\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3851",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Pancreatic Cancer - Insights into Molecular Mechanisms and Novel Approaches to Early Detection and Treatment",title:"Pancreatic Cancer",subtitle:"Insights into Molecular Mechanisms and Novel Approaches to Early Detection and Treatment",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book provides the reader with an update on recent findings related to the molecular basis for the development and progression of pancreatic cancer. 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The domination of the Western conception of knowledge has historically and systematically marginalized, silenced stereotyped, dislocated, and decentered alternative conceptions of knowledge in systems of education. The use of the term “African epistemology” has resulted in debates on whether the adjective “African” is necessary especially in the areas of decolonization, Africanization, and transformation of education. The central claim in this chapter is that Western epistemology which dominates African universities is heavily individualistic, yet knowledge is understood as communalistic in the African setting. This scenario requires rethinking so that African universities reflect an African epistemology in their production of knowledge. This is important because knowledge production is central in the university system.
\nI intend to answer the question of the relevance of African epistemology in African universities by justifying its uniqueness through showing the elements of relationality, dependence, and interdependence. While a lot of literature has been written to justify the use of African epistemology in African universities, this chapter shows the significance of an African relational epistemology within African universities. The research gap I wish to fill is one which provides the relevance of an African relational epistemology to the African university system. I intend to go beyond the debates on Africanization, decolonization, and transformation of the African university by concentrating on epistemological matters that affect African universities.
\nThe work is divided into four sections. The first section examines the notion of “African university” in the context of epistemology to argue that the notion is logically incoherent. The second section is a critique of Western epistemology that shows that knowledge cannot be transcultural when it is practiced within cultural settings. The third section explores the relevance of African relational epistemology within the African university. The fourth section shows the importance of dialog and links with other epistemic perspectives in the global south with the aim of dislodging Western epistemological hegemony within universities of the south.
\nBefore focusing on the meaning of the term “African university,” it is important to define the concept of a university. Ryle gives an analogy of a university visitor who is shown key physical structures of a university such as administration blocks, lecture rooms, and libraries. The visitor, having seen key parts of the university, still insists on asking where the university is. The visitor fails to connect the university to its parts so as to realize that real university is a system of how the parts are organized into a functional organic whole. While the visitor assumes seeing the university in the literal sense, the seeing that allows one to understand is in the sense of grasping the connectedness of parts. Beyond Ryle’s analogy, I argue that a university is beyond a mere organization of physical structures but it also involves the thinking system that forms the intellectual foundation of the university. This intellectual foundation is the epistemological paradigm. The question I examine in this chapter is whether a foreign epistemological paradigm can be authentic or genuine enough to solve the problems of the host continent [1].
\nFrom Ryle’s analogy, two issues can be drawn. Firstly, a university is a system that is coordinated for an intellectual purpose as evidenced by research and learning. While this systematic arrangement involves physical buildings, these buildings are simply parts of a whole, and one will commit the fallacy of division if one identifies the university with its parts. The second aspect raised by Ryle, which is critical for this research, is that the coordination of the parts of a university must be understood. The understanding involves going deeper that appearance to give a detailed analysis of the essential components of what makes a university. This level brings up the question of epistemic spaces, the intellectual freedom, and the purpose of a university to the community in which it is found. Although Ryle himself may not have raised these issues, they arise when attempting to fully understand what a university entails. The key function of the university is to search for truth. This function is facilitated by a love of learning and respect for knowledge. The love for learning gives a sense of wonder that propels the desire to seek new knowledge. The respect for knowledge involves examination of key theories, concepts, and categories without any bias [1]. The question of searching for truth is important for this research since the key assumption is that some knowledge systems have been sidelined by an epistemological paradigm whose understanding of truth is one-sided, narrow, and undemocratic. In addition, a university should allow “the will to search and seek without limitation, to allow reason to develop unrestrictedly, to have an open mind, to leave nothing unquestioned, to maintain truth unconditionally” [1]. Ogwuanyi’s view shows that university should be reflective and even be self-reflective in the sense of questioning and evaluating its own steps and practices. Having looked at the broad understanding of a university, it is now important to explore the question of African university.
\nThe African university education system is currently dominated by Western epistemology where the analytic model of knowledge is being used. The model relies on the definition of knowledge as justified true belief. This definition of knowledge is not only foreign to the African university but it also has implications that are inconsistent with the African ways of knowing. The Western definition of knowledge excludes social epistemology that is fundamental in the African knowledge paradigm. African knowledge systems validate knowledge through the community. The African university education find itself in the paradox of mimicry and are currently dualized along Eurocentric thought (which is the dominant one) and weak Africanized curricula which blends both Eurocentric thinking and African indigenous knowledge system. However, it has to be pointed out that African knowledge systems contribute an insignificant part in the weak Africanized curriculum.
\nThe African university education is currently dominated by Eurocentric epistemology. Eurocentric epistemology creates contradictions, uncertainties, and dilemmas. Eurocentric epistemology assumes a “universalistic, neutral, objective point of view” [2]. Following such epistemological underpinnings, African universities have used universality, objectivity, and neutrality to define and influence content of the curriculum without the problematization of these concepts. “Universality” hides the subject and claims knowledge applicability “always and everywhere” to borrow the Kantian phrase. Critics of Eurocentric thinking have argued that “universality” is a myth [2, 3, 4]. The aspect of location should therefore be included in knowledge claims without assuming Kantian universality. “What I am claiming is that all knowledges are epistemically located in the dominant or the subaltern side of the power relations and that this is related to the geo- and body-politics of knowledge” [2]. Neutrality in the sense of observer independence is when the “ego-politics of knowledge” of Western philosophy has always privileged the myth of a non-situated “ego.” Ethnic/racial/gender/sexual epistemic location and the subject that speaks are always decoupled. Objectivity entails that “in Western philosophy and sciences the subject that speaks is always hidden, concealed, erased from the analysis” [2]. By delinking ethnic/racial/gender/sexual epistemic location from the subject that speaks, Western philosophy of science defends universal categories that are seen as applicable always and everywhere. These universals are also understood to be impersonal and beyond emotions. Against Western universalism, I argue that if concepts, universal as they may be thought to be, are formulated within a cultural setting, then the concepts cannot be transcultural [2]. Knowledge is always from a particular location [4, 5, 6], and there is no need to marginalize other locations. “Nobody escapes the class, sexual, gender, spiritual, linguistic, geographical, and racial hierarchies of the ‘modern/colonial capitalist/patriarchal world-system’” [2]. These claims are reinforced by the view that our “knowledges are always situated” [7].
\nThe Cartesian “cogito, ergo sum” (“I think, therefore I am”) is the foundation of modern Western sciences. It is the basis of the idea of “objectivity” as seen in natural sciences. While Western science borrows heavily from the Cartesian approach, scientists and academics from African universities have endorsed this without criticism. By producing a dualism between mind and body and between mind and nature, Descartes was able to claim non-situated, universal view of knowledge. The universal view of knowledge allows Western epistemology to disregard all other forms of knowledge. The neutral view is called the “point zero” [8] perspective of Eurocentric philosophies. By “point zero,” Castro-Gomez refers to a form of neutrality, and it has been argued that in research and teaching, including African universities, neutrality is a virtue. The point zero is beyond both subjectivity and relativity, and it is understood as beyond a particular perspective or locality. Critics of universalism see the point zero approach as beyond human capacities and an approach applicable to some kind of deity [2]. The ideals of objectivity and universality are not immune from criticism, and the next section examines the flaws of these ideals.
