\r\n\t \r\n\tThe aim of this book project is to compile the updated research work on medicinal applications of noble metal complexes mainly focusing the structure activity relationship of metal complexes with targeting biological components.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,hash:"b25fa876cb111bfdaf4fdbaa658a97e5",bookSignature:"Dr. Muhammad Adnan Iqbal",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7307.jpg",keywords:"Ruthenium in Medicine, Gold in Medicine, Anticancer, Antimicrobial, Antioxidant, Antifungal, Metal Based Drugs, Osmium Drugs, Silver Drugs, Iridium in Medicine, Platinum in Medicine",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 6th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 27th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 26th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 14th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 14th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"253633",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Adnan",middleName:null,surname:"Iqbal",slug:"muhammad-adnan-iqbal",fullName:"Muhammad Adnan Iqbal",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253633/images/system/253633.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Iqbal was born in Punjab-Pakistan in April 1984. 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Haque’s laboratory on a fellowship. \r\nHe completed his Ph.D. in organometallic chemistry in April 2014 and got an opportunity of postdoctoral fellowship in the same lab. \r\nHe joined the University of Agriculture Faisalabad on September 2015 as an assistant professor. \r\nCurrently, he has established an organometallic and coordination chemistry laboratory at UAF community college Faisalabad-Pakistan. \r\nHis research interests include synthesis of metallodrugs.",institutionString:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"19",title:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",slug:"pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceutical-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"297737",firstName:"Mateo",lastName:"Pulko",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297737/images/8492_n.png",email:"mateo.p@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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1. Introduction
There are many factors influencing plant biomass, such as soil humidity, soil and air temperature, photoperiod, solar radiation, precipitations, genotype e.t.c. One of the most important factors influencing biomass is soil nutrient availability. Both nutrient deficiency and toxicity negatively affect total biomass and fruit production [1-10]. So, by controlling the optimum levels of nutrient availability in soil, the production of biomass and, of course, the economic benefit (fruit production) for the farmers can be maximized. In the cases of limited nutrient availability in soils, fertilization seems to be the most usual practice adopted by the farmers in order to ameliorate the low nutrient status. However, since: i) during the last two decades the prices of fertilizers have been dramatically increased, and ii) soil degradation and pollution, as well as underground water pollution, are serious consequences provoked by the exaggerate use of fertilizers, a global concern to reduce the use of fertilizers has been developed. So, the best (most economic and ecological) way in our days to achieve maximum yields is by selecting and growing nutrient efficient genotypes, i.e. genotypes which are able to produce high yields (biomass) in soils with limited nutrient availability. Many researchers studied the influence of genotype on biomass and plant growth (nutrient use efficient genotypes) and found impressive results. According to Chapin and Van Cleve (1991) [11], nutrient use efficiency is defined as the amount of biomass produced per unit of nutrient. So, nutrient use efficient genotypes are those having the ability to produce biomass sufficiently under limited nutrient availability. In our research with different olive cultivars, grown under hydroponics, or in soil substrate, we found significant differences concerning macro- and micronutrient utilization efficiency among genotypes [12-13]. Possible reasons for differential nutrient utilization efficiency among genotypes may be: i) the genetic material used, i.e. cultivar (differential nutrient uptake, accumulation and distribution among tissues, mechanisms of cultivars/genotypes), ii) differential colonization of their root system mycorrhiza fungi. Chatzistathis et al. (2011) [14] refer that the statistically significant differences in Mn, Fe and Zn utilization efficiency among three Greek olive cultivars (‘Chondrolia Chalkidikis’, ‘Koroneiki’ and ‘Kothreiki’) may be probably ascribed to the differential colonization of their root system by arbuscular mycorrhiza fungus (AMF) (the percentage root colonization by AMF varied from 45% to 73%).
Heavy metal (Cu, Zn, Ni, Pb, Mn, Cr, Cd) toxicity is a very serious problem in soils suffering from: i) industrial and mine activities [15], ii) the exaggerate use of fertilizers, fungicides and insecticides, iii) acidity, iv) waterlogging, v) other urban activities, such as municipal sewage sludges, vi) the use of lead in petrols, paints and other materials [16]. Under these conditions, plant growth and biomass are negatively affected [17-20]. According to Caldelas et al. (2012) [19], not only growth inhibition happened, but also root to shoot dry matter partitioning (R/S) modified (increased 80%) at Cr toxic conditions in Iris pseudacorus L. plants. Some plant species, which may tolerate very high metal concentrations in their tissues, can be used as hyper-accumulators and are very suitable in reducing heavy metal concentrations in contaminated soils [21]. These species are able to accumulate much more metal in their shoots, than in their roots, without suffering from metal toxicity [22]. By successive harvests of the aerial parts of the hyper-accumulator species, the heavy metals concentration can be reduced [23]. Phytoremediation is an emerging technology and is considered for remediation of inorganic- and organic-contaminated sites because of its cost-effectiveness, aesthetic advantages, and long-term applicability. This technique involves the use of the ability of some plant species to absorb and accumulate high concentrations of heavy metal ions [17]. Some of these species may be a few ones from Brassicaceae family, such as raya (Brassica campestris L.) [17] and Thlaspi caerulescens [23], or from other families, such as spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) [17], Sedum plumbizincicola [24], Amaranthus hypochondriacus [25], Eremochloa ophiuroides [26], Iris pseudacorus L. [19], Ricinus communis L., plant of Euphorbiaceae family [18]. Finally, the tree species Genipa Americana L. may be used as one with great ability as phytostabilizer and rhizofilterer of Cr ions, according to Santana et al. (2012) [20]. Basically, there are two different strategies to phytoextract metals from soils: the first approach is the use of metal hyper-accumulator species. The second one is to use fast-growing, high biomass crops that accumulate moderate to high levels of metals in their shoots for metal phytoremediation, such as Poplar (Populus sp.) [27-28], maize (Zea mays), oat (Avena sativa), sunflower (Helianthus annuus) and rice (Oryza sativa L.) [25]. Generally, the more high biomass producing is one plant species, the more efficient is the phytoremediation effect. So, in order to enhance biomass production under metal toxicity conditions, different strategies, such as the application of chemical amendments, may be adopted [21]. Since Fe deficiency symptoms may be appeared under Cu and Zn toxicity conditions in some species of Brassicaceae family used for phytoremediation, a good practice is to utilize Fe foliar sprays in order to enhance biomass, thus the phytoremediation effect [29].
All the above mentioned topics, concerning the influence of nutrient deficiency and metal toxicity on plant biomass, as well as the importance of using nutrient use efficient genotypes and cultivars, are within the aim of the present review. Furthermore, the characteristics that should have the plant species used for phytoremediation (fast-growing, high biomass crops) in heavy metal polluted soils are fully analyzed, and the different strategies that should be adopted in order to enhance plant growth and biomass production under so adverse soil conditions are also discussed under the light of the most important and recent research papers.
2. Agronomic, environmental and genotypic factors influencing plant growth
Plant growth (i.e. biomass production) is influenced by many (agronomic environmental and others, such as genetic) factors. Some of the most important factors that influence biomass production are: i) soil humidity, ii) soil and air temperature, iii) air humidity, iv) photoperiod, v) light intensity, vi) soil fertility, i.e. soil nutrient availability, and vii) genotype, and are fully analyzed below.
2.1. Soil humidity
Soil humidity is a very crucial factor influencing root growth, thus nutrient uptake and total biomass. Many plant species are more sensitive in soil humidity shortage during a particular (crucial) period of their growth. In olive trees, if soil humidity shortage happens early spring, shoot elongation, as well as the formation of flowers and fruits, are negatively influenced. If the shortage happens during summer, shoot thickening, rather than shoot elongation, is influenced. Finally, soil humidity shortage reduces olive tree canopy (in order to reduce the transpiration by leaf surface) and favors root system growth (in order to have the ability to exploit greater soil volume and to search for more soil humidity), so that the ratio canopy/root is significantly reduced [30]. On the other hand, under excess soil humidity conditions (waterlogging), when soil oxygen is limited, the root system may suffer from hypoxia, thus, nutrient uptake is negatively influenced. Under extreme anaerobic soil conditions, the presence of pathogen microorganisms, such as Phytophthora sp. may lead to root necrosis. According to Therios (2009) [31], for olive trees the mechanism of tolerance to waterlogging is based on the production of adventitious roots near to the soil surface.
2.2. Soil temperature
Soil temperature influences root growth, thus nutrient and water uptake and, of course, biomass production. Most nutrients are absorbed with energy consumption (energetic uptake), so, low and very high soil temperatures negatively influence root growth and nutrient uptake. Furthermore, low soil temperatures induce a water deficit [32].
2.3. Air temperature
Air temperature directly influences photosynthesis, which is the most important physiological function in plants. The optimum temperature for photosynthesis depends on plant species and also on cultivar for the same species. Usually, the optimum temperature for maximum photosynthetic activity is around 25oC for most vegetative species. When temperature exceeds 35oC photosynthesis is inhibited, thus biomass production may be restrained. High temperatures are associated with a high vapor pressure deficit between leaves and the surrounding air. The same applies to fruit, where high temperatures may cause fruit drop in olive trees [31]. On the other hand, low temperatures act negatively in photosynthesis function and starch is redistributed and is accumulated in organs protected from frost, such as roots. Very low temperatures (<-12oC) damage the leaf canopy, shoot and branches of trees [31].
2.4. Air humidity
Low atmosphere humidity speeds up transpiration by leaf surface. Increase of the rate of transpiration causes reduction of vegetative tissues water content, thus depression in the rate of growth and biomass production.
2.5. Photoperiod
Photoperiod is the duration of light in 24 hours and it is one of the most important factors influencing vegetative growth. Plant species whose vegetative growth is mostly influenced by long day conditions are Populus robusta, Ulmus Americana and Aesculus hippocastanus [30].
2.6. Light intensity
Light, together with CO2, are the two main factors influencing photosynthetic rate. By increasing light intensity up to an optimum limit the maximum photosynthetic rate, so the greatest biomass production can be achieved.
2.7. Nutrient availability
Limited nutrient availability influences negatively biomass production. Nitrogen deficiency strongly depresses vegetation flush. According to Boussadia et al. (2010) [8], total biomass of two olive cultivars (‘Meski’ and ‘Koroneiki’) was strongly reduced (mainly caused by a decrease in leaf dry weight) under severe N deprivation, while in an out-door pot-culture experiment with castor bean plants (Ricinus communis L.), conducted by Reddy and Matcha (2010) [9], it was found that among the plant components, leaf dry weight had the greatest decrease; furthermore, root/shoot ratio increased under N deficiency [9]. Phosphorus deficiency caused reduced biomass, photosynthetic activity and nitrogen fixing ability in mungbean (Vigna aconitifolia) and mashbean (Vigna radiata) [33]. Under P deficiency conditions, genotypic variation in biomass production is evident; according to Pang et al. (2010) [34], who studied in a glasshouse experiment the response of ten perennial herbaceous legume species, found that under low P conditions several legumes produced more biomass than lucerne. Nutrient deficiency may cause physiological and metabolism abnormalities in plants, which may lead to deficiency symptoms. There are two categories of symptoms: i) General symptoms, such as limited growth and inability of reproduction (flowering and fruit setting), caused by the deficiency of many necessary macro- or micro- nutrients, and ii) typical, characteristic, deficiency symptoms, such as chlorosis, i.e. yellowing (due to Fe deficiency). In both cases biomass production is depressed. In the study of Msilini et al. (2009) [10], bicarbonate treated plants of Arabidopsis thaliana suffered from Fe deficiency displayed significantly lower biomass, leaf number and leaf surface, as compared to control plants, and showed slight yellowing of their younger leaves. Under limited nutrient availability, arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi (AMF) may favor nutrient uptake and thus enhance biomass production. Hu et al. (2009) [35] refer that AMF inoculation of maize plants was likely more efficient in extremely P-limited soils. Generally, root colonization by AMF influences positively plant growth under N, P, or micronutrient deficiency conditions [36].
