with available compact genotypes (Suraj and G.Cot.16) compared to normal spacing (120x45 cm) under Insecticide Resistance Management (IRM) umbrella in rainfed regions of Bharuch district. Aphids, thrips and leafhopper were found above ETL whereas whitefly and mealybug were found below ETL. The mean larval population of pink bollworm was 4.41 and 3.14 larvae/20 green bolls in Suraj and G.Cot.16 spaced at closed spacings respectively. The pink bollworm population was 2.51 and 2.68 larvae/20 green bolls in Bt-IRM and non IRM plots respectively. Suraj variety spaced at 75x10 and 90x10 cm required 4.21 and 3.33 sprays and G.Cot.16 spaced at 75x10 and 90x10 cm required 4.40 and 3.60 sprays against sucking pests and 2.37 and 2.38 and 3.20 and 2.40 sprays against bollworms respectively as against 5.00 and 5.60 sprays against sucking pests and 2.00 and 3.80 sprays against bollworms in Bt-IRM and Bt-Non IRM cotton respectively. These results suggest the need for excessive sprays in ultra closer spacing than the normal closer spacing for both the cultivars. The net return was found higher in G.Cot.16 HDPS at both the spacing (Rs. 22,966 and 17,456/acre) than the Suraj HDPS (Rs. 16,461 and 8235/acre). The net return for Bt-IRM farmers was higher (Rs.21527/acre) than non IRM-Bt farmers (Rs. 17,919/acre). Thus, it has been concluded that HDPS offer viable option to increase productivity especially under rainfed region.
The cotton crop is attacked by 1326 species of insect pests throughout the world, of which about 130 different species of insects and mites found to devour cotton at different stages of crop growth in India. Among the bollworms, pink bollworm assumed major pest status in recent past [48]. The pink bollworm,
Losses caused by pests vary by 10–30% depending on the intrinsic genetic factors and its rigidity in expressing the inherent resistance. Pests are supposed to evolve in a short and strategic cycle to circumvent the problems being arisen and judicious use of insecticides along with physical, biological control methods is the need of the hour. Ignoring pests can lead to complete crop failure. In the overall crop protection program under the National Agricultural Policy, The Government’s IPM is a time-tested, eco-friendly approach, socially acceptable and economically viable that is widely accepted across the country. Appropriate control measures should be taken when insect populations cross the ETL [52].
High density planting which entails closer planting may have every chance of microclimate getting altered due to which the propensity of infectious diseases in cotton may also vary. The high density planting in cotton is a recent phenomena which opened avenues for research in various domains including plant pathology. The plant pathologists have been trying to understand the nexus between the incidence of various cotton diseases and the change in microclimate of the plant coupled with external atmosphere [53, 54].
The life cycle of pathogens is amenable for changes in line with the changes in plant canopy and the microclimate mediated through weather parameters. Space between plants and rows is bound to have a say in the mode of dispersal, the intensity of infection and the production of secondary inoculum of plant pathogens. Cotton, being a commercial crop, is no exception to this phenomena of infection and the high density planting in cotton need to be carefully contemplated taking into account the changed plant geometry and the corresponding incidence of cotton diseases. Despite the research on influence of high density planting in cotton on the incidence of diseases is in the nascent stage, an attempt has been made to take stock of striking developments in the management of important cotton diseases in the succeeding pages.
The major diseases of cotton which are prevalent in most part of the cotton growing countries in the world were reported to inflict a damage ranging from 10 to 30% and it may be more when favorable conditions prevail for the spread of the pathogens which culminates in cotton farmers spending huge cost to keep the biotic stress under control [55].
Fungal diseases are predominant in cotton followed by very few bacterial and viral diseases. The prominent bacterial disease which inflict major damage in cotton crop is bacterial blight, caused by
Plethora of studies were conducted for the management of cotton diseases which reported solitary or combination of management practices to control them. Besides chemical control, significant research work has been carried out on the biological control of cotton diseases [64, 65, 66, 67]. Similarly, there were prominent studies on use of plant extracts [68, 69, 70] and essential oil [71, 72] for the management of cotton diseases. Cultural methods [73] and organic amendments [74] also form part of the strategy to control cotton diseases.
In the recent past, several research studies have documented the efficacy of Endophytic bacteria [75] in suppressing the incidence of cotton diseases. Molecular level studies namely transcriptomic, proteomic and metabolomic studies [76, 77, 78] and studies on gene editing [79] were on the rise for the past two decades. As there are several methods and molecules have been designed for effecting the control of diseases, their role in containing the diseases that occur under HDPS is in infant stage as the genotypes which have been evaluated at Coimbatore were not found to have adequate disease expressions under HDPS.