\nObjectivity may be defined as neutrality or observer independence. This entails that epistemological claims must be free from subjective or cultural bias. Truth claims should be free from observer bias and not depend on the fact that a particular person is conducting investigation. Every person, including the epistemologist, looks at the world from a particular perspective, shaped by personal and cultural facts [9]. Critics of objectivity argue that hidden cultural assumptions distort our investigation of truth. Hidden cultural assumptions that distort the conclusions of science can be made visible by beginning from a marginal perspective. Instead of occupying a “view from nowhere,” thought begins from somewhere. Once that is understood, the task is which somewhere should we examine the world. Philosophy should challenge its own picture of itself by criticizing both the project and assumed goal of Western philosophical reflection [10]. Philosophical investigations are subject to historical and cultural particularities. Philosophy is written and explored within cultural contexts. The timeless nature of reality, justice, and truth is ought to be challenged. The assumption that reason is a transcendent, noncultural standard ought to be rejected. Reason is actually justified not as timeless truth but as a local ideal. Reason is used by philosophy to show particular versions of truth. It is easy to write about the “other” or voice from the margin. What appears about embracing the other is largely rhetoric. A standpoint theorist sees possibility, promise, and hope as emanating from the margins [11]. A conceptual scheme is a way of seeing the world. Incommensurable conceptual schemes [12] are schemes that are so fundamentally different from each other that they cannot be compared or ranked or united into a single scheme. Different cultural traditions provide incompatible ways of separating valid truth claims from invalid ones. These ways are internal to cultures, and there is no transcultural way of sorting out the contradictory truth claims. The West should recognize the failures of its own traditions and open up to new traditions especially the ones that promise to overcome our failures by providing clear and careful standards of justification.
\nEurocentric thinking is internally limited by its own narrowness and perspective. “Eurocentrism is unable to deal with the assumptions and complexities of colonialism and it is unable to reject the use of Eurocentric theory or its categories” [13]. So eurocentrism is a self-limiting approach which African universities have no justification in following. It is a form of provincialism that has to be evaluated using the lenses of pluriversality.
\nEurocentric epistemology is a kind of provincialism whose narrowness contradicts the spirit of genuine knowledge. If knowledge should be open-ended and tentative, then why should gatekeeping be done using the myths of universality, objectivity, and neutrality? The idea of the universal is that of a universal rich with all that is particular, rich with all particulars, the deepening and coexistence of all particulars [14]. Pluriversality respects both multiplicity and diversity. It picks the best elements from each culture and tradition. This means that it is the sum total of the best elements from each culture and it takes the dimension of multiple thinking without disregard on any of the cultures. This kind of thinking brings in the idea of pluri-cultural perspectives that engage in honest dialog for the enrichment of knowledge in particular and humanity in general [4]. Le Grange writes, “for too long what has been taught and learned in African universities has been dominated by Western science disciplines and more importantly by a representationalist perspective of science or knowledge” [15]. What is taken as genuine knowledge in African universities is a perspective that requires revisiting and reconceptualization. In Le Grange’s view, Western science “is not only local but located” or situated. The locality is hidden in abstract universalism. Abstract universalism is used to dismiss other knowledge systems as non-knowledge. The narrowness and fallacies of Western science should allow indigenous knowledge to stamp authenticity in the African university.
\nThe use of Eurocentric epistemology in African universities disrespects the epistemic concerns of students. Arguably, “many spaces within the university do not recognize the knowledge and cultural capital that first-generation students bring with them to the university as valid forms of knowledge and as valid forms of cultural capital” [16]. This gives a mismatch between the learners’ epistemological background and university learning. As a result, graduates from a contradictory learning process fail to attain relevance in their own communities because there is unequal participation in the learning process. “Higher education must be made relevant to the material, historical and social realities of the communities in which universities operate” [17]. Such unequal participation is called “hermeneutical injustice” [18]. In instances of hermeneutical injustice, the power imbalance is such that certain people’s positions, and the knowledge they bring from those positions, suffer from a deficit of credibility. For instance, if a student of law brings into the learning process the indigenous court system, that knowledge is likely to be dismissed as “unsystematic and unscientific.” Experiences of learners are therefore dismissed when the Eurocentric way of thinking is given domination in African universities. Although hermeneutical injustice was academically defined almost a decade ago, this form of injustice is as old as racism and colonialism. “In South African higher education, this is a hermeneutical injustice with its roots in a colonial past, where other knowledge systems and ways of being were systematically disregarded and perceived negatively” [16]. Education should be liberating instead of enslaving. This means that all processes linked to education such as research, teaching, and learning must free the mind. Freeing the mind entails thinking in diverse positions that involve criticism and evaluation without any blinkers, whether imposed on acquired [19].
\nThree issues can be drawn from the observation that education ought to be mentally liberative. Firstly, it is a contradiction in terms to talk of education that fails to liberate the mind. Secondly, education should liberate rather than enslave the mind. Colonial epistemology fails to achieve mental liberation in the African university, and it therefore fails to promote intellectual independence and growth. Thirdly, the skills from education are the practical aspects that are relevant for society. If education lacks the practical dimension, then it fails to serve its key purpose.
\nUniversities should be critical about the curriculum by an examination of its theoretical and practical aspects. Theory must feed the practical, and the practical must allow further examination of theory. In other words, ideas must be tested in terms of usefulness to the community. As a result, a curriculum that relates to the community is more appropriate than a borrowed curriculum that tends to be inconsistent with community knowledge systems and experience [20]. To cross the boundaries of one’s culture without realizing that the other person may have a radically different approach to reality today is no longer admissible [21]. A university should therefore use the standards of openness and dialog to assess knowledge claims without dismissing them on the basis of prejudice. If still consciously done, disrespect of knowledge from other cultures would be “philosophically naive, politically outrageous and religiously sinful” [21]. The philosophical naivety observed is a result of lack of facts, while there is rashness predicated on prejudice. Given the context of colonialism, meaning has to undergo contestation, negotiation, and dialog. In the politics of knowledge, it is irresponsible to dismiss knowledge claims without their contribution taking into account. This thinking opens up for the content of African epistemology as shown in the next section.
\nIn what sense is epistemology both African and relational? African relational epistemology, in this chapter, refers to a theory of knowledge that is both communalistic and informed by African culture. The combination of being communal and a basis on African culture is important because being communal in itself does not qualify knowledge as African since there is Western communitarian thought on the one hand and the existence of multiple non-African but global southern perspectives as found in Latin America and Asia on the other. African culture, in the context of epistemology, supplies the categories and concepts used to validate knowledge claims. African epistemology stands in a special relation to ontology because it starts by recognizing the being of the other. In the context of epistemology, the other is seen as a subject, capable of rational thought and capable of producing knowledge. The other is also important in the validation and evaluation of knowledge claims. African epistemology is relational in the sense that it is both dependent and interdependent. Dependency signifies the reliance on other people for the acquisition of knowledge. Interdependence is a mutual exercise that facilitates the exchange of knowledge between two or more people within the community.