According to Bayuelo-Jimenez et al. (2011) [3], under P deficiency, P-efficient accessions of maize plants (Zea mays L.) had greater root to shoot ratio, nodal rooting, nodal root laterals, nodal root hair density and length of nodal root main axis, and first-order laterals. In our experiments, we also found differential root system morphology among three Greek olive cultivars (the root systems of ‘Koroneiki’ and ‘Chondrolia Chalkidikis’ were less branched and more lateral, and with less root hair development and density, than that of ‘Kothreiki’, which was richly-branched and with much greater root hair development and density), something which was probably the main reason for the great genotypic variations in nutrient uptake and growth among the three cultivars (Chatzistathis, unpublished data). Singh et al. (2010) [37] found that great differences existed among 10 multipurpose tree species, grown in a monoculture tree cropping system on the sodic soils of Gangetic alluvium in north India, concerning plant height, diameter e.t.c.
3. Physiological roles of nutrients
The absolutely necessary nutrients for plant growth are the following: N, P, K, S, Ca, Mg (macronutrients), Zn, Cu, B, Mn, Fe, Mo (micronutrients). Without one of these nutrients, plant organism can not grow normally and survive. The physiological roles of these nutrients are described in detail below.
3.1. Macronutrients
Nitrogen: It is a primary component of nucleic acids, proteins, amino acids, purines, pyrimidines and chlorophyll. Nitrogen exerts a significant effect on plant growth, as it reduces biennial bearing and increases the percentage of perfect flowers. In olive trees, lack of N leads to decreased growth, shorter length of annual shoots (<10cm), fewer leaves, reduced flowering and decreased yield [31].
Phosphorus: P is a component of high-energy substances such as ATP, ADP and AMP; it is also important for nucleic acids and phospholipids. Phosphorus affects root growth and maturation of plant tissues and participates in the metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins [31].
Potassium: K plays a crucial role in carbohydrate metabolism, in the metabolism of N and protein synthesis, in enzyme activities, in the regulation of the opening and closing of stomata, thus to the operation of photosynthesis, in the improvement of fruit quality and disease tolerance, in the activation of the enzymes peptase, catalase, pyruvic kinase e.t.c. [31,38].
Calcium: It is the element that participates in the formation and integrity of cell membranes, in the integrity and semipermeability of the plasmalemma, it increases the activity of many enzymes, it plays a crucial role in cell elongation and division, in the transfer of carbohydrates e.t.c. [31,38].
Magnesium: It is part of chlorophyll molecule, it activates the enzymes of Crebs’ cycle and it also plays a role in oil synthesis [38].
Sulphur: Sulphur plays role in the synthesis of some amino-acids, such as cysteine, cystine, methionine, as well as in proteins synthesis. It also activates some proteolytic enzymes, such as papaine, bromeline e.t.c. Finally, it is part of some vitamins’ molecule and that of gloutathione [31,38].
3.2. Micronutrients
Iron: Iron plays an important role in chlorophyll synthesis, without being part of its molecule. Furthermore, it participates in the molecule of Fe-proteins catalase, cytochrome a, b, c, hyperoxidase e.t.c. In addition to that, it is found in the enzymes nitric and nitrate reductase, which are responsible for the transformation of NO3- into NH4+, as well as in nitrogenase, which is the responsible enzyme for the atmospheric N capturing [38].
Manganese: Manganese is activator of the enzymes of carbohydrates metabolism, those of Crebs’ cycle, and of some other enzymes, such as cysteine desulphydrase, glutamyl transferase e.t.c. It also plays a key-role in photosystem II of photosynthesis, and particularly in the reactions liberating O2. Finally, Mn acts as activator of some enzymes catalyzing oxidation and reduction reactions [38].
Zinc: Zn plays crucial role in tryptophane biosynthesis, which is the previous stage from IAA (auxin) synthesis (direct influence of Zn on plant growth and biomass production). IAA concentration is significantly reduced in vegetative tissues suffering from Zn deficiency. In addition to the above, Zn is part of some metal-enzymes [38].
Copper: Cu is activator of some enzymes, as well as it is part of enzymes catalyzing oxidation and reducing reactions, such as oxidase of ascorbic acid, lactase, nitrate and nitric reductase e.t.c. [38].
Boron: B plays role in the transfer of sugars along cell membranes, as well as in RNA and DNA synthesis. It also participates to cell division process, as well as to the pectine synthesis [38].
Molybdenum: It is part of the enzyme nitrogenase (capturing of atmospheric N) and nitric reductase (transformation of NO3- to NO2-). Mo also participates to the metabolism of ascorbic acid [38].
As it is clear from all the above physiological roles of nutrients, the deficiency of even one of them in the mineral nutrition of higher plants depresses their growth, thus biomass production. So, in order to achieve the maximum biomass production, apart from the optimum conditions of all the other environmental and agronomic factors influencing plant growth (temperature, soil humidity, photoperiod, light intensity), it should always be taken care of maintaining the optimum levels of all the necessary soil nutrients. This is usually achieved with the correct fertilization program of the different crops. For example, fruit trees have high demands in K, since fruit production is a K sink and reduces its levels in plant level. According to Therios (2009) [31], potassium plays an important role in olive nutrition. Thus, fruit trees should be periodically fertilized (usually K fertilizers applied during autumn, or winter, and are incorporated into the soils) with enhanced doses of potassium fertilizers (usually K2SO4). Apart from chemical fertilizers, organic amendments can be also applied under limited nutrient conditions in order to enhance plant growth. According to Hu et al. (2009) [35], stem length, shoot and root biomass, as well as crop yield of maize were all greatly increased by the application of organic amendments on a sandy loam soil. Apart from the application of chemical fertilizers, organic amendments e.t.c., another modern method to improve yields and to increase biomass is the irrigation of crops with FFC H2O, a commercial product currently utilized by the agriculture, fishery and food industries in Japan. In the study of Konkol et al. (2012) [39], radish and shirona plants irrigated with FFC H2O developed larger average leaf area by 122% and greater dry weight and stem length by 39% and 31%, respectively, compared to the plants irrigated with deionized H2O. FFC H2O offers agriculturalists a simple and effective tool for the fortification of irrigation waters with micronutrients [39].
4. Nutrient utilization efficiency (NUE): The case of nutrient use efficient genotypes
World population is expected to increase from 6.0 billion in 1999 to 8.5 billion by 2025. Such an increase in population will intensify pressure on the world’s natural resource base (land, water, and air) to achieve higher food production. Increased food production could be achieved by expanding the land area under crops and by increasing yields per unit area through intensive farming. Chemical fertilizers are one of the expensive inputs used by farmers to achieve desired crop yields [40]. However, during the last years, the prices of fertilizers have been considerably increased. Furthermore, soil degradation and pollution, as well as underground water pollution, are serious consequences provoked by the exaggerate use of fertilizers during last decades. These two aspects are responsible for the global concern to reduce the use of fertilizers. The best way to do that is by selecting and growing nutrient use efficient genotypes. According to Khoshgoftarmanesh (2009) [41], cultivation and breeding of micronutrient-efficient genotypes in combination with proper agronomic management practices appear as the most sustainable and cost-effective solution for alleviating food-chain micronutrient deficiency.
Nutrient use efficient genotypes are those having the ability to produce high yields under conditions of limited nutrient availability. According to Chapin and Van Cleve (1991) [11] and Gourley et al. (1994) [42], as nutrient utilization efficiency (NUE) is defined the amount of biomass produced per unit of nutrient absorbed. Nutrient efficiency ratio (NER) was suggested by Gerloff and Gabelman (1983) [43] to differentiate genotypes into efficient and inefficient nutrient utilizers, i.e. NER=(Units of Yields, kgs)/(Unit of elements in tissue, kg), while Agronomic efficiency\n\t\t\t\t(AE) is expressed as the additional amount of economic yield per unit nutrient applied, i.e. AE=(Yield F, kg-Yield C, kg)/(quantity of nutrient applied, kg), where F applies for plants receiving fertilizer and C for plants receiving no fertilizer.
Many researchers found significant differences concerning nutrient utilization efficiency among genotypes (cultivars) of the same plant species [1,12,13,40,44-46] Biomass (shoot and root dry matter production) was used as an indicator in order to assess Zn efficient Chinese maize genotypes, grown for 30 days in a greenhouse pot experiment under Zn limiting conditions [1]. NUE is based on: a) uptake efficiency, b) incorporation efficiency and c) utilization efficiency [40]. The uptake efficiency is the ability of a genotype to absorb nutrients from the soil; however, the great ability to absorb nutrients does not necessarily mean that this genotype is nutrient use efficient. According to Jiang and Ireland (2005) [45], and Jiang (2006) [46], Mn efficient wheat cultivars own this ability to a better internal utilization of Mn, rather than to a higher plant Mn accumulation. We also found in our experiments that, despite the fact that the olive cultivar ‘Kothreiki’ absorbed and accumulated significantly greater quantity of Mn and Fe in three soil types, compared to ‘Koroneiki’, the second one was more Mn and Fe-efficient due to its better internal utilization efficiency of Mn and Fe (greater transport of these micronutrients from root to shoots) [12] (Tables 1 and 2). Aziz et al. (2011a) [47] refer that under P deficiency conditions, P content of young leaves in Brassica cultivars increased by two folds, indicating remobilization of this nutrient from older leaves and shoot. However, differences in P remobilization among Brassica cultivars could not explain the differences in P utilization. Phosphorus efficient wheat genotypes with greater root biomass, higher P uptake potential in shoots and absorption rate of P were generally more tolerant to P deficiency in the growth medium [6]. According to Yang et al. (2011) [48], on average, the K efficient cotton cultivars produced 59% more potential economic yield (dry weight of all reproductive organs) under field conditions even with available soil K at obviously deficient level (60 mg/kg).
The possible causes for the differential nutrient utilization efficiency among genotypes and/or species may be one, or combination of more than one, of the following: a) genetic reasons (genotypic ability to absorb and utilize efficiently, or inefficiently, soil nutrients), b) mycorrhiza colonization of the root system, c) differential root exudation of organic compounds favorizing nutrient uptake, d) different properties of rhizosphere, e) other reasons. According to Cakmak (2002) [49], integration of plant nutrition research with plant genetics and molecular biology is indispensable in developing plant genotypes with high genetic ability to adapt to nutrient deficient and toxic soil conditions and to allocate more micronutrients into edible plant products. According to Aziz et al. (2011b) [50], Brassica cultivars with high biomass and high P contents, such as ‘Rainbow’ and ‘Poorbi Raya’, at low available P conditions would be used in further screening experiments to improve P efficiency in Brassica. More specifically, a number of genes have been isolated and cloned, which are involved in root exudation of nutrient-mobilizing organic compounds [51,52]. Successful attempts have been made in the past 5 years to develop transgenic plants that produce and release large amounts of organic acids, which are considered to be key compounds involved in the adaptive mechanisms used by plants to tolerate P-deficient soil conditions [53-55]. However, differential root exudation ability in nature exists among different plant species. According to Maruyama et al. (2005) [56], who made a comparison of iron availability in leaves of barley and rice, the difference in the Fe acquisition ability between these two species was affected by the differential mugineic acid secretion. Chatzistathis et al. (2009) [12] refer that, maybe, a similar mechanism was responsible for the differential micronutrient uptake and accumulation between the Greek olive cultivars ‘Koroneiki’ and ‘Kothreiki’. According to the same authors, differential reduction of Fe3+ to Fe2+, or acidification capacity of root apoplast (which associates with the increase of Fe3+-chelate reductase and H-ATPase activities) among three Greek olive cultivars should not be excluded from possible causes for the significant differences observed concerning Fe uptake [14]. Mycorrhiza root colonization may be another responsible factor for the differential micronutrient utilization efficiency among genotypes. According to Citernesi et al. (1998) [57], arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi (AMF) influenced root morphology of Italian olive cultivars, thus nutrient uptake and accumulation, as well as plant growth. In our study with olive cultivars ‘Koroneiki’, ‘Kothreiki’ and ‘Chondrolia Chalkidikis’, we found significant differences concerning root colonization by AMF (that varied from 45% to 73%), together with great differences in uptake and utilization efficiency of Mn, Fe and Zn among them (particularly, 1.5 to 10.5 times greater amount of Mn, Fe and Zn accumulated by ‘Kothreiki’, compared to the other two cultivars, but the differences in plant growth parameters between the three cultivars were not impressive; this is why the micronutrient utilization efficiency by ‘Kothreiki’ was significantly lower, compared to that of the other two ones). Finally, the different properties of rhizosphere among genotypes may be another important factor influencing nutrient uptake and utilization efficiency, and of course biomass production. According to Rengel (2001) [58], who made a review on genotypic differences in micronutrient use efficiency of many crops, micronutrient-efficient genotypes were capable of increasing soil available micronutrient pools through changing the chemical and microbiological properties of the rhizosphere, as well as by growing thinner and longer roots and by having more efficient uptake and transport mechanisms.