Soil borne fungal diseases of cotton namely damping off, root rot and wilt have been reported to cause extensive damage in cotton crop. Juxtaposing chemical control with biological method, the latter was found to be effective which is evidenced from the finding of [80, 81, 82] who reported that the combined application of
Among the foliar diseases, Alternaria leaf spot, gray mildew, boll rot, rust, anthracnose and bacterial leaf blight were reported in cotton and they were reported to inflict damage significantly. The chemical fungicides mancozeb (0.3%), propiconazole (0.1%), propineb (0.3%) were found more effective against
Among the biocontrol agents studied,
Among the viral diseases infecting cotton, cotton leaf curl virus and tobacco streak virus are important. The TSV disease was reported to be spread through mechanical means, infected seeds and through thrips species. Parthenium, a widely distributed and symptom less carrier of TSV, plays a major role in perpetuation and spread of the disease [91, 92, 93, 94, 95].
A study carried out by [96] uncovered the application of
Though evolving a suitable ideotype remains the basics of successful adoption of any HDPS, the evolved genotype’s suitability to the various management practices results in its adoptability. Nowadays, many of the farmers are going for Bt cotton and that too under rainfed situations. Considering this as a backdrop, the genotypes under development either through conventional method employing crossing between the selected genotypes and progeny selection or mutation breeding or selection of desirable genotypes from the pre-bred materials or by any of the molecular methods must fit for one or more situations as described below.
Considering the occurrence of weeds in both irrigated and rainfed systems, the HDPS genotype must possess inherent herbicide tolerant/resistant behavior either through inheritance or through infusion using biotechnological tools.
Transplanting of cotton have been identified as one of the viable option for maintaining the sufficient plant population. Preliminary studies taken up at the Department of Cotton also indicated the survival of 15–20 days old seedlings of CO 17 variety upto 25 per cent. However, the growth observed in the transplanted plants was stunted. Studies taken up by [101] indicated that date of sowing, age of seedling for transplanting bears a relationship on the seed cotton yield. Moreover, Bt cotton sown directly or through tray nursery or through polythene nursery of varied duration had varied impact on seed cotton yield. Polythene nursery with 3 weeks old seedlings upon transplanting could result in a yield of 4727 kg/ha. Thus, clear cut studies on the evolved genotype for its suitability to transplanting through any one of the methods are required.
It has been observed that cotton plants raised under dense paired sowing produced the highest seed cotton yield and water use efficiency [102]. Hence, the evolved genotypes need to be tested for its water use efficiency under fertigation studies which is the need of the hour. Preliminary experiments conducted with CO 17 in this regard with varied level of population and varied nutrient levels under drip fertigation revealed that spacing 75 cm × 10 cm spacing coupled with STCR based drip fertigation recorded net return of Rs. 131,302/ha.
Another interesting observation made by [103] was weed density and weed dry matter production were lesser at closer spacing of 30 x 30 and 45 x 30 cm as compared to widely spaced cotton. Though this is to be taken care of, more closer spacing would attract pest and diseases and hence an ideal spacing has to be arrived for evolved genotypes.
The evolved genotype (preferably as a variety) must have an yield advantage and increased per day productivity compared to the
It has to be ascertained, that by all means, the evolved genotype should contain the deregulated gene/QTLs conferring resistance to bollworms or genes that are of native origin which are freely available. This is because that the non Bt cotton variety F 2383 released by Punjab Agricultural University during 2015 for cultivation under HDPS had the susceptibility to boll worms besides smaller boll size [104].
In USA, it took 30 years to achieve 100 per cent mechanization, while it was 45 years in Brazil. Turkey reached 75 per cent mechanization in 15 years and China took 20 years to reach 15 per cent mechanization. However, in India, as seen, harvesting is completely labour oriented and all the activities need to be mechanized [105]. It has been also indicated that the mechanical picking with single row picker under HDPS provided 25–40 per cent yield increase compared to the farmer’s practice. Preliminary studies done in this aspect in the Department of Cotton with CO 17 variety indicated that mechanizing the sowing, spraying, weeding operations alone had resulted in a savings of Rs. 51,000(698 US $).
This gives a clear message that mechanizing cotton cultivation is of essential one and the evolved genotype must fit for mechanized cultivation in India.
We are grateful to the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University for permitting us to write this chapter which would be of immense help to the students and scientists. We are equally committed to IntechOpen for accepting our request to waive off the fees of publication.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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