\nAfrican epistemology demands one to answer the question “what is African about epistemology?” African epistemology refers to a critical analysis of sources, nature, extent, and justification of knowledge using the African conceptual scheme. In the African sense, knowledge is not abstract, but it is related to the world. Knowledge is related to space and time in the sense that it is shaped by these categories. Beyond worldly connections, African epistemology rises above analytic atomistic epistemology through its stress on otherness. Knowledge is acquired through others, and it is validated through others. It recognizes and respects different perspectives. The African knowledge system recognizes the role of the community in the acquisition and preservation of knowledge. The cultural conceptual scheme becomes very important in the sense that it provides a platform for the description, analysis, validation, and evaluation of knowledge. The hierarchy of knowledge starts with the community at the top, followed by groups, and lastly the individual.
\nAccording to the Sotho proverb
There is no need for African universities to continue to be replicas of Oxford and Cambridge. Knowledge that is generated from African universities should be linked to African experiences so that it is able to solve African problems. Syllabi that are designed to meet the needs of colonialism should not find its way in the postcolonial era [23]. The situation calls for an epistemological transformation of universities. Transformation of the world’s epistemological diversity into an empowering and emancipatory mechanism against hegemonic globalization speaks to another kind of bottom-up cosmopolitanism vested in the dialog of humankind, applauding cordiality, solidarity, and living in contradiction of rationality of profit-oriented avarice and egoism [24]. The recognition of epistemic diversity is important for universities in the global south because it helps in dislodging the domination of the north. On the contemporary global arena, the upsurge of knowledge and information is admitted to be one of the key forces of change relative to higher education in Africa, yet modern science, as epistemologies from the north, lack the “capacity to capture the inexhaustible diversity of the world” [24], rendering it a perpetuation of a Western knowledge hegemony and the annihilation of African thinking even in the inquiries about Africa affairs [25]. The situation calls for a reinvention of social emancipation that transcends the critical theory produced in the north and the social and political praxis to which it has subscribed by “opening” of the canon of knowledge, to the ongoing debates and initiatives on diversity and recognition [24]. The opening up of the canon of knowledge facilitates a horizontal progression of knowledge in a manner that accommodates other forms of knowledge through dialog and respect for other epistemic perspectives. Hence there is a need for critical discourses on epistemologies in universities in Africa as part of the south that challenges the “hegemony, universality and violence” [26] ushered in by Eurocentric philosophies just as we might never know where the cures for tomorrow will come from or the new construal of our planet’s ecology as whole systems rather than reductionist parts or new ways to conceive of reconciliation or to define the human [27].
\nThe call for a struggle of “alternative” knowledges which need to vigorously challenge the conception of other knowledges as “merely” local or indigenous is an acknowledgment that they are the products of socially systematized practices consisting of the deployment of diverse types of material and intellectual resources attached to specific situations and contexts [24]. The subjection of epistemologies in universities to critique and change over the last three or so decades demanding a criteria of what counts as knowledge and its validation has become, for some, the last crisis of epistemology that occurs through a twin problem of naturalization and historicization. Naturalization of epistemology entails reducing knowledge to the demands of natural sciences such as physics and chemistry where observation and experimentation are key. This is reductionism since it strips knowledge of its normative dimensions. Historicization of knowledge means making the history of knowledge a priority, yet genuine knowledge should address both the present and the future in terms of knowledge validation [28]. The naturalization of knowledge takes the direction of natural sciences where epistemology is reduced to observation sciences so that it departs from its normative concerns. Historicization of knowledge reduces epistemology to the history of ideas, and this is also problematic in the sense that the present and the future are left out.
\nFrom a radical design, an epistemology must be rooted in the experiences of the global south by critically thinking of contemporary epistemology as a normative project evocative of modern science which can be characterized as epistemological pragmatism. This will not only rescue epistemology from a confinement to, and centeredness on, scientific knowledge alone but to inclusively embrace all forms of knowledge. Santos’ case is rooted in the discourse of “decolonising Western universalisms via decolonial pluriversalism” [2] in which the “universal” within the Western philosophical tradition is challenged by proposing an entry of another, more decolonial way of thinking universality [2]. There is no liberation without rationality; but there is no critical rationality without accepting the interpellation of the excluded, or this would inadvertently be only the rationality of domination. Santos makes a case for epistemological and theoretical tasks that can create new possibilities of progressive social transformation aimed at putting an end to the monumental Eurocentric theoretical justification of the unequal relations between the global north and the global south [24]. The proposal for an epistemology of the south is therefore a direct challenge to the neoliberal project which manifests in three major trends in higher education, namely, privatization, commercialization, and corporatization of knowledge as reflected by the unrelenting growth of capitalist and corporate influence [29, 30] especially in the university. “In the neoliberal model higher education is ideally integrated into the system of production and accumulation in which knowledge is reduced to its economic functions and contributes to the realization of individual economic utilities” [31].
\nAn epistemology of the south would fittingly be a horizontal rather than vertical array of knowledge forms and sources of hierarchy in which African universities that do not feature on the top 500 of world rankings are rendered poor quality, second-rate, or failures as this is a clear reflection of global inequalities, with the burden of such characterizations weighing in disproportionately on universities in the global south. Besides, setting a “gold standard” [24], by placing knowledge systems on a ranking scale only to selectively discriminate those originating from disadvantaged communities especially in African universities, is to undermine the sources that engender them and a confirmed way of legitimating knowledge hierarchies. One way for African universities to attempt to improve their knowledge status on a global scale is to focus on granting the humanities and social sciences their rightful place in order to confront Africa’s development challenges head-on. We argue that to be drawn to the empirical science-oriented platform for which African universities have no resources and general inclination needed to support research in this field is to play the zero-sum game.
\nI challenge African university leaders to valorize Africanity, and the fruit of their creative imagination (the knowledges they produce) should adopt different forms and manifest themselves differently according to context and necessity [32]. By arguing for an epistemology of the south, I observe Santos’ case as a “decolonial epistemic perspective” that will assist with “ … unveiling epistemic silences, conspiracies, and epistemic violence hidden within Euro-American epistemology and to affirm the epistemic rights of the African people that enable them to transcend global imperial designs” [33].
\nIn this chapter, I have argued that the very idea of “African university” is logically incoherent because of excessive reliance on foreign epistemology that negates the idea of being African. The core of any university is the advancement of knowledge. Advancement of knowledge is based on a clear epistemological paradigm. The use of Eurocentric models of knowledge in the African university defeats the very idea of “African university.” The African university has a history of colonialism that continues to threaten its very existence as evidenced by the domination of colonial epistemology. Eurocentric epistemology has used the ideals of universality, objectivity, and neutrality to hide the locality and situatedness of knowledge. On the basis of these “characteristics” of knowledge, Eurocentric epistemology has set standards of knowledge that African universities have followed for decades without sufficient criticism and evaluation. The use of colonial epistemologies in African universities has no rational justification that is immune to objections, but it is based on a history of fallacious reasoning that Eurocentric epistemology defended as “arguments.” The use of colonial epistemologies in African universities disrespects both the students and the communities in which these universities are found. Epistemology from the south is used to dislodge the Eurocentric narrowness in order to pave way for alternative thinking and pluriversality within the African university. African universities should therefore cooperate with other universities within the global south so as to dislodge the tendency by Western epistemology to dominate African universities in the context of epistemology. The relational African epistemology can be used to open up dialog and respect for other epistemological perspectives.