Soil
Cultivar
Micronutrient
Root
Stem
Leaves
Marl
Mn
Kor
50.2b
38.0a
11.8a
Koth
74.1a
12.8b
13.1a
Gneiss schist
Kor
56.5b
34.2a
9.3a
Koth
81.3a
10.8b
7.9a
Peridotite
Kor
44.0b
44.0a
12.0a
Koth
76.0a
12.9b
11.1a
Marl
Fe
Kor
93.7a
3.9a
2.4a
Koth
98.0a
0.9b
1.1b
Gneiss schist
Kor
94.0a
3.7a
2.3a
Koth
98.8a
0.6b
0.6b
Peridotite
Kor
90.8a
7.1a
2.1a
Koth
98.3a
0.8b
0.9b
Marl
Zn
Kor
49.3b
29.6a
21.1a
Koth
64.4a
15.6b
20.0a
Gneiss schist
Kor
59.1b
26.7a
14.2a
Koth
73.7a
14.3b
12.0a
Peridotite
Kor
37.3b
33.9a
28.8a
Koth
65.3a
18.0b
16.7b
Table 1
Distribution (%) of the total per plant quantity of Mn, Fe and Zn in the three vegetative tissues (root, stem and leaves) of the olive cultivars ‘Koroneiki’ and ‘Kothreiki’, when each one was grown in three soils (from parent material Marl, Gneiss schist. and Peridotite) with different physicochemical properties (Chatzistathis et al., 2009).The different letters in the same column symbolize statistically significant differences between the two olive cultivars in each of the three soils, for P≤0.05 (n=6) (SPSS; t-test).
Soil
Cultivar
MnUE
FeUE
ZnUE
Marl
mg of the total plant d.w./μg of the total per plant quantity of micronutrient
Kor
31.85a
1.73a
77.53a
Koth
18.68b
0.65b
68.08a
Gneiss schist
Kor
39.87a
1.84a
51.04a
Koth
17.94b
0.44b
49.15a
Peridotite
Kor
23.33a
1.19a
61.75a
Koth
18.00a
0.58b
72.88a
Table 2
Nutrient utilization efficiency (mg of the total plant d.w. /μg of the total per plant quantity of micronutrient or mg of the total per plant quantity of macronutrient) of the olive cultivars ‘Koroneiki’ and ‘Kothreiki’, when each of them was grown in three soils (from parent material Marl, Gneiss schist. and Peridotite) with different physicochemical properties (Chatzistathis et al., 2009). The different letters in the same column symbolize statistically significant differences between the two cultivars in each of the three soils, for P≤0.05 (n=6) (SPSS; t-test).
5. The influence of heavy metal toxicity on biomass production
Soil heavy metal contamination has become an increasing problem worldwide. Among the heavy metals, Cu, Zn, Mn, Cd, Pb, Ni and Cr are considered to be the most common toxicity problems causing increasing concern. Growth inhibition and reduced yield are common responses of horticultural crops to nutrient and heavy metal toxicity [2]. Nevertheless, sometimes less common responses happen under metal toxicity conditions. For example, in the case of Pb it has been suggested that inhibition of root growth is one of the primary effects of Pb toxicity through the inhibition of cell division at the root tip [59]. Significant reductions in plant height, as well as in shoot and root dry weight (varying from 3.3% to 54.5%), as compared with that of the controls, were found for Typha angustifolia plants in different Cr treatments [60]. Furthermore, according to Caldelas et al. (2012) [19], not only growth inhibition happened (reached 65% dry weight) under Cr toxicity conditions, but also root/shoot partitioning increased by 80%. Under Cr stress conditions, it was found that root and shoot biomass of Genipa americana L. were significantly reduced [20]. The biomass reduction of Genipa americana trees is ascribed, according to the same authors, to the decreased net photosynthetic rates and to the limitations in stomatal conductance. The disorganization of chloroplast structure and inhibition of electron transport is a possible explanation for the decreased photosynthetic rates of trees exposed to Cr stress [20]. In contrast to the above, Cd and Pb applications induced slight or even significant increase in plant height and biomass. The fact that Cd and Pb addition enhanced Ca and Fe uptake suggests that these two nutrients may play a role in heavy metal detoxification by Typha angustifolia plants; furthermore, increased Zn uptake may also contribute to its hyper Pb tolerance, as recorder in the increased biomass over the control plants [60]. According to the same authors (Bah et al., 2011), plants have mechanisms that allow them to tolerate relatively high concentrations of Pb in their environment without suffering from toxic effects.
Figure 1.
Shoot elongation of olive cultivars ‘Picual’ (A) and ‘Koroneiki’ (B), when grown under hydroponics at normal (2 μΜ) and excess Mn conditions (640 μΜ Mn) (Chatzistathis et al., 2012).
Tzerakis et al. (2012) [2] found that excessively high concentrations of Mn and Zn in the leaves of cucumber (reached 900 and 450 mg/kg d.w., respectively), grown hydroponically under toxic Mn and Zn conditions, reduced the fruit biomass due to decreases in the number of fruits per plants, as well as in the net assimilation rate, stomatal conductance and transpiration rate. However, it was found that significant differences concerning biomass production between different species of the same genus exist under metal toxicity conditions; Melilotus officinalis seems to be more tolerant to Pb than Melilotus alba because no differences in shoot or root length, or number of leaves, were found between control plants and those grown under 200 and 1000 mg/kg Pb [15]. In addition to the above, genotypic differences between cultivars of the same species, concerning biomass production, under metal toxicity conditions may also be observed; Chatzistathis et al. (2012) [13] found that under excess Mn conditions (640 μΜ), plant growth parameters (shoot elongation, as well as fresh and dry weights of leaves, root and stem) of olive cultivar ‘Picual’ were significantly decreased, compared to those of the control plants (2 μΜ), something which did not happen in olive cultivar ‘Koroneiki’ (no significant differences were recorder between the two Mn treatments) (Figure 1). According to the same authors, some factors related to the better tolerance of ‘Koroneiki’ not only at whole plant level, but also at tissue and cell level, could take place. Such possible factors could be a better compartmentalization of Mn within cells and/or functionality of Mn detoxification systems [13]. Significant growth reductions of several plant species, grown under Mn toxicity conditions, have been mentioned by several researchers [61-65].
Nickel (Ni) toxicity, which may be a serious problem around industrial areas, can also cause biomass reduction. At high soil Ni levels (>200 mg/kg soil) reduced growth symptoms of Riccinus communis plants were observed [18]. According to Baccouch et al. (1998) [66], the higher concentrations of Ni have been reported to retard cell division, elongation, differentiation, as well as to affect plant growth and development. Excess Cd, which causes direct or indirect inhibition of physiological processes, such as transpiration, photosynthesis, oxidative stress, cell elongation, N metabolism and mineral nutrition may lead in growth retardation, leaf chlorosis and low biomass production [67]. According to the same authors, Cd stress could induce serious damage in root cells of grey poplar (Populus x canescens). Arsenic (As) toxicity may be another (although less common) problem contributing to soil contamination. Repeated and widespread use of arsenical pesticides has significantly contributed to soil As contamination [4]. According to the same authors, plant growth parameters, such as biomass, shoot height, and root length, decreased with increased As concentrations in all soils.
6. Phytoremediation
Soil pollution represents a risk to human health in various ways including contamination of food, grown in polluted soils, as well as contamination of groundwater surface soils [68]. Classical remediation techniques such as soil washing, excavation, and chelate extraction are all labor-intensive and costly [69].
Phytoremediation of heavy metal contaminated soils is defined as the use of living green plants to transport and concentrate metals from the soil into the aboveground shoots, which are harvested with conventional agricultural methods [70]. The technique is suitable for cultivated land with low to moderate metal contaminated level. According to Jadia and Fulekar (2009) [71], phytoremediation is an environmental friendly technology, which may be useful because it can be carried out in situ at relatively low cost, with no secondary pollution and with the topsoil remaining intact. Furthermore, it is a cost-effective method, with aesthetic advantages and long term applicability. It is also a safe alternate to conventional soil clean up [17]. However, a major drawback of phytoremediation is that a given species typically remediates a very limited number of pollutants [24]. For example, a soil may be contaminated with a number of potentially toxic elements, together with persistent organic pollutants [72]. There are two different strategies to phytoextract metals from soils. The first approach is the use of metal hyperaccumulator species, whose shoots or leaves may contain rather high levels of metals [25]. The important traits for valuable hyperaccumulators are the high bioconcentration factor (root-to-soil metal concentration) and the high translocation factor (shoot to root metal concentration) [73]. Another strategy is to use fast-growing, high biomass crops that accumulate moderate levels of metals in their shoots for metal phytoremediation [25]. Phytoextraction ability of some fast growing plant species leads to the idea of connecting biomass production with soil remediation of contaminated industrial zones and regions. This biomass will contain significant amount of heavy metals and its energetic utilization has to be considered carefully to minimize negative environmental impacts [74].
7. Plant species used for phytoremediation
Many species have been used (either as hyperaccumulators, or as fast growing-high biomass crops) to accumulate metals, thus for their phytoremediation ability. Hyperaccumulators are these plant species, which are able to tolerate high metal concentrations in soils and to accumulate much more metal in their shoots than in their roots. By successive harvests of the aerial parts of the hyperaccumulator species, the heavy metals concentration in the soil can be reduced [23]. According to Chaney et al. (1997) [21], in order a plant species to serve the phytoextraction purpose, it should have strong capacities of uptake and accumulation of the heavy metals when it occurs in soil solution. For example, Sedum plumbizincicola is an hyperaccumulator that has been shown to have a remarkable capacity to extract Zn and Cd from contaminated soils [75]. In addition, a very good also hyperaccumulator for Zn and Cd phytoextraction is Thlaspi caerulescens [23]. Iris pseudacorus L. is an ornamental macrophyte of great potential for phytoremediation, to tolerate and accumulate Cr and Zn [19]. Furthermore, many species of Brassica are suitable for cultivation under Cu and Zn toxicity conditions and may be used for phytoremediation [29]. Phragmites australis, which is a species of Poaceae family, may tolerate extremely high concentrations of Zn, Cu, Pb and Cd, thus can be used as heavy metal phytoremediator [76].