\nChitin and chitosan belong to the polymeric materials of natural origin from the polysaccharides group. The widely used polysaccharides of natural origin also include cellulose and derivatives of hyaluronic and alginic acid. Use for the production of medical devices (contact with the patient’s body), makes them meet several requirements: they should maintain their physicochemical properties after treatment at elevated temperature during sterilization, after exposure to X-ray, detergents and aseptic. Polysaccharide biopolymers, like most polymeric materials, degrade after some time of use, so it is also important that their decomposition products do not cause inflammation, allergic or immune reactions or any other interactions with patients’ bodies.
Chitin is a polysaccharide composed of N-acetylglucosamine residues linked by β-1,4-glycosidic bonds. Chitin is the main component of the fungal walls and the shells of arthropods (crustaceans, insects, and arachnids), but is also present in sponges, corals, and mollusks. However, for laboratory and industrial purposes, it is obtained mainly from marine invertebrates such as: crabs, shrimps, lobsters and krill. The properties of chitin depend on its origin. Chitin used in the production of medical devices must come from certified, controlled fisheries and must be properly purified. The methods of isolating chitin from natural sources are strictly dependent on the choice of the organism from which it is isolated. This polysaccharide is similar in structure to cellulose. It differs in the presence of an acetyl amide group (-NHCOCH3) in place of one of the hydroxyl groups (Figure 1). The presence of this group means that there are much stronger intermolecular hydrogen bonds in chitin, which results in its greater mechanical strength compared to cellulose [1, 2].
Structural resemblance of cellulose, chitin and chitosan.
Depending on the origin source, chitin can occur in three amorphous forms: α, β and γ [2, 3]. The most widespread is α chitin found in fungi, shells of crustaceans and krill, and the skeletons of insects. The β form, which can mainly be isolated from squids, is much less common. The differences in the crystal structure of both amorphous forms of chitin affect their processing capabilities. The ordered crystal structure of chitin limits its solubility in commonly used solvents, and thus, reduces its use in industry. α-Chitin is moderately soluble in aqueous thiourea solution, aqueous alkaline urea solution, 5% LiCl/DMAC, some ionic liquids, hexafluoroacetone, hexafluoro-2-propanol, methanesulfonic acid [4, 5]. The form of β-chitin, on the other hand, swells in water (forms a suspension) and is soluble in formic acid. Chitin has no cytotoxic effect
Despite the very good biological properties of chitin, its practical use is moderate, which is related to its low solubility causing difficulties in its processing. Therefore, chitin is used as a raw material to obtain new derivatives with better performance parameters. In terms of practical use, the most important chitin derivatives are its esters and chitosan, which is a product of chitin deacetylation, which can be classified into the group of amino-polysaccharides.
The esterification of chitin hydroxyl groups allows to increase the utility potential of the polysaccharide by introducing various substituents, and thus, influencing the physical, chemical and biological properties of materials. The best known are chitin esters, in which the hydroxyl groups are esterified with one type of acylating reagent (presence of the same ester groups on both hydroxyl groups of chitin). Acetylated chitin derivatives (CH3CO- substituent) are prepared with acetic anhydride in the presence of an acid catalyst. However, the physicochemical properties conditioning the processing of chitin acetate turned out to be unsatisfactory [12]. The use of a mixture of orthophosphoric acid and trifluoroacetic acid anhydride as a catalyst allowed to obtain a variety of chitin esters derived from: butyric acid, cyclopropanecarboxylic acid, cyclobutanecarboxylic acid, cyclopentanecarboxylic acid, cyclohexanecarboxylic acid and substituted benzoic acids. In the case of chitin butyrate, the process efficiency (DS (degree of substitution) included in the range 1.9–2.38) was dependent on the excess of butyric acid anhydride use [13, 14, 15]. Di-butyrylchitin (chitin di-butyrate, DBC) is an example of a chitin derivative soluble in typical organic solvents [16]. DBC is obtained by chitin esterification with butyric anhydride. Typically, it is a two-stage process. In the first step, chitin is purified from calcium salts with 2 M hydrochloric acid. The next stage is the process of proper esterification of purified chitin. The substrates of the reaction, apart from chitin, are butyric anhydride and the catalyst, which is most often chloric (VII) acid. The reaction is carried out in a heterogeneous system by adding powdered chitin in appropriate proportions to the reaction mixture consisting of butyric anhydride and chloric (VII) acid. The classical esterification process requires the use of substrates in a molar ratio of acid anhydride to N-acetylaminoglucose unit of 10: 1. It is also crucial to carry out the reaction at a temperature of 20°C. Increasing the reaction temperature to 40°C causes a rapid lowering of the molecular weight of the modified polymer. The catalyst concentration has a direct influence on the efficiency of the esterification reaction. The yield of the reaction is the higher when more concentrated chloric (VII) acid is used. However, it should be remembered that the use of too much concentrated chloric (VII) acid results in the macromolecule degradation. The esterification process is completed by adding diethyl ether to the reaction mixture. The isolated product is then heated with water to remove residual chloric (VII) acid. The product obtained in this way is treated for 24 hours with acetone, in which only di-butyrylchitin is dissolved. Then, the solution is concentrated to 5–6%. After the desired concentration is reached, the solution is poured into deionized water to precipitate the polymer, then the product is dried to obtain solid di-butyryl chitin. The above-described process of chitin esterification allows the conversion of free hydroxyl groups on the C3 and C6 carbon of the chitin into ester groups (CH3(CH2)2CO- substituent). Di-butyrylchitin is composed of di-butyl-N-acetyl-amino-glucose units linked by 1,4-β-glycosidic bonds. The polymer is stabilized by hydrogen bonds between the polymer chains. Hydrogen bonds are formed with the participation of the hydrogen atom from the acetylamino group and the oxygen atom from the ester group. This kind of intermolecular interaction determines its good mechanical properties [12, 13, 14, 15]. Di-butyrylchitin does not dissolve and does not swell in water, but it dissolves in many organic solvents such as: acetone, methanol, ethanol, tetrahydrofuran (THF), dimethylformamide (DMF), chloroform, methylene chloride and others. Di-butyryl chitin is not easily degraded, it is resistant to γ-radiation (possibility of radiation sterilization), while enzymatic degradation under the influence of lysozyme and CE econase occurs at a slow rate, which causes a slight change in molecular weight. Di-butyrylchitin with a molecular weight above 100000 Da has film-forming and fiber-forming properties [1, 2, 12, 13, 14, 15]. Thus, obtaining DBC with the desired molecular weights directly determines its further processing capabilities (in particular electrospinning and leaching). The most important biological parameters of di-butyrylchitin are: prolongation of blood clotting time and good wettability. The use of DBC dressings has a positive effect on the granulation process (increasing the level of glycosaminoglycans in the wound), collagen cross-linking (generating more durable tissue), accelerating the wound healing process to form a healthy epidermis without scarring and protecting the wound against excessive moisture loss (optimal moist environment) [1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11]. In the course of treatment, the dressing slowly bio-degrades and resorbs until it disappears completely, which eliminates the painful act of changing it. The spontaneous, anti-pain effect of the dressing was also noted. DBC does not show cytotoxicity or irritation, it is a biocompatible polymer [9]. Di-butyrylchitin fibers are obtained by two methods: wet and dry-wet. The choice of the method used determines the structure of the obtained fibers. The fibers obtained in the wet-spinning process are less regular in shape, with a greater surface development than in the case of dry-wet spinning. DBC fibers produced by wet spinning are used as a raw material for the production of nonwovens. The technique of producing nonwovens from DBC depends on cutting the fibers into 6 cm long sections, from which the fleece is produced using a mechanical method on carding machines, and then the fibers in the fleece are joined by needling and calendaring [16, 17].
The dry-wet method of forming fibers from DBC hinges on preparing a spinning solution with a concentration of 15 to 25% in ethanol, heating it to 60°C and squeezing it through a spinning die. Then, the incompletely solidified fiber is introduced into a water bath, where it is completely solidified. The fiber is then wound onto drums, stretched, and dried. A microporous DBC fiber with a linear mass of 1.7 to 5.6 g is obtained, depending on the concentration of the spinning solution used. The fibers obtained by the dry method have an elongated and curved cross-sectional shape, similar to a croissant. The degree of crystallinity of the fibers determined in X-ray examinations is similar in both methods and amounts to approx. 19%, and the transverse dimension of the crystallites approx. 23 Å. It is also easy to obtain chitin materials (the so-called regenerated chitin) from these materials without damaging their macro-structure after a mild alkaline treatment. Fibers made of regenerated chitin and di-butyrylchitin do not induce cytotoxic, haemolytic or irritating effects and cause minimal local tissue reaction after implantation [17, 18, 19]. Di-butyrylchitin and regenerated chitin fibers can be used to obtain dry dressing materials, as well as materials for other biomedical purposes. DBC-based woven dressings are biodegradable within the wound and do not need to be replaced during use [16, 17]. Chitin di-pentanoate (chitin divalerate, Di-O-Valeryl-Chitin, DVCH) is also used for the production of commercially available dressings, where chitin is esterified with two valeryl groups (CH3(CH2)3CO- substituent) at the 3 and 6 positions of N-acetylglucosamine units. The high degree of DVCH esterification was achieved by using a large excess of valeric anhydride used both as acylating agent and reaction medium, and perchloric acid as catalyst. It turned out to be optimal to conduct the reaction where the molar ratio of valeric acid anhydride to chitin was 7:1, which also facilitated thorough mixing of the components during the reaction and temperature control. The performance of the reaction under conditions of high homogeneity of the solution has a great influence on the quality of the product. Insufficient mixing of the solution during the acylation step led to a local temperature rise, uneven chitin acylation and ultimately resulted in products with varying degrees of esterification and higher polydispersity. Additionally, at elevated temperature it was observed reduction of the molecular weight of the biopolymer as a result of the acidic degradation of chitin that occurs in parallel with the acylation reaction in the presence of a strong acid. To obtain products with a high degree of esterification, 0.5 M perchloric acid was used (deacetylation of the N-acetyl group was not observed). The separation of the raw product from the reaction mixture takes place during the neutralization of the valeric acid excess with a 2.5% NaHCO3 solution. The use of sodium bicarbonate as a weak base prevents deacetylation of the N-acetyl group. Depending on the reaction time and temperature, products with different parameters are obtained. The lower temperature leads to a product with a higher molecular weight. A longer reaction time increases the yield of the reaction, but is associated with a reduction in molecular weight due to acidic degradation of the polymer. The DVCH polydispersity index ranged from 1.47 to 2.06, suggesting a low molecular weight distribution. Due to the good solubility of DVCH in organic solvents such as acetone or ethanol, it is possible to prepare thin polymer layers by casting or porous structures by salt leaching. The DVCH shows a semi-ductile behavior and breaks when it exceeds the yield point. The stretching properties of DVCH films depend on the molecular weight. The modulus, yield stress, tensile stress as well as strain at break increase continuously with increasing DVCH molecular weight. The increase in the modulus with molecular weight results in higher mechanical strength of DVCH films. The elongation at break, although slightly increases with increasing molecular weight, remains low, not exceeding 4%. As a consequence, the higher DVCH molecular weight is, it behaves like a stiff plastic that can withstand relatively high stresses but does not withstand high elongation before breakage. Using the salt leach method, it is also possible to develop porous materials from DVCH. The structure of porous DVCH-based materials consists of a unified network of interconnected channels. This structure is characterized by a high content of open pores of various sizes. Two pore populations can be distinguished: large with a size in the range 150–780 μm (average pore size approx. 435 μm ± 168 μm) and small with a size in the range of 4–22 μm (average pore size 7.7 μm ± 3.3 μm [16, 17, 18, 19]. Chitin divalerate is a technologically friendly biopolymer. The good solubility of DVCH in organic solvents (ethanol, DMAC, DMSO, acetone) due to the presence of hydrophobic valeryl groups in C-3 and C-6 positions enables its easy processing of its particles. The DVCH maintains the film-forming ability of chitin, so it can easily be used in the production of threads, films, foams and scaffolds, as well as non-woven fabrics. Biological data show that DVCH is not cytotoxic to fibroblasts and does not cause irritation or allergy to the skin of animals [20]. For the synthesis of chitin dihexanoate (DHCH) it is also possible to use appropriate acid anhydrides and methanesulfonic acid as a catalyst. In order to increase the homogeneity of the solution and better control the temperature in the process, by analogy to the synthesis of the valerate ester, an excess of acid anhydride and methanesulfonic acid are used, the mixture being the reagents and the reaction medium. Optimal methanesulfonic acid to chitin molar ratios are 16:1 and 10:1 for chitin di-hexanoate and chitin di-butyrate, respectively. This approach will result in a high degree of substitution of hydroxyl groups, equal to almost 2, and a low polydispersity. Moreover, under optimal conditions, no hydrolysis of the N-acetyl bond was observed. Good chitin solubility in methanesulfonic acid, even at low temperatures, allows the esterification process to be carried out under milder conditions. The key parameter is the intensity of agitation of the reaction suspension. Insufficient heat transfer due to poor mixing of the solution, similar to the synthesis of chitin di-pentanoate, leads to a lower degree of esterification, high polydispersity of the final product and a reduction in molecular weight. The neutralization process is carried out with a 4% sodium bicarbonate solution. The synthesis of DBC at a low temperature and short reaction time (temperature 0°C and 8°C) is ineffective due to the low reaction yields and possibly incomplete esterification of the chitin hydroxyl groups, resulting in the formation of a significant amount of insoluble gel fractions when dissolved in acetone prior to precipitation with water. For DHCH, it is preferable to use low synthesis temperatures (0°C and 8°C). The yield of DHCH synthesis was relatively high (above 70%), with the highest efficiency observed at 21°C (84 to 95%). Unfortunately, carrying out the synthesis of DHCH at 21°C resulted in a low molecular weight product. A trend analogous to that of chitin di-pentanoate was observed, indicating that the longer the reaction time, the higher the reaction performance and the lower