Santana et al. (2012) [20] refer that Genipa americana L. is a tree species that tolerates high levels of Cr3+, therefore it can be used in recomposition of ciliary forests at Cr-polluted watersheds. According to the same authors, this woody species demonstrates a relevant capacity for phytoremediation of Cr. Elsholtzia splendens is regarded as a Cu tolerant and accumulating plant species [77]. Peng et al. (2012) [78] refer that Eucalyptus urophylla X E.grandis is a fast growing economic species that contributes to habitat restoration of degraded environments, such as the Pb contaminated ones. On the other hand, concerning Cd phytoextraction ability, only a few plant species have been accepted as Cd hyperaccumulators, including Brassica juncea, Thlaspi caerulescens and Solanum nigrum. Poplar (Populus L.), which is an easy to propagate and establish species and it has also the advantages of rapid growth, high biomass production, as well as the ability to accumulate high heavy metal concentrations, could be used as a Cd-hypaeraccumulator for phytoremediation [27-28,67]. According to Wang et al. (2012) [28], the increase in total Cd uptake by poplar genotypes in Cd contaminated soils is the result of enhanced biomass production under elevated CO2 conditions. Furthermore, Amaranthus hypochondriacus is a high biomass, fast growing and easily cultivated potential Cd hyperaccumulator [25]. Another species was found to be a good phytoremediator concerning its phytoaccumulation and tolerance to Ni stress is Riccinus communis L. [18]. Finally, Justicia gendarussa, which was proved to be able to tolerate and accumulate high concentration of heavy metals (and especially that of Al), could be used as a potential phytoremediator.
Differences between species, or genotypes of the same species, concerning heavy metal accumulation have been found by many researchers. According to Dheri et al. (2007) [17], the overall mean uptake of Cr in shoot was almost four times and in root was about two times greater in rays, compared to fenugreek. These findings, according to the same authors, indicated that family Cruciferae (raya) was most tolerant to Cr toxicity, followed by Chenopodiaceae (spinach) and Leguminosae (fenugreek). Peng et al. (2012) [78] found that cultivar ST-9 of Eucalyptus urophylla X E.grandis was shown to accumulate more Pb than others of the same species, like ST-2, or ST-29.
8. Different strategies adopted in order to enhance biomass production under heavy metal toxicity conditions
Under elevated CO2 conditions the photosynthetic rate is enhanced, thus biomass production is positively influenced. According to Wang et al. (2012) [28], the increase in total Cd uptake by poplar (Populus sp.) and willow (Salix sp.) genotypes due to increased biomass production under elevated CO2 conditions suggests an alternative way of improving the efficiency of phytoremediation in heavy metal contaminated soils.
The use of fertilizers is another useful practice that should be adopted by the researchers in order to enhance biomass production under extreme heavy metal toxicity conditions. Some Brassica species, which are suitable to be used as phytoremediators, may suffer from Fe or Mn deficiency symptoms under Cu, or Zn toxicity conditions. In that case, leaf Fe and Mn fertilizations should be done in order to increase their biomass production [29], thus their ability to absorb and accumulate great amounts of heavy metals in contaminated soils, i.e. the efficiency of phytoremediation. According to Li et al. (2012) [25], in order to achieve large biomass crops, heavy fertilization has been practiced by farmers. Application of fertilizers not only provides plant nutrients, but may also change the speciation and mobility of heavy metals, thus enhances their uptake. According to Li et al. (2012) [25], NPK fertilization of Amaranthus hypochondriacus, a fast growing species grown under Cd toxicity conditions, greatly increased dry biomass by a factor of 2.7-3.8, resulting in a large increment of Cd accumulation. High biomass plants may be beneficed and overcome limitations concerning metal phytoextraction from the application of chemical amendments, including chelators, soil acidifiers, organic acids, ammonium e.t.c. [21]. Mihucz et al. (2012) [79] found that Poplar trees, grown hydroponically under Cd, Ni and Pb stress, increased their heavy metal accumulation by factor 1.6-3.3 when Fe (III) citrate was used.
Mycorrhizal associations may be another factor increasing resistance to heavy metal toxicity, thus reducing the depression of biomass due to toxic conditions. Castillo et al. (2011) [80] found that when Tagetes erecta L. colonized by Glomus intraradices displayed a higher resistance to Cu toxicity. According to the same authors, Glomus intraradices possibly accumulated excess Cu in its vesicles, thereby enhanced Cu tolerance of Tagetes erecta L. [80].
Finally, other factors, such as the influence of Bacillus sp. on plant growth, in contaminated heavy metal soils, indicate that biomass may be stimulated under so adverse conditions. According to Brunetti et al. (2012) [81], the effect of the amendment with compost and Bacillus licheniformis on the growth of three species of Brassicaceae family was positive, since it significantly increased their dry matter. Furthermore, the strain of Bacillus SLS18 was found to increase the biomass of the species sweet sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.), Phytolacca acinosa Roxb., and Solanum nigrum L. when grown under Mn and Cd toxicity conditions [82].
9. Conclusion and perspectives
Biomass production is significantly influenced by many environmental, agronomic and other factors. The most important of them are air and soil temperature, soil humidity, photoperiod, light intensity, genotype, and soil nutrient availability. Soil fertility, i.e. the availability of nutrients in the optimum concentration range, greatly influences biomass production. If nutrient concentrations are out of the optimum limits, i.e. in the cases when nutrient deficiency or toxicity occurs, biomass production is depressed. Under nutrient deficient conditions, the farmers use chemical fertilizers in order to enhance yields and fruit production. However, since the prices of fertilizers have been significantly increased during the last two decades, a very good agronomic practice is the utilization of nutrient use efficient genotypes, i.e. the utilization of genotypes which are able to produce high yields under nutrient limited conditions. Although great scientific progress has been taken place during last years concerning nutrient use efficient genotypes, more research is still needed in order to clarify the physiological, genetic, and other mechanisms involved in each plant species.
On the other hand, in heavy metal contaminated soils, many plant species could be used (either as hyperaccumulators, or as fast growing-high biomass crops) in order to accumulate metals, thus to clean-up soils (phytoremediation). Particularly, the use of fast growing-high biomass species, such as Poplar, having also the ability to accumulate high amounts of heavy metals in their tissues, is highly recommended, as the efficiency of phytoremediation reaches its maximum. Particularly, since a given species typically remediates a very limited number of pollutants (i.e. in the cases when soil pollution caused by different heavy metals, or organic pollutants), it is absolutely necessary to investigate the choice of the best species for phytoremediation for each heavy metal. In addition to that, more research is needed in order to find out more strategies (apart from fertilization, the use of different Bacillus sp. strains, CO2 enrichment under controlled atmospheric conditions e.t.c.) to enhance biomass production under heavy metal toxicity conditions, thus to ameliorate the phytoremediation efficiency.
\n',keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/44413.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/44413.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/44413",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/44413",totalDownloads:4467,totalViews:1465,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:4,impactScorePercentile:92,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"December 6th 2011",dateReviewed:"September 19th 2012",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"April 30th 2013",dateFinished:"April 25th 2013",readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/44413",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/44413",book:{id:"3138",slug:"biomass-now-cultivation-and-utilization"},signatures:"Theocharis Chatzistathis and Ioannis Therios",authors:[{id:"145993",title:"Dr.",name:"Theocharis",middleName:null,surname:"Chatzistathis",fullName:"Theocharis Chatzistathis",slug:"theocharis-chatzistathis",email:"chchatzi@in.gr",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Agronomic, environmental and genotypic factors influencing plant growth",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Soil humidity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Soil temperature",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3. Air temperature",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4. Air humidity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5. Photoperiod",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.6. Light intensity",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.7. Nutrient availability",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.8. Genotypic factors (root morphology and architecture, genetic growth capacity e.t.c.)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"3. Physiological roles of nutrients",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.1. Macronutrients",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"3.2. Micronutrients ",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"4. Nutrient utilization efficiency (NUE): The case of nutrient use efficient genotypes",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"5. The influence of heavy metal toxicity on biomass production",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"6. Phytoremediation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"7. Plant species used for phytoremediation ",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"8. Different strategies adopted in order to enhance biomass production under heavy metal toxicity conditions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"9. Conclusion and perspectives",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Karim\n\t\t\t\t\t\tMR, Zhang\n\t\t\t\t\t\tYQ, Tian\n\t\t\t\t\t\tD, Chen\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFJ, Zhang\n\t\t\t\t\t\tFS, Zou\n\t\t\t\t\t\tCQ (2012) Genotypic differences in zinc efficiency of Chinese maize evaluated in a pot experiment. J. Sci. Food Agric. DOI 10.1002/jsfa.5672. '},{id:"B2",body:'TzerakisC.SavvasD.SigrimisN.2012Responses of cucumber grown in recirculating nutrient solution to gradual Mn and Zn accumulation in the root zone owing to excessive supply via the irrigating water. J. Plant. Nutr. 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1. Introduction
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) has been described as the importance of pursuing environmental and social goals involving all shareholders and not just financial goals [1].
In a similar context, the concept of sustainability also comes up. Both CSR and sustainability are widely used terms. According to [2], sustainability requires us to “meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (page 41). Therefore, CSR is the contribution of companies to sustainable development efforts, taking into account the impact of their social and environmental actions and their contribution to the improvement of society as a whole and of the surrounding environment [3].
CSR has been studied over the years with a special emphasis on the benefits it does generate in the company’s financial performance. Many authors who have addressed the relationship between CSR and financial performance have come to different conclusions. Many claim that there is a positive relationship [4, 5, 6], others argue that the existing relationship is negative [7, 8], while others claim that there is no relationship at all [9]. These differences may be due to the lack of theoretical support behind the hypotheses formulated and the limitations in the design and size of the sample and the variables used [10]. Also, Davidson and Worrell [11] state that sometimes doubtful CSR indexes or inappropriate techniques are used, which may contribute to the mix results found in the literature.
Our main motivation to study this topic is directly related to the growing concern of companies with the environmental and social issues, since there is a greater understanding that being socially responsible increases their reputation and image, thus generating short-, medium-, and long-term benefits. In addition, most studies on the relation between CSR and finance performance focus on a single industry or country.
Therefore, the main objective of this chapter is to analyze whether companies that pursue CSR-based policies have a higher level of financial performance compared to those that do not in an international sample. A separate analysis of this relationship will also be conducted and will be focused on the last financial crisis period in order to figure out whether or not companies sharing these environmental and social concerns have higher financial performances than their peers. To this end, 266 companies from 15 European countries were analyzed in a 10-year period from 2007 to 2016.
Results suggest that companies pursuing CSR-based policies have, on average, higher financial performance than those that do not. In the same way, during the period of financial crisis, companies pursuing CSR-based policies are found to have outperformed other companies in line with existing literature trends [12, 13, 14, 15, 16].
The study is divided as follows: Section 2 reviews the literature in order to have the theoretical support for the development of the hypothesis; Section 3 presents the sample selection process and the methodology used; Section 4 describes and analyzes the results obtained, and lastly, Section 5 presents the main conclusions.
2. Literature review
2.1 Sustainability and social responsibility—the same?
The concept of sustainability has undergone some changes in terms of approach, theories, and terminology. Its emergence was primarily due to a greater focus on existing environmental problems, but this concept has changed over time and gained a new perspective, including two further strands, the social and the economic [17]. In the past 15 years, scientific debate regarding sustainability has grown, focusing on the intertwining between the economic, environmental, and social goals [18]. Companies have begun to refer to this concept using different terminologies such as “sustainable development,” “sustainability,” “corporate social responsibility,” or “corporate responsibility.”
According to [19], the concept of sustainability that embraces the three trends listed above is called triple bottom line or three Ps: planet (environmental), people (social), and profit (economic). Each strand interconnects with the others in order to establish a balance of responsibility where all interests are balanced, thus generating value for the company. In the same way, over time, the concept of CSR has won the attention of companies and their shareholders, along with a new meaning, since companies have realized that their business purposes have broadened beyond the economic purpose of generating profit for its shareholders, now encompassing the interests of all stakeholders [20]. Indeed, according to [18], companies must consider the stakeholders’ expectations and decisions. These authors highlighted the stakeholders’ involvement and their role in the strategic management of organizations as a relevant topic for academic scholars. Also, Del Giudice et al. [21] underlined the crucial role played by owner-managers when engaging in sustainability activities jointly with employees and other stakeholders.