the molecular weight of the obtained biopolymers. Although in DHCH the hydroxyl groups of chitin are substituted with longer alkyl chains than in DVCH or DBC, it has been found that DHCH retains good solubility in solvents such as ethanol, acetone, dichloromethane, 1,2-dichloroethane, N,N-dimethylformamide, N,N-dimethylacetamide and ethyl acetate and no solubility in water. Good solubility, filmogenic and fiber-forming properties of DHCH give greater possibilities of its processing (film casting, washing method, electrospinning method) compared to chitin alone. The mechanical properties of DHCH and DBC in the form of thin solid layers poured from solution were investigated in relation to their molecular weights. DHCH and DBC showed semi-continuous properties and cracked rapidly upon exceeding the plasticity point, similar to that observed for DVCH. The elongation at break was small and did not exceed 4%. For both biopolymers, their tensile properties correlate with the molecular weight. Parameters such as modulus of elasticity, stress at yield, as well as stress and strain at break, were found to increase with increasing DHCH and DBC molecular weight. Comparing the mechanical properties of DHCH, DBC and DVCH, it can be concluded that Young’s modulus decreases with increasing chain length of the acyl group of chitin diesters (a similar relationship is observed for chitin monoesters, where only one hydroxyl group is acylated). Due to the good solubility of hydrophobic chitin diesters in organic solvents and their insolubility in water, it is possible to obtain porous structures based on DHCH and DBC by using the salt leaching method. The prepared porous materials are characterized by a united network of interconnected channels and a high degree of open porosity with pores of various sizes (pore size in the range 78–421 μm, average pore size 253 μm ± 93 μm) [21, 22, 23, 24]. Due to its physic-chemical properties, DHCH can successfully replace or support materials based on di-butyrylchitin (e.g. in the form of mixtures of both biopolymers) and thus it can be used as a material for medical and pharmaceutical applications, especially in tissue engineering scaffolds and in healing wounds. The described procedure of chitin esterification to obtain products of high purity. Moreover, this method is universal (the possibility of preparation various chitin diesters) and is easy to produce and is not time-consuming [21]. Another method of chemical modification of chitin is esterification leading to carboxymethylchitin (CMCht, CM-chitin) [22, 23] or dicarboxymethylchitin using monochloroacetic or mono-chloropropionic acid followed by substitution of halogen with a hydroxyl group. This modification leads to the loss of the supramolecular structure of chitin and the formation of water-soluble derivatives [24].
The presence of two hydroxyl groups at the C-3 and C-6 positions of chitin allows the introduction of two different acyl substituents, leading to the formation of mixed esters (co-esters) of chitin. This possibility is also due to the differential reactivity of the hydroxyl groups linked to the primary and secondary carbon atoms in chitin. Thus, under ideal conditions, it is possible to obtain mixed esters containing the same molar fraction of different acyl groups in the modified material. Different ester groups (e.g., butyric and acetic acid residues) are present in mixed esters in a single polysaccharide chain. The replacement of some large bulky butyl groups with much smaller acetate groups in one polysaccharide chain causes that in a condensed state, it becomes possible to obtain favorable conditions for the formation of intermolecular bonds of the hydrogen bridge type. This effect cannot be expected when using a mixture of two different biopolymers (e.g. chitin diacetate and chitin di-butyrate). Thus, the term mixed polymers is not the same as mixed chitin esters. In order to obtain a polymer mixture, it is necessary to use at least two chemically different polymers (Figure 2). In contrast mixed ester/co-ester of chitin contains only one component. It was found that the differences between chitin mixed esters (co-esters) and a mixture of two species can be observed in NMR spectra (1H and 13C) (Figures 3 and 4). The studies used 50:50 butyryl-acetyl-chitin co-polyester (
Chemical structure of chitin di-acetate, chitin di-butyrate, butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester (mixture ester, co-ester).
Fragments of 13C-NMR spectra of
Fragments of 1H-NMR spectra of
A comparative analysis of the 13C-NMR spectra of the 180–150 ppm range characteristic for the chemical shifts of carbon in carboxylic acid derivatives showed that the distribution in the mixed ester of chitin
Comparative studies of 1H-NMR spectra in the range of chemical shifts 2.5 ppm to 0.5 ppm also allowed to state that in the case of butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyesters (samples
The possibility of forming the intermolecular hydrogen bonds that stabilize butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester structure translates into fiber-forming properties, and thus the possibility of modulating the functional properties of the final materials and their use in the manufacture of new materials for medical use. In addition to stabilization by hydrogen bonds, it is also possible to create weak interactions based on hydrophobic interactions. The participation of such various weak interactions in the stabilization of materials may translate into their ability to interact with both hydrophobic and hydrophilic structures, which affects biological activity.
Acetate-formate mixed chitin ester was obtained using formic acid, acetic anhydride and trifluoroacetic acid as a catalyst [25]. It turned out that this ester is slightly soluble in typical organic solvents. This is one of the reasons why this derivative has not found practical use, even though its biological properties are comparable to those of chitin. A similar situation was observed in the case of trifluoroacetate-formate derivatives of chitin [26].
Attempts to obtain a mixed butyric acetic ester of chitin by reaction using acetic and butyric anhydrides and methanesulfonic acid or trifluoroacetic acid as catalysts have been unsuccessful. The final product was a mixture of chitin acetate, chitin butyrate and the expected acetate-butyrate of chitin [27, 28].
The approach to synthesize mixed chitin esters using a mixture of trifluoroacetic acid and the corresponding organic acid as catalysts also led to the formation of mixtures of chitin monoesters and mixed esters (co-polyesters) of chitin. It has been shown that carrying out the reaction at the temperature of 70°C for a short time (30 min) under homogeneous conditions allows for obtaining co-polyesters: acetate-butyrate, acetate-hexanoate, acetate-octanoate and acetate-palmitate of chitin. The final co-polyesters have molecular weights ranging from 30 to 150 kDa and the degree of esterification ranging from 1.0 to 2.0, depending on the raw materials used.
Another approach to obtain mixed butyryl-acetyl esters of chitin [29] is based on the use of butyric and acetic acid anhydrides and methanesulfonic acid as a catalyst. However, this method is not very friendly from the point of view of industrial stoppage. Thinking about the industrial synthesis of the butyryl-acetyl chitin derivative, it was necessary to establish reaction conditions that would eliminate the need to use methanesulfonic acid.
In the works on the development of a method for the production of the butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester on an industrial scale, it was necessary to develop, in the first stage, the conditions for the synthesis on a laboratory scale, which would later be transferred to an industrial scale. The esterification in laboratory conditions is carried out under heterogeneous conditions at 20-25°C, using chloric (VI) acid as a catalyst and a mixture of butyric and acetic acid anhydrides, used in a molar ratio of 90:10 [22, 23]. The product was obtained with a yield of 82 to 89% is soluble in DMF, DMSO and NMP, has a high molar mass (intrinsic viscosity of these products determined in DMF at the level of 2.0–2.05 dL/g) and a full degree of esterification. In the research on the development of a method of producing butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester in industrial conditions it was crucial to eliminate the possibility of formation an explosive mixture which may arise as a result of direct contact of acetic anhydride with perchloric acid. It turned out that the priority was to use an efficient cooling system so that the process temperature did not exceed 20°C. In laboratory conditions, it was sufficient to use an ice-water bath with NaCl (brine bath) and intensive mixing of the suspension. In laboratory conditions, diethyl ether is added to the slurry to remove excess unreacted anhydrides and formed carboxylic acids and the crude product is filtered off. The crude acetylation product is washed with water and dilute ammonia water, dried and finally dissolved in ethanol. The transfer of the conditions from the laboratory scale to the macro scale did not involve only increasing the amount of reagents and the size of the synthesizer. The key was to optimize the process conditions and the use of reagents that can be used in industrial conditions from the point of view of safety, environmental impact and economics. A reactor with a capacity of 60 dm3 with an effective cooling system was used. A 3 kg chitin input was used for the synthesis. The remaining reagents (2 dm3 of perchloric acid, 15 dm3 of butyric anhydride and 1 dm3 of acetic anhydride) were added in portions. The time required for all reagents to be introduced and for complete conversion was about 24 h. In place of diethyl ether, under industrial conditions, ethyl acetate was used to remove excess unreacted butyric and acetic anhydrides. In industrial conditions it was also necessary to replace the ammonia water to neutralize the acetic and butyric acid residues. It turned out that it is possible to use sodium carbonate for this purpose. Also, the step of separation of raw product required changes in the industrial process. In the synthesis under laboratory conditions, G4 Schott funnels were used for filtration. However, the use of this method on a large scale was ineffective. So suction filtration was used, the efficiency of which was 100 dm3 per hour. The process efficiency on an industrial scale was comparable to that of a laboratory scale synthesis. The physical and chemical properties of the final products were also comparable. The conducted research guaranteed the reproducible and required parameters of the raw material for the production of new medical materials [22, 23]. Figure 5 shows a set for the synthesis of butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester on an industrial scale.
Set for the synthesis of butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester on an industrial scale.
The development of an efficient synthesis of the butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester (BAC 90/10) made it possible to demonstrate that the obtained chitin derivative has the ability to form fibers from a wet solution with a strength slightly above 20 cN/tex with high porosity. Fibers with a strength at this level can be the basis for the production of 3D polymer-fiber composites. BAC 90/10 fibers show a stronger predisposition to apatite crystallization; strong sorption tendencies of fibers allowing the possibility of local supersaturation favoring the nucleation of apatite. It has been also found that BAC 90/10 fibers degrade fast under
One application of the butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester (BAC 90/10) is its use to produce highly porous film materials [30].
The research work began with laboratory tests during which two methods of formation of porous materials were tested: (a) pouring a 5% ethanol BAC 90/10 solution on a layer of solid inorganic salt (porophor agent), which, after solidification, was exposed to water to wash out the porophor agent, and (b) the use of porophor agent suspensions in BAC 90/10 solution, which was a mixture of solvents with a density close to the bulk density of the porophor agent. Various organic and inorganic salts (K2CO3, KHCO3, KHSO4, KNO2, (NH4)2CO3, (NH4)HCO3, (NH4)2HPO4, (NH4)2SO4, Na2CO3, NaHCO3, Na2HPO4, Na2S2O3 x 5H2O, NaCl, di-ammonium citrate, di-ammonium oxalate were tested. It was found that all tested salts can be used as porophors. However, the most optimal porophor agent, in terms of porosity (95–99%) and tensile strength of 5 cN, was NaCl.
Based on laboratory work, it was possible to start work on optimizing the production of porous dressing materials (Medisorb R, Medisorb R Ag). In the industrial method, solid NaCl as porophor agents and a 3% solution of BAC 90/10 in ethanol were used. The membrane was formed by pouring a 3% solution of BAC 90/10 onto a layer of porophor agent to produce a spongy structure. After drying, the membrane is rinsed in distilled water at 40°C until the porophor agent is washed off. The product is then dried at 80°C. After packing, the obtained membrane dressings are subjected to a process of radiation sterilization (in the case of the variant without the addition of an antibacterial substance). To obtain a silver-coated membrane, the membrane is sprayed with a suspension of metallic silver dispersed in water by means of a spray nozzle. The silver particles are evenly distributed in the suspension using an ultrasonic device. After drying and then packing, the product is subjected to radiation sterilization. The powder dressing is obtained by grinding the byturyl-acetyl chitin co-polyester, which is then sterilized by radiation [23, 31]. Figure 6 shows a scheme for the preparation of porous dressings based on butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester.
A scheme for the preparation of porous dressings based on butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester.
Dressing materials obtained by leaching salt from butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester (BAC 90/10) and sodium chloride with a diameter of 0.16–0.40 nm and/or microsilver were characterized by a high degree of porosity, pore size in the range of 275–305 nm and a degree of crystallinity in the range of 27.2–27.4%. SEM tests confirmed the porous structure of pores, which are negative for the crystals of the inorganic porophor agent used. In addition, the pores are open pores, which increases the effectiveness of water adsorption. Figure 7 shows microscopic picture of porous structures obtained by the porophor agent washout method.
Microscopic picture of porous structures obtained by the porophor agent washout method.
Dressings made of butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester (Figure 8) are intended for wounds of various etiologies, including chronic wounds, where the healing process is disturbed by comorbidities. In order to accelerate the healing of deep wounds, a dressing in the form of a backfill has been designed. Wounds are often accompanied by a bacterial infection, therefore, apart from the dressing in the form of a membrane made of chitin co-polyester only, there is also a variant containing the addition of silver, showing a bactericidal effect in the wound environment. Silver may appear in various forms, however, it has been assumed that only the ionic form of silver has a bactericidal effect. Any other form of silver must be converted to its ionic form. Hence, metallic silver with a small particle size after oxidation and hydrolysis is characterized by the highest antibacterial activity. Silver in ionic form also has the ability to interact with proteins. It has been found that the ionic form of silver has a higher protein binding capacity compared to nanoparticles [32, 33, 34, 35, 36].
Picture of porous structures obtained by the porophor agent washout method.
The presence of pores and microcapillaries in the structure of membrane dressings allows drainage of wound exudate. Dressings made on the basis of chitin co-polyesters are characterized by high biocompatibility. Biological tests confirmed the lack of cytotoxic, irritating and allergenic effects. These dressings are degraded in the subcutaneous tissue and gradually become smaller. The dressing shortens and weakens the exudative phase, drains the wound and accelerates the productive phase. The epithelialization process under the butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester was completed faster compared to the control sample [37].
FTIR ATR analysis was made for samples of untreated Medisorb R dressings and material treated with fresh human plasma in order to test the dressing surface degradation and protein absorption on the dressing surface. Comparing spectra of samples treated with fresh human plasma and pure material, the decreasing of intensity of the vibration band of C=O at 1733 cm−1 in relation to the amide I signal at 1659 cm−1 was observed. It confirmed the sample surface degradation, which was connected to the hydrolysis of ester BAC 90/10 groups. In the
The developed biodegradable dressings based on butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyester were subjected to clinical evaluation using a wide range of patients. The use of dressings significantly accelerated the wound healing process caused by venous insufficiency and diabetes, also in patients whose healing process was disturbed by comorbidities. The improvement of the clinical condition of the wound depends on the individual patient and is most often observed after 30–60 days. The obtained results indicate that the tested dressings significantly reduce the time of wound healing. Medisorb R Ag is more effective than Medisorb R Membrane in the treatment of infected wounds. The powder form (Medisorb R Powder) allows the application of the dressing to deeper wounds. Thanks to their unique structure, dressings drain wound exudates beyond its environment, thus restoring the proper course of the cell reconstruction process. The ability to biodegrade in contact with the wound secretion eliminates the need to replace dressings, so the newly formed granulation tissue is not disturbed - cell reconstruction processes run smoothly [38].