Currently, the pressure on business is high, and shareholders are increasingly asking companies for information not only on the economic and financial performance but also on their environmental and social concerns [22, 23, 24, 25]. Thus, a greater transparency about the CSR activities is expected by shareholders [26]. In fact, with the emergence of greater environmental and social concerns, a greater emphasis on business transparency and accountability began to emerge. Following these new expectations, stakeholders are demonstrating a growing interest on sustainability performance and thus there is an increasing pressure on businesses to report on sustainability [18]. The nonfinancial reporting, together with the financial reporting, aims to provide shareholders “with the picture of corporate positions and activities on the economic, environmental and social fronts. In short, such reports attempt to describe company’s contribution toward to sustainable development” [27], page 9).
Moreover, Cucari et al. [26] highlighted the importance of companies having a CSR committee. Indeed, through a CSR committee, companies can better plan and implement sustainable projects, enhancing the awareness and involvement of the stakeholders and ensuring the quality of the reporting process.
As can be seen, although sustainability has emerged from environmental problems and CSR from the emergence of social problems, both have a common intention, since their ultimate goal is to balance on both sides.
2.2 Benefits and limitations of pursuing a CSR-based policy
There are many reasons for pursuing a CSR-based policy. Kurucz et al. [28] define four reasons:
Cost and risk reduction—environmental investments can lead to cost and risk reduction for the company, as there is present and future compliance with environmental legislation [29]. Building positive relationships with the surrounding community also results in reduced risks and costs [29].
Competitive advantage—Singha et al. [30] suggest that environmental ethics influences environmental performance and competitive advantage. Competitive advantage is built thanks to the business commitment and adoption of CSR activities in order to meet the stakeholder’s requirements. One of the most commonly used examples in literature is consumer loyalty. Pivato [31] shows that increased consumer loyalty is often the result of the adoption of CSR activities by companies. Also, socially responsible companies attract more investment. Certain investors avoid companies that do not fulfill their defined values and mission, which break the law and its principles [32].
Reputation development—Smith [33] argues that CSR activities attract investors, consumers, and workers and explains that many workers prefer to work in companies that are more socially responsible. Brammer and Pavelin [34] underline the great importance of disclosing social responsibility reports.
Value creation—Value creation through CSR practices enables companies, on the one hand, to meet the demands of all shareholders and, on the other hand, to pursue operations inherent to its core business. By enabling the involvement of all related parties and meeting their demands, the company can achieve a greater financial performance with the support of all through new opportunities and solutions [35].
However, the adoption of strategies that meet the concept of CSR may involve certain costs for companies, such as the implementation of quality control equipment, the purchase of environmentally friendly equipment. Hence, it is necessary to analyze the benefits and the risks and costs of applying CSR in the business world.
2.3 Relationship between CSR and financial performance
For any company, when costs or investments of any kind are incurred, the financial return is always analyzed, that is, an investment is considered good when it generates future benefits. Thus, in order to fully understand whether the application of the CSR concept has a positive impact on the company, a link must be established with the future benefits it may bring (or not) to the company’s financial performance. Thus, the relationship between CSR and corporate financial performance is a relevant topic in business management literature.
There is evidence of a positive relationship between CSR and financial performance [12, 14, 15, 16]. A good financial performance results in good social performance as companies that are more profitable have more resources to invest in social activities. On the other way, greater investment in social activities attracts more and better resources, conscious consumers, and a higher reputation, further generating greater competitive advantage over other companies.
Today, companies view reputation as an extremely important factor that must be maintained and protected [3]. A greater focus on CSR makes the company more appealing to investments and consequently leads to a higher financial performance [36], given that the current investors are aware of the importance of social, environmental, and economic concerns. Some authors also argue that there are larger investments in companies with better social performance [37]. Similarly, Eccles et al. [38] come to the conclusion that it really matters to invest in CSR. Companies that do so have a higher financial performance, creating greater value for all their shareholders, given that they gain loyal consumers and more committed workers. On the other way around, Singha et al. [30] highlight that committed workers and top management, along with sustainable environmental management practices, enhance the firm’s environmental performance and that, in turn, will positively influence its competitive advantage.
However, others authors, based on the shareholder theory, claim that the relationship between CSR and finance performance is negative because the company’s motto is the creation of profit for the shareholder and that is not consistent with the increased costs of social responsibility activities [39, 40]. Also, the incremental costs from social responsibility activities may lead to losses in the company’s competitive capacity [41]. Following this point of view, CSR activities have a negative impact on the financial performance and therefore reduce the shareholder benefits.
Considering the trend in literature according to which companies pursuing policies based on corporate social responsibility have a higher level of financial performance compared to those that do not, we formulated our hypothesis as follows:
Hypothesis: Companies that pursue CSR-based policies have a higher financial performance compared to those that do not.
3. Data and methodology
3.1 Sample and data collection
The sample was obtained from the STOXX Europe 600 Index and the information was accessed during February 2018. Financial information was taken from Bureau Van Dijk’s Amadeus database, version 14.07. Additional data was taken from FTSE Group and World Bank.
Our measure of CSR is based on The STOXX Europe Sustainability Index, a subset from the STOXX Europe 600 Index. It aggregates the selected companies according to a sector-business analysis together with sustainability assessments based on environmental, social, and economic criteria. The assessment is considered positive if the combination of company valuation and sector valuation results in a shaded matrix field in the Sarasin Sustainability Matrix [42].
From the initial sample of 600 companies, all those belonging to the public and financial sectors were excluded due to their specific rules and legislation, thus avoiding possible bias in the results. Companies for which it was not possible to calculate all the variables under study were also removed.
Besides, in order to avoid bias due to the extreme values found, outliers were also removed. Outliers are defined as the values of the variables below percentile 5% and above percentile 95%. Therefore, the final sample used for the study consists of 266 companies, with a total of 2660 observations.
Through the analysis of the sample composition by country (Table 1), we can see that most of the companies are from the United Kingdom with 84 companies (32%), France with 50 companies (19%), and Germany with 36 companies (14%).
Country
Number
% of Total
The United Kingdom
84
32
France
50
19
Germany
36
14
Sweden
17
6
Switzerland
17
6
Spain
14
5
Denmark
12
5
Finland
10
4
The Netherlands
8
3
Belgium
4
2
Norway
4
2
Italy
3
1
Portugal
3
1
Austria
2
0
Ireland
2
0
Total
266
100
Table 1.
Sample by country.
According to the North American Industry Classification System (NAICS), the 266 companies were divided into 14 sectors. The most represented sectors are the professional, scientific, and technical services sectors with 85 companies (32%), followed by the industrial and other services sectors with, respectively, 53 companies (20%) and 34 companies (13%) (Table 2).
Sector
Number
% of Total
Mining and quarrying
11
4
Utility vehicles
0
0
Building and construction
9
3
Industrial
53
20
Retail trade
20
8
Transportation
11
4
Information
25
9
Real estate
6
2
Professional, scientific, and technical services
85
32
Administrative services, support, and waste management
3
1
Health care and social assistance
1
0
Art—entertainment and recreation
4
2
Hospitality and food services
4
2
Other services
34
13
Total
266
100
Table 2.
Sample by sector.
3.2 Empirical model
Prior research on CSR has measured financial performance using accounting-based measures or market-based measures (e.g., see [14, 43, 44]). As accounting-based measures, those authors have used return on equity (ROE) and return on assets (ROA) and, as market-based measures, they use the Tobin’s Q . These two types of measures can capture the two dimensions of financial performance: the short-term through ROE and ROA [15] and the long-term and future evaluation through Tobin’s Q [14]. Indeed, several authors choose to use Tobin’s Q in order to study the relation between CSR and financial performance in a long-term perspective [39, 45].
Following previous studies, financial performance is measured by both ROE and ROA as accounting measures of short-term financial performance. ROE provides information on how efficient the company is in using its shareholder’s invested capital [39], while ROA measures the efficiency that comes from using all company’s assets during a fiscal year, that is, the ability to generate earnings [15]. Both profitability ratios are based on the company’s net income over a given fiscal period because it is what effectively “remains” after all expenses are deducted from the income obtained, thus presenting the impact of financial policies and also the tax burden incurred by companies in different countries. We also use Tobin’s Q as a market-based measure of long-term value which has proven to be an important variable to assess the future financial performance [46].
Therefore, based on [43], three estimation models were developed to test the hypothesis:
CSR is a dummy variable that assumes the value 1 if the company belongs to the STOXX Europe Sustainability Index and value 0 otherwise. The STOXX Europe Sustainability Index aggregates companies based on their sustainability ratings. The index i represents each of the companies in the sample, and the index t refers to the year. The estimation method used was the pooled Ordinary Least Squares. We controlled for unobserved country and year heterogeneity using country and year fixed effects. The standard errors were grouped by company in order to correct the presence of autocorrelation.
Based on prior literature, the following control variables were chosen: Size, Leverage, Industry, Country, Financial Slack, and Crisis. Size is a relevant control variable since larger companies are assumed to have more visibility, and to generate a greater impact with their operations [47], they are more likely to adopt CSR policies compared to small companies [12, 23]. Financial leverage was also taken into account since high debt levels lead to high levels of financial leverage causing a negative impact on financial performance [48]. In line with this conclusion, [12] also showed that this negative impact continued to persist when financial leverage was introduced in a CSR regression.
In addition, the type of business activities [49] as well as the level of economic development of a country [50] may be related to a higher or lower CSR. Indeed, companies developing activities with high social and environmental impacts tend to adopt more CSR policies compared to others. Besides, companies with high liquidity are more likely to adopt CSR policies compared to others with less liquidity that can only focus on their own business activities [51]. Appendix 1 provides more detailed information about variables’ measurement.
4. Result analysis
4.1 Descriptive statistics
Table 3 presents the descriptive statistics of the variables for the total sample. ROE, ROA, and Tobin’s Q present averages of 14.0, 5.4, and 97.6% and medians of 13.5, 5.1, and 0.786%, respectively. Regarding the standard deviation statistical measure, the values are small regarding the averages of each of the variables and do not show huge discrepancies, suggesting a certain normality in the sample distribution.
Variáveis
Mean
Median
Max.
Min.
Standard deviation
ROE
0.140
0.135
0.720
−0.879
0.139
ROA
0.054
0.051
0.210
−0.786
0.058
Tobin’s Q
0.976
0.786
3.55
0.024
0.709
Size
6.855
6.831
8.121
4.817
0.569
Leverage
0.585
0.595
0.909
0.001
0.159
Financial lack
1.510
1.332
5.865
0.072
0.823
Table 3.
Descriptive statistics for the whole sample.
Furthermore, it is possible to observe that companies have, on average, a level of indebtedness of approximately 59%, suggesting that they rely more on external capital than on equity to meet the asset needs. In terms of the current liquidity, that is, the ability to meet short-term liabilities, the result is higher than 1 (1.51), which means that companies have a favorable short-term financial situation.
In a next step, we divided the sample into two subsets, companies that pursue social responsibility-based policies (SRSE) and those that do not (NRSE). Tables 4 and 5 present the values for the SRSE and NRSE, respectively.
Variables
Mean
Median
Max.
Min.
Standard deviation
ROE
0.156
0.147
0.582
−0.767
0.131
ROA
0.061
0.056
0.210
−0.786
0.060
Tobin’s Q
1.073
0.882
3.55
0.024
0.749
Size
6.974
6.969
8.046
5.315
0.499
Leverage
0.616
0.618
0.907
0.065
0.148
Financial Slack
1.419
1.306
5.728
0.072
0.719
Table 4.
Descriptive statistics for SRSE.
Variables
Mean
Median
Max.
Min.
Standard deviation
ROE
0.099
0.094
0.72
−0.879
0.148
ROA
0.037
0.036
0.198
−0.399
0.049
Tobin’s Q
0.724
0.597
3.368
0.024
0.516
Size
6.809
6.762
8.121
4.818
0.589
Leverage
0.573
0.587
0.909
0.001
0.163
Financial Slack
1.545
1.349
5.865
0.114
0.858
Table 5.
Descriptive statistics for NSRSE.
It is possible to observe that the SRSE shows, on average, higher values than the NRSE for all financial performance measures, which means that, on average, SRSE has a higher financial performance compared to the NRSE. Moreover, the average of Tobin’s Q in SRSE is higher than 1, while in NSRSE it is lower than 1, suggesting that companies pursuing social responsibility-based polices are more valued by the market.
For the remaining variables, on average, SRSE is larger than NRSE and the debt ratio is higher for SRSE compared to NRSE by approximately 4 percentage points (61.6% for SRSE and 57.3% for NRSE). On the contrary, Financial Slack presents higher value for NRSE (current liquidity of 1.545) on comparing to SRSE (current liquidity of 1.419).
Table 6 shows the results of the mean equality test of the dependent variables ROE, ROA, and Tobin’s Q . Results suggest that there is statistical evidence to assert that the means are different between SRSE and NSRSE, since the p-value is 0.000 in all dependent variables.
Companies
Number
ROE
ROA
Tobin’s Q
SRSE
740
0.156
0.061
1.073
NRSE
1920
0.099
0.037
0.724
p-Value
0.000
0.000
0.000
Table 6.
Mean t-test results.
The correlation between the different variables is presented in Appendix 2. Most of the variables do not show strong correlations with each other and are statistically significant at 1%, except for the correlation of the Leverage and Low Impact variables, which are statistically significant at 5%.
The dependent variables ROE, ROA, and Tobin’s Q are positively correlated with the independent variable CSR, suggesting that firms that pursue CSR activities have higher financial performance. Regarding the control variables, Size, Low Impact, Country, and Financial Slack are positively related to the dependent variables, suggesting that companies with higher financial performance values are larger, have low environmental impacts, belong to countries with high economic development, and have higher liquidity values. On the other hand, the dependent variables are negatively correlated with Leverage, Medium Impact, and High Impact, meaning that companies with high debt values and higher environmental impact have lower financial performance values.
A multicollinearity test was performed by calculating the variance inflation factors (VIFs). The values are less than 10, suggesting that there are no multicollinearity problems.
4.2 Relationship between CSR and performance level
The main results of the three linear regressions estimated, Eqs. (1)–(3), are presented in Table 7.
Regarding the coefficient of the independent variable CSR, it assumes positive values for all models, with statistical significance at 5%, suggesting that companies that pursue CSR-based policies have a higher financial performance compared to those that do not. This is most visible in model 3 as the coefficient has the highest value.
Regarding control variables, most have statistically significant coefficients at 1% except for the Leverage and Financial Slack variable in model 1 which is statistically significant at 5%; Size and Financial Slack in model 2, which is statistically significant only at 10% and 5%, respectively; and Financial Slack which has a statistically significant value at 5% in all models. The expected signal for all variables is also confirmed. Thus, the Size variable has a positive coefficient for all models, which means that assuming everything else remains constant, larger companies show higher financial performance. The Leverage variable has a negative coefficient in all models, which means that the higher the corporate indebtedness, the higher the leverage level and consequently the lower the financial performance, confirming the studies of Waddock and Graves and Capon et al. [12, 48]. Given the industry in which companies operate and the impact they have on environmental and social levels, it can be stated that the Low Impact variable has a positive coefficient for all models and the Medium Impact and High Impact variables present negative coefficients also for all models.
Regarding the Country variable, it has a positive coefficient for all the models, suggesting that firms in the countries with the highest level of economic development have higher financial performance. Finally, the Financial Slack variable also has a positive coefficient for all models, meaning that companies with higher working capital values have a higher financial performance.
Based on R2 values, the first model explains 13.0% of the total variation of the ROE, the second one 17.9% of the total variation of the ROA, and the third one 31.3% of the total variation of the Tobin’s Q . The third model shows the highest value, which is in agreement with the study by [52].
Finally, the models are valid in the explanation of the ROE, ROA, and Tobin’s Q measures because the p-value of the F-statistics is equal to 0.000 in all the models which means that the hypothesis of joint nullity of the independent variable coefficients can be rejected.
In conclusion, the results support our hypothesis that companies pursuing CSR-based policies have a higher financial performance compared to those that do not, both in the short-term (ROE and ROA) and in the long-term (Tobin’s Q).
4.3 Impact of financial crisis in financial performance
Given that most of the previous studies look at the relationship between CSR and financial performance in periods of nonfinancial crisis, it would be interesting to understand how this relationship works during periods of recession. In fact, the last economic and financial crisis (2009–2013) was considered by many as the worst financial crisis since the Great Recession of 1930 with a huge impact on the lives of companies, notably on their financial performance [53].
According to [54], financial crisis affects negatively corporate financial performance. During these periods, investors are more concerned about financial performance and the disclosure of CSR information may minimize this concern [55].
In order to focus on the effects of crisis on the financial performance of companies pursuing CSR policies, a modification was made to the models, including the Crisis dummy variable and a Crisis * CSR interaction variable. This modification makes the impact of the financial crisis on the relationship between CSR and the financial performance more clear [52].
Table 8 presents the main results of this additional analysis. We chose not to present the results for the remaining variables to make it simpler.
Relation between CSR and financial performance: Impact of crisis.
Statistical significance at 10%.
Statistical significance at 5%.
Statistical significance at 1%.
There is statistical evidence that, in years of crisis, companies with SRSE have a higher financial performance compared to NRSE, since the coefficient of the interaction variable Crisis * CSR is positive and statistically significant for the three models studied. Thus, keeping all other factors constant, in the years of financial crisis, it appears that the ROE for the SRSE is on average 0.072 higher than ROE for the NRSE, the ROA is 0.02 higher, and the Tobin’s Q is 0.114 higher, on comparing to the NRSE. The Crisis variable has a negative and statistically significant coefficient in all models, suggesting that the NRSE in the years affected by the financial crisis showed a reduction in financial performance. During the years of financial crisis, the SRSE presented an average increase of 0.038 units (0.072–0.034) in model 1, an increase of 0.008 units (0.020–0.012) in model 2, and an increase of 0.004 units (0.114–0.110) in model 3.
Given that the financial performance of SRSE decreased less than the financial performance of the NRSE during the period of crisis, it was possible to conclude that during the period of financial crisis, the financial performance of companies adopting CSR-based policies suffered fewer negative impacts compared to the financial performance of companies that do not. These results are in line with [56], which concluded that with the onset of the subprime financial crisis, the positive relationship between financial performance and CSR was disappearing but that was inverted when companies began implementing CSR strategies.
5. Conclusions
Companies pursuing corporate social responsibility policies have realized how important is to build and protect their corporate reputation through the use of corporate social responsibility policies, leaving behind the idea of the traditional company that focused on financial performance only.
This study was conducted to understand whether companies pursuing policies based on social responsibility outperform those that do not as well as how financial performance of both types of companies was affected by the financial crisis. Companies that have a good relationship with society, as the activities they perform improve the quality of life and the environment, are probably better accepted by the market and therefore are in a better position than the rest of companies.
The results suggest that indeed, on average, companies that pursue policies based on corporate social responsibility have higher values of financial performance compared to companies that do not pursue these policies, both in the short-term (ROE and ROA) and in the long-term (Tobin’s Q). This is in line with the studies by Griffin, Margolis and Walsh, and Orlitzky et al. [4, 5, 6].
During the period of crisis, it is possible to conclude that all companies suffered a reduction in financial performance. However, this reduction is less negative in companies that pursue policies based on corporate social responsibility. In fact, this group of companies maintained their performance above the others even during this period of crisis, which meets the findings of Marti et al. [52].
This study contributes to the existing literature on social responsibility and corporate financial performance by providing an overview of the positive aspects of “betting” on social responsibility policies and the resulting benefits. It also contributes to the literatures that study the impact of financial crisis on the relation between corporate social responsibility and finance performance. Thus, it highlights the idea that socially responsible companies benefit from a stronger reputation and image and are therefore better accepted by society, which in turn generates short- and long-term benefits.
The main difficulty found when preparing this study was the lack of information on the variables used, which contributed to reduce the size of the sample. Also, the lack of information made it impossible to use some important variables such as research and development. Therefore, our results should be interpreted with some caution.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful for the financial support from FCT-Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (Portugal), national funding through research grant (UIDB/04521/2020).
A.1 Appendix 1. Variables description
Variables
Calculation
Dependent variables
ROE
Ratio between net income and equity
ROA
Ratio between net income and total assets
Tobin’s Q
Ratio between market capitalization and total asset value
Independent variables
CSR
Dummy variable that assumes the value 1 if the company belongs to the STOXX Europe Sustainability Index and value 0 otherwise
Dummy variable assuming value 1 if the company is located in a country with a high gross national income growth rate and value 0 otherwise. Information was taken from World Bank.
Financial Slack
Current ratio (current assets divided by current liabilities)
Crisis
Dummy variable that assumes value 1 for the 2009–2013 period data and value 0 otherwise.