Chitosan is obtained as a result of the hydrolysis of chitin N-acetylamide groups (partial deacetylation of chitin). The main advantage of chitosan is its much better solubility in aqueous acid solutions, especially organic acids. Chitin deacetylation by chemical or enzymatic methods allows for obtaining materials with various degrees of hydrolysis (Figure 9). However, it is assumed that at least 50% chitin deacetylation is necessary for the material to be classified as chitosan. The degree of deacetylation (DD) is defined as the ratio of the number of free NH2 groups to the initial number of NHCOCH3 groups present in chitin and is presented in the equation:
Chitosan formation from chitin by chitin deacetylation.
where N - the number of specific units (structural units) in the polymer.
The value of DD affects the biological and physicochemical properties of the polymer, such as solubility, swelling and stability, as well as reactivity.
Chitosan obtained by chemical (concentrated NaOH) or enzymatic (chitin deacetylase) deacetylation of chitin. The first step of preparation of chitosan is mechanical grinding of the raw chitin, and subsequent process of removing proteins, color compounds and inorganic salts takes place. The deproteinization process is usually performed with a dilute aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide at an elevated temperature [4, 5]. For protein removing also proteolytic enzymes were used [39, 40], but in the case of papain, trypsin and chymotrypsin, it was found that they did not completely remove the protein fraction. After deproteinization process, the residue is treated with dilute aqueous hydrochloric acid to dissolve the calcium carbonate. A similar effect can be obtained by using HCOOH, HNO3, H2SO4 or EDTA [5]. The decolorization process is based on extraction with ethanol, acetone or treatment with oxidizing reagents (KMnO4, NaOCl, H2O2). These activities allow to obtain chitin of required purity for its further transformation into chitosan. Chitosan from chitin obtained by chemical deacetylation is obtained at high temperature (above 100°C), under high pressure and in the presence of concentrated (40–50%) strong bases (usually NaOH). A typical industrial chitosan production process provides almost complete recovery of proteins, calcium oxide or calcium carbonate, carotenoid pigments and sodium acetate under the conditions of using sodium hydroxide as the deacetylating agent. However, this process has several disadvantages. It is not environmentally friendly as it consumes a large amount of energy and is also difficult to control leading to a heterogeneous product. The use of chitin deacetylase for the production of chitosan oligomers and polymers can potentially eliminate most of these drawbacks [41]. The advantages of enzymatic deacetylation are more pronounced in the processing of chitin oligomers, as these substrates are soluble in the aqueous medium and are therefore more susceptible to enzymes. The downside is the high cost of the enzyme and the requirement to use pre-processed chitin. The conditions of the chitin deacetylation process have a significant impact on the distribution of N-acetyl-D-glucosamine and D-glucosamine groups in the polysaccharide chain. Their location in the chain has a significant impact on the physicochemical properties of the material, such as crystallinity, solubility and susceptibility to degradation [3]. Depending on the final use, chitosan can be formed into a hydrogel, membranes, fibers, sponges and micro/nanoparticles [42].
Chitosan is a polysaccharide composed of randomly distributed acetylated and deacetylated units of D-glucosamine. Chitosan exists in five different crystal forms, four of which are hydrated and one is anhydrous. Microcrystalline chitosan is characterized by better biodegradability and bioactivity.
Most of the properties of chitosan depend on two parameters: degree of deacetylation and molecular weight distribution. Depending on the source and method of preparation, the deacetylation degree varies from 30 to 95%, and the molecular weight from 300 to over 1000 kDa [43]. The solubility of chitosan strongly depends on the deacetylation degree, which translates into the number of free amino groups. Chitosan is soluble in acidic solutions due to its susceptibility to protonation and formation of ammonium salts. It is soluble in acetic, formic, citric, lactic and hydrochloric acid and insoluble in most organic solvents. Chitosan, as a biodegradable polymer, is easily broken down by microorganisms into simple chemical compounds such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and ammonia (NH3). Like other biopolymers, it is susceptible to many chemical and physical factors leading to its degradation. The degradation process also depends on the degree of deacetylation and the molecular weight of the polymer [3, 5].
Chitosan has many valuable properties, such as: biocompatibility, biodegradability, non-toxicity, the ability to create polycations in an acidic environment, the possibility of modification, high affinity for metals, dyes and proteins, hydrophilicity, ability to create membranes and others [3, 5, 44]. These features make it applicable in medicine and pharmacy, in various industries, in environmental protection, including water treatment and separation processes. [5, 45, 46]. Chitosan also has a number of properties that limit its use in certain areas. It swells strongly in water (especially in an acidic environment), and in the swollen state it is characterized by low mechanical strength. The use of chitosan is also limited due to its high viscosity. The reduction of the viscosity of chitosan solutions can be achieved by increasing the deacetylation degree while reducing the molecular weight and increasing the temperature or ionic strength [5, 47]. The key problem with the use of chitosan is its susceptibility to external factors (humidity and temperature) and processing conditions (heating or sterilization), which can affect its structure and cause its degradation. Parameters such as molecular weight or the presence of impurities have a significant impact on the processing of chitosan [48]. This causes difficulties in maintaining the stability of chitosan (no changes in molecular weight) for a long time at room temperature [49]. The influence of many factors, such as increased temperature, the presence of strong acids, mechanical shear or radiation, on the molecular weight of chitosan was demonstrated. It is also believed that high molecular weight chitosan is more stable. The lack of reproducibility in the processing of chitosan is also due to significant differences in molecular weight, deacetylation degree and purity level depending on the source of the raw material. The level of chitosan purity may affect both biological properties, such as biodegradability or immunogenicity, as well as its solubility and stability [48, 50].
Chitosan is a non-toxic polysaccharide containing randomly distributed acetylated and deacetylated units of D-glucosamine. The results of many studies confirm the antibacterial effect of chitosan. The mechanism explaining this feature is unknown [51]. The antimicrobial activity of chitosan is strongly dependent on many factors, such as molecular weight [52], degree of deacetylation (DD), pH of the dissolving medium and its ionic strength. Stronger antibacterial activity was observed with a high degree of deacetylation [53] and a low molecular weight of chitosan [54]. The antibacterial activity of chitosan is also associated with the form of the polymer (hydrogels, membranes, dissolved form) and the presence of other compounds [55]. One of the factors responsible for the antibacterial activity of chitosan is its cationic nature. The positively charged ammonium groups of chitosan may interact with negatively charged components of the bacterial cell wall, causing damage to the cell membrane and destruction of bacterial cells (a mechanism proposed for high molecular weight chitosan) [56]. Ultimately, this causes the formation of an impermeable layer