\n',keywords:"corporate social responsibility, financial crisis, financial performance, STOXX Europe 600, Tobin’s Q",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/73206.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/73206.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73206",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73206",totalDownloads:617,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"July 28th 2020",dateReviewed:"August 10th 2020",datePrePublished:"September 15th 2020",datePublished:"March 16th 2022",dateFinished:"September 14th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The main objective of this study is to analyze whether companies that pursue corporate social responsibility (CSR)-based policies have a higher level of financial performance compared to those that do not. Additionally, we study the effect of the last financial crisis on the relationship between CSR and financial performance in order to figure out whether or not companies sharing these environmental and social concerns had higher financial performance than their peers. To do so, three empirical models are designed, combining both traditional accounting measures (return on equity and return on assets) and a measure sensible to market values (Tobin’s Q) to assess the financial performance. A sample of 266 listed companies, from 15 European countries and 14 industries, listed on the STOXX Europe 600, is analyzed. Results suggest that companies pursuing CSR policies financially outperform their peers, and these results are supported even during the financial crisis period. This study highlights the idea that companies pursuing CSR policies put a considerable effort on building a stronger corporate reputation which in turn generates short- and long-term benefits, leaving behind the idea of the traditional companies that focused only on financial performance.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/73206",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/73206",signatures:"Cristina Gaio and Rita Henriques",book:{id:"9032",type:"book",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Corporate Social Responsibility",slug:"corporate-social-responsibility",publishedDate:"March 16th 2022",bookSignature:"Beatrice Orlando",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9032.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-939-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-938-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-940-9",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"232969",title:"Prof.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Orlando",slug:"beatrice-orlando",fullName:"Beatrice Orlando"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"321584",title:"Prof.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Gaio",fullName:"Cristina Gaio",slug:"cristina-gaio",email:"cgaio@iseg.ulisboa.pt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"328223",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Henriques",fullName:"Rita Henriques",slug:"rita-henriques",email:"ritafuentes@iseg.ulisboa.pt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Literature review",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Sustainability and social responsibility—the same?",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Benefits and limitations of pursuing a CSR-based policy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Relationship between CSR and financial performance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Data and methodology",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Sample and data collection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Empirical model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Result analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.1 Descriptive statistics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"4.2 Relationship between CSR and performance level",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"4.3 Impact of financial crisis in financial performance",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15",title:"",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"A.1 Appendix 1. 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Advance/CSG, ISEG - Lisbon School of Economics and Management, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal
Advance/CSG, ISEG - Lisbon School of Economics and Management, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal
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Besides, the prestigious Universidade Estadual de Feira de Santana, Universidade Federal da Bahia, and Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Brazil ranked him as the first global scientist in the field of oil spill detection and mapping during the last fifty years. Prof.Dr. Maged Marghany is currently a director of Global Geoinformation Sdn.Bhd. He is the author of 8 titles including Advanced Remote Sensing Technology for Tsunami Modelling and Forecasting which is published by Routledge Taylor and Francis Group, CRC and Synthetic Aperture Radar Imaging Mechanism for Oil Spills, which is published by Elsevier, His research specializes in microwave remote sensing and remote sensing for mineralogy detection and mapping. Previously, he worked as a Deputy Director in Research and Development at the Institute of Geospatial Science and Technology and the Department of Remote Sensing, both at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Maged has earned many degrees including a post-doctoral in radar remote sensing from the International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences, a Ph.D. in environmental remote sensing from the Universiti Putra Malaysia, a Master of Science in physical oceanography from the University Pertanian Malaysia, general and special diploma of Education and a Bachelor of Science in physical oceanography from the University of Alexandria in Egypt. Maged has published well over 250 papers in international conferences and journals and is active in International Geoinformatics, and the International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing (ISPRS).",institutionString:"Syiah Kuala University",institution:{name:"Syiah Kuala University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"99269",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Pepe",slug:"antonio-pepe",fullName:"Antonio Pepe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99269/images/system/99269.png",biography:"Antonio Pepe received the Laurea degree (equivalent Master of Science) in Electronics Engineering and the Ph.D. degree in Electronics and Telecommunication Engineering from the University of Napoli Federico II, Napoli, Italy, in 2000 and 2007, respectively. In 2001 he joined the IREA-CNR where he is a permanent researcher. He was a Visiting Scientist at the University of Texas, Austin, in 2005, at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), Caltech, Pasadena in 2009, and at the East China Normal University, Shanghai from 2014 to 2016 (one monthly visit per year).\r\nDr. Pepe acts as a reviewer for several peer-reviewed international journals. From 2012 to 2016 he was also an Adjunct Professor of Signal Theory at the Università della Basilicata, Potenza, Italy, and in 2017 he was Visiting Professor of Systems of Wireless Communications at the University of Naples, Italy.\r\nHe was the recipient of the 2014 Best Reviewer mention of the IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Letters. \r\nHis main research interests include the development of advanced DInSAR algorithms aimed at monitoring surface deformation phenomena induced by subsidence, volcano activities, and earthquakes, with a particular interest toward the phase unwrapping problems. More recently, he has developed research activities for the generation of DInSAR products through the new generation SAR instruments, for the generation of hybrid scanSAR-to-stripmap DInSAR analyses, and for the integration of SAR and optical images.",institutionString:"Institute for the Electromagnetic Sensing of the Environment",institution:{name:"National Research Council",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"99542",title:"Mr.",name:"Tao",surname:"Yu",slug:"tao-yu",fullName:"Tao Yu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"102245",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ryo",surname:"Natsuaki",slug:"ryo-natsuaki",fullName:"Ryo Natsuaki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/102245/images/7729_n.jpg",biography:"Ryo Natsuaki received the B.S., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees in electrical engineering from The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan, in 2009, 2011, and 2014, respectively.\nHe was an Aerospace Project Research Associate of the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, Tokyo, from 2014 to 2017. He is currently a Lecturer with the Department of Electrical Engineering and Information Systems, The University of Tokyo. He is also a Guest Scientist with German Aerospace Center (DLR) by JSPS Overseas Research Fellowships from 2018 to 2020.\nHis research interests include active remote sensing with synthetic aperture radar. Dr. Natsuaki is a member of the IEEE Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society (GRSS) and the Institute of Electronics, Information and Communication Engineers (IEICE). He currently serves as an Assistant Secretary of the IEICE Technical Committee on Space, Aeronautical, and Navigational Electronics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"102811",title:"Dr.",name:"Wojciech",surname:"Kaplonek",slug:"wojciech-kaplonek",fullName:"Wojciech Kaplonek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Koszalin University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"104428",title:"Prof.",name:"Dahi",surname:"Abdelsalam",slug:"dahi-abdelsalam",fullName:"Dahi Abdelsalam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Standards and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"108524",title:"Prof.",name:"Czeslaw",surname:"Lukianowicz",slug:"czeslaw-lukianowicz",fullName:"Czeslaw Lukianowicz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Koszalin University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"109980",title:"Dr.",name:"Hai",surname:"Li",slug:"hai-li",fullName:"Hai Li",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Civil Aviation University of China",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"110026",title:"Prof.",name:"Renbiao",surname:"Wu",slug:"renbiao-wu",fullName:"Renbiao Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Civil Aviation University of China",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}}]},generic:{page:{slug:"orders-and-delivery",title:"Order and Delivery Info",intro:'
IntechOpen books are published online and are accessible for free.
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However, if you are interested in ordering your hardcover copy, you can do so by contacting our Print Sales Department at orders@intechopen.com. All IntechOpen books are printed on demand in full-colour and delivered in signature packaging through FREE DHL Express delivery.
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For a quote or assistance please contact us directly at orders@intechopen.com The quote will be sent to you within 1-2 business days.
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Our entire portfolio of over 5,500 books is also available through Amazon.
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Hardcover, Printed Full Colour
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Our books are available hardcover, printed in full colour and produced to the highest standards on PEFC™ and FSC certified paper, complying with principles of responsible forestry worldwide. The paper size is 180 x 260 mm (7 x 10.2 inches).
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Print On Demand (POD)
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IntechOpen works with award winning print-houses and we hold to the fact that all of our printed products are of the highest quality.
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Prices and Discounts
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IntechOpen books retail price range is:
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Orders have to be paid in advance and before printing. We accept payment in GBP, EUR and USD.
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We currently accept the following payment options:
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When paying with a credit card, you will be redirected to the PayPal.com online payment portal.
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IntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
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In accordance with the best security practice, we do not accept card orders via email.
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General Handling and Delivery Info
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The combined printing and delivery time for orders vary from 7-15 business days, depending on the printed quantity and destination. This period does not include any customs clearance difficulties that may arise and that are beyond our control. Once your order has been printed and shipped, you will receive a confirmation email that includes your DHL tracking number. You can then track your order at www.dhl.com.
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If you do not receive your order within 30 days from the date your order is shipped, please contact us to inquire about the shipping status at orders@intechopen.com.
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Tax and Customs
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Tax: Residents of European Union countries need to add a Book Value-Added Tax Rate based on their country of residence. Institutions and companies, registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state, will not pay VAT by providing IntechOpen with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
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Customs: free shipping does not include any duties, taxes or clearing charges levied by the destination country. These charges are the responsibility of the customer and will vary from country to country.
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P.O. Boxes
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P.O. Boxes cannot be used as a Ship-To Address.
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Restricted Countries
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IntechOpen partners do not provide shipping service from Europe to the countries listed below. Please refrain from mailing items addressed to the countries listed below, until further notice.
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Print copies of our publications are most often purchased by universities, libraries, institutions and academia personnel, hence increasing the visibility and outreach of our authors' published work among science communities and institutions.
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Representative for: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam (ASEAN)
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China Publishers Services Ltd - CPS
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India - CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
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Representative for: India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Nepal, Maldives, Iran, Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunis, United Arab Emirates and Yemen
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LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V
Our books are available hardcover, printed in full colour and produced to the highest standards on PEFC™ and FSC certified paper, complying with principles of responsible forestry worldwide. The paper size is 180 x 260 mm (7 x 10.2 inches).
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Print On Demand (POD)
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IntechOpen Books are printed specifically for your order
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Ordered, printed, and delivered in 7-15 business days
\n\t
Available for purchase at any time no minimum or maximum threshold on book order quantity
\n
\n\n
IntechOpen works with award winning print-houses and we hold to the fact that all of our printed products are of the highest quality.
\n\n
Prices and Discounts
\n\n
IntechOpen books retail price range is:
\n\n
100 - 159 GBP ex. VAT (available in USD and EUR)
\n\n
Discounts available:
\n\n
\n\t
All IntechOpen contributors can buy the print copies of books for an Author Exclusive price with discounts from 30% to 50% on retail price. Log in to your Author Panel to purchase a book at the discounted price.
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Libraries are offered a 20% discount.
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Book resellers receive a 20% standard trade discount.
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Bulk discounts are granted for orders of 10 copies and more.
\n\n
There is no minimum or maximum threshold on the quantity of book orders.
\n\n
Terms and Conditions
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Payment Terms
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Orders have to be paid in advance and before printing. We accept payment in GBP, EUR and USD.
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We currently accept the following payment options:
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Credit Card
\n\t
PayPal
\n\t
Bank Transfer
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\n\n
When paying with a credit card, you will be redirected to the PayPal.com online payment portal.
\n\n
IntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\n\n
In accordance with the best security practice, we do not accept card orders via email.
\n\n
General Handling and Delivery Info
\n\n
The combined printing and delivery time for orders vary from 7-15 business days, depending on the printed quantity and destination. This period does not include any customs clearance difficulties that may arise and that are beyond our control. Once your order has been printed and shipped, you will receive a confirmation email that includes your DHL tracking number. You can then track your order at www.dhl.com.
\n\n
If you do not receive your order within 30 days from the date your order is shipped, please contact us to inquire about the shipping status at orders@intechopen.com.
\n\n
Tax and Customs
\n\n
Tax: Residents of European Union countries need to add a Book Value-Added Tax Rate based on their country of residence. Institutions and companies, registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state, will not pay VAT by providing IntechOpen with their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\n
Customs: free shipping does not include any duties, taxes or clearing charges levied by the destination country. These charges are the responsibility of the customer and will vary from country to country.
\n\n
P.O. Boxes
\n\n
P.O. Boxes cannot be used as a Ship-To Address.
\n\n
Restricted Countries
\n\n
IntechOpen partners do not provide shipping service from Europe to the countries listed below. Please refrain from mailing items addressed to the countries listed below, until further notice.
\n\n
When ordering our books from the countries listed below, please provide an alternative mailing address. For any further assistance, please contact us at orders@intechopen.com.
\n\n
Restricted Ship-to Countries:
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Afghanistan
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Belarus
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Central African Republic
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Cote d'Ivoire
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Congo
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Cuba (US only)
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Eritrea
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Iran, Islamic Republic of
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Iraq
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Korea, DPR
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Libya
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Mali
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Myanmar
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Niger
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Somalia
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South Sudan
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Sudan
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Syria
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Yemen
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Zimbabwe
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\n\n
Return Policy
\n\n
POD products are non-returnable and non-refundable, except in the event of poor print quality or an error in quantity. If we delivered the item to you in error or the item is faulty, please contact us.
\n\n
Inspect your order carefully when it arrives. Any problems should be immediately reported to orders@intechopen.com.
\n\n
Representatives
\n\n
Print copies of our publications are most often purchased by universities, libraries, institutions and academia personnel, hence increasing the visibility and outreach of our authors' published work among science communities and institutions.
\n\n
Our books are available at our direct Print Sales Department and through selected representatives throughout the world.
\n\n
Books International
\n\n
Representative for: Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam (ASEAN)
\n\n
China Publishers Services Ltd - CPS
\n\n
Representative for: China, Taiwan, Hong Kong
\n\n
India - CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
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Representative for: India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, Nepal, Maldives, Iran, Algeria, Bahrain, Egypt, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Malta, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Tunis, United Arab Emirates and Yemen
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LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Harskamp",authors:[{id:"164896",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcel",middleName:"A.",surname:"Beijk",slug:"marcel-beijk",fullName:"Marcel Beijk"},{id:"165094",title:"Dr.",name:"Ralf",middleName:null,surname:"Harskamp",slug:"ralf-harskamp",fullName:"Ralf Harskamp"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70032",title:"Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting: Surgical Anastomosis: Tips and Tricks",slug:"coronary-artery-bypass-grafting-surgical-anastomosis-tips-and-tricks",totalDownloads:1296,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"The definite feature of coronary artery disease is the focal narrowing in the vascular endothelium, and this leads to the decrease in the flow of blood to the myocardium. Atherosclerotic plaque is the main lesion. These patients can present with chest pain (angina or myocardial infarction) and need further workup noninvasively and invasively for the management. The main reasons for myocardial revascularization can be: (1) relief from symptoms of myocardial ischemia; (2) reduce the risks of future mortality; (3) to treat or prevent morbidities such as myocardial infarction, arrhythmias, or heart failure. Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) is the surgical technique of cardiac revascularization. In 1910, Dr. Alexis Carrel described a series of canine experiments in which he devised means to treat CAD by creating a “complementary circulation” for the diseased native coronary arteries. No clinical translation occurred at the time, but he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine. Experimental refinements of coronary arterial revascularization, including the use of internal thoracic artery (ITA) grafts, were later reported by Murray and colleagues, Demikhov, and Goetz and colleagues in the 1950s and early 1960s. Dr. Rene Favaloro performed his first coronary bypass operation in May 1967 with an interposed saphenous vein graft (SVG) and shortly thereafter used aortocoronary bypasses sutured proximally to the ascending aorta. The stenosed segment is bypassed using an arterial or venous graft. Left internal thoracic artery is the most commonly used artery, and long saphenous vein is the most commonly used vein for the coronary artery grafting to reestablish the blood flow to the compromised myocardium. This can be performed with or without the help of cardiopulmonary bypass machine and also with or without arresting the heart. These techniques are called as on-pump beating or on-pump arrested and off-pump beating coronary artery bypass grafting surgery. Distal and proximal anastomoses are usually performed in an end-to-side manner, but in the case of doing sequential grafting, side-to-side anastomosis is also performed proximal to the end-to-side anastomosis. In this chapter we are going to discuss the coronary artery bypass grafting tips and tricks in details.",book:{id:"9060",slug:"the-current-perspectives-on-coronary-artery-bypass-grafting",title:"The Current Perspectives on Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting",fullTitle:"The Current Perspectives on Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting"},signatures:"Mohd. Shahbaaz Khan",authors:[{id:"278633",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd. Shahbaaz",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"mohd.-shahbaaz-khan",fullName:"Mohd. Shahbaaz Khan"}]},{id:"65984",title:"Low Flow Low Gradient Severe Aortic Stenosis: Diagnosis and Treatment",slug:"low-flow-low-gradient-severe-aortic-stenosis-diagnosis-and-treatment",totalDownloads:2181,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Approximately 40% of patients with aortic stenosis (AS) show discordant Doppler-echocardiographic parameters with aortic valve area (AVA) <1 cm2 and/or index iAVA <0.6 cm2/m2 (consistent with severe AS) and the mean gradient (MG) <40 mmHg, consistent with mild/moderate AS. Accurate diagnosis of true severe low flow low gradient AS versus pseudo-severe aortic stenosis is important for prognosis and optimal timing for intervention. Doppler echocardiography using intravenous low dose dobutamine challenge is widely used for differentiating pseudo-severe from true severe aortic stenosis. However, relying on echocardiography alone may have limitations in accurate diagnosis. Reliable diagnosis using echocardiography is dependent on multiple factors like the angle of interrogation of the aortic jet, the assumption that the LVOT area is circular in cross section, optimal echo windows, the presence of underlying subclinical coronary artery disease prior to dobutamine challenge etc. In this chapter, we describe non-invasive and invasive strategies to assess the aortic valve using dobutamine stress. Direct measurement of gradients across the aortic valve while estimating the change in cardiac output and aortic valve area with increments of dobutamine infusion dose is complementary, safe and useful when conventional echocardiography techniques are inconclusive. Finally, the chapter describes effective strategies of treatment for low gradient severe aortic stenosis, including the role for diagnostic balloon valvuloplasty, in the era of transcatheter valve replacement (TAVR).",book:{id:"8218",slug:"aortic-stenosis-current-perspectives",title:"Aortic Stenosis",fullTitle:"Aortic Stenosis - Current Perspectives"},signatures:"Faeez Mohamad Ali, Vindhya Wilson and Rajesh Nair",authors:[{id:"280651",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",middleName:null,surname:"Nair",slug:"rajesh-nair",fullName:"Rajesh Nair"},{id:"280829",title:"Dr.",name:"Faeez",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamad Ali",slug:"faeez-mohamad-ali",fullName:"Faeez Mohamad Ali"},{id:"290351",title:"Dr.",name:"Vindhya",middleName:null,surname:"Wilson",slug:"vindhya-wilson",fullName:"Vindhya Wilson"}]},{id:"59547",title:"Left Ventricular Assist Device Infections",slug:"left-ventricular-assist-device-infections",totalDownloads:1443,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Left ventricular assist device (LVAD) infections are important causes of morbidity and mortality in patients who receive these mechanical circulatory supports as a bridge to transplantation (BTT) or as destination therapy (DT) (for individuals who are not candidates for cardiac transplant). Infections are more common among persons who received pulsatile flow LVADs as opposed to newer continuous flow (CF) devices. Other risk factors for infection include obesity, renal failure, depression and immunosuppression. An LVAD infection increases the risk of infections in persons who undergo cardiac transplantation. Infections include percutaneous site, driveline, pump pocket and pump/cannula infections; sepsis, bacteremia, mediastinitis and endocarditis. Diagnosis is achieved by monitoring LVAD flow parameters and observing typical clinical and laboratory manifestations of infection. Imaging such as PET-CT or SPECT-CT imaging can be helpful to establish a diagnosis of pump pocket infection. Echocardiography may aid in detecting native valve endocarditis and thrombus associated with the LVAD. The most common pathogens include Staphylococcus, Corynebacterium, Enterococcus, Pseudomonas and Candida spp. Treatment requires targeted antimicrobials plus surgical debridement of infected tissue and device components. In cases of pump/cannula/LVAD endocarditis, especially if fungal pathogens or Mycobacterium chimaera are involved, LVAD removal/reimplantation vs. transplant is necessary, combined with extended antimicrobial therapy.",book:{id:"6556",slug:"advanced-concepts-in-endocarditis",title:"Advanced Concepts in Endocarditis",fullTitle:"Advanced Concepts in Endocarditis"},signatures:"Marion J. Skalweit",authors:[{id:"186717",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Marion",middleName:null,surname:"Skalweit",slug:"marion-skalweit",fullName:"Marion Skalweit"}]},{id:"60658",title:"Humoral Rejection in Cardiac Transplantation: Management of Antibody-Mediated Rejection",slug:"humoral-rejection-in-cardiac-transplantation-management-of-antibody-mediated-rejection",totalDownloads:1067,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"After a successful heart transplantation, fundamental keys to achieve good results in the long term are to establish immunosuppressive therapy in the postoperative period in an appropriate manner and to ensure continuity of follow-ups. Despite the fact that these stages are maintained perfectly, patients may face one or more rejection episodes. T-cell-mediated acute cellular rejection of the cardiac allograft has well-established treatment algorithms, whereas antibody-mediated rejection (AMR) is challenging to diagnose, and its treatment varies between centers. Investigators reported that AMR is among the most important factors to improving long-term outcomes. Improved understanding of the roles of acute and chronic AMR has evolved in recent years following a major progress in the technical ability to detect and quantify recipient antihuman leukocyte antigen (HLA) antibody production. Recently, a study of the immunobiology of B cells and plasma cells that pertains to allograft rejection and tolerance has emerged. There are some questions regarding the classification of AMR, the diagnostic approaches, and the treatment strategies for managing. In this chapter, we are discuss the effector mechanisms that are used by antibodies to eliminate antigens and clinical experience about AMR and its treatment with a discussion about the latest articles.",book:{id:"6558",slug:"heart-transplantation",title:"Heart Transplantation",fullTitle:"Heart Transplantation"},signatures:"Umit Kervan, Dogan Emre Sert and Nesrin Turan",authors:[{id:"227772",title:"Prof.",name:"Umit",middleName:null,surname:"Kervan",slug:"umit-kervan",fullName:"Umit Kervan"},{id:"243592",title:"Dr.",name:"Dogan Emre",middleName:null,surname:"Sert",slug:"dogan-emre-sert",fullName:"Dogan Emre Sert"},{id:"243593",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesrin",middleName:null,surname:"Turan",slug:"nesrin-turan",fullName:"Nesrin Turan"}]},{id:"67354",title:"Cannulation for Cardiopulmonary Bypass",slug:"cannulation-for-cardiopulmonary-bypass",totalDownloads:1207,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Cardiac surgery has made significant progress since the advent of cardiopulmonary bypass. Arterial cannulation for bypass is a cornerstone to most cardiac procedures. Choosing an ideal cannulation site, employing peri- and intraoperative imaging, selecting an appropriate cannula, and avoiding complications are vital to success. 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Samim Al Azad and Slimane Ed-dafali",hash:"86a6d33cf601587e591064ce92effc02",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Leadership in a Changing World - A Multidimensional Perspective",editors:[{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038UqSfQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-13T10:39:03.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Université Laval",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Business and Management",value:86,count:1}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:249,paginationItems:[{id:"274452",title:"Dr.",name:"Yousif",middleName:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"yousif-abdallah",fullName:"Yousif Abdallah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274452/images/8324_n.jpg",biography:"I certainly enjoyed my experience in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, particularly it has been in different institutions and hospitals with different Medical Cultures and allocated resources. Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine Technology has always been my aspiration and my life. As years passed I accumulated a tremendous amount of skills and knowledge in Radiotherapy and Nuclear Medicine, Conventional Radiology, Radiation Protection, Bioinformatics Technology, PACS, Image processing, clinically and lecturing that will enable me to provide a valuable service to the community as a Researcher and Consultant in this field. My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. He is the author or co-author of more than seventy papers in peer-reviewed journals and conferences as well as the co-author of several books. He serves as a reviewer for many scientific journals, international conferences, and research foundations. Since 2010, Dr. Placzek has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in the field of information technologies.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"35000",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrich H.P",middleName:"H.P.",surname:"Fischer",slug:"ulrich-h.p-fischer",fullName:"Ulrich H.P Fischer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35000/images/3052_n.jpg",biography:"Academic and Professional Background\nUlrich H. P. has Diploma and PhD degrees in Physics from the Free University Berlin, Germany. He has been working on research positions in the Heinrich-Hertz-Institute in Germany. Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University, Kuwait. His research interests include optimization, computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, and intelligent systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker at various platforms around the globe. He has advised/supervised more than 110 students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He has authored and/or edited around seventy books. Prof. Sarfraz is a member of various professional societies. He is a chair and member of international advisory committees and organizing committees of numerous international conferences. He is also an editor and editor in chief for various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:"Beijing University of Technology",institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Lakhno Igor Victorovich was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPhD – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSc – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nLakhno Igor has been graduated from an international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held in Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s a professor of the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education . He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 17 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Lakhno Igor is a rewiever of Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for DSc degree \\'Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention and treatment”. Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, cardiovascular medicine.",institutionString:"V.N. Karazin Kharkiv National University",institution:{name:"Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education",country:{name:"Ukraine"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"243698",title:"M.D.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",institution:{name:"Shanxi Eye Hospital",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRZkkQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-09T12:55:18.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"338222",title:"Mrs.",name:"María José",middleName:null,surname:"Lucía Mudas",slug:"maria-jose-lucia-mudas",fullName:"María José Lucía Mudas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"147824",title:"Mr.",name:"Pablo",middleName:null,surname:"Revuelta Sanz",slug:"pablo-revuelta-sanz",fullName:"Pablo Revuelta Sanz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carlos III University of Madrid",country:{name:"Spain"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"12",type:"subseries",title:"Human Physiology",keywords:"Anatomy, Cells, Organs, Systems, Homeostasis, Functions",scope:"Human physiology is the scientific exploration of the various functions (physical, biochemical, and mechanical properties) of humans, their organs, and their constituent cells. 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His interest later turned to the molecular mechanism and attenuating strategy of sarcopenia (age-related muscle atrophy). His opinion is to attenuate sarcopenia by improving autophagic defects using nutrient- and pharmaceutical-based treatments.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Tokyo Institute of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:{id:"331519",title:"Dr.",name:"Kotomi",middleName:null,surname:"Sakai",slug:"kotomi-sakai",fullName:"Kotomi Sakai",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031QtFXQA0/Profile_Picture_1637053227318",biography:"Senior researcher Kotomi Sakai, Ph.D., MPH, works at the Research Organization of Science and Technology in Ritsumeikan University. She is a researcher in the geriatric rehabilitation and public health field. She received Ph.D. from Nihon University and MPH from St.Luke’s International University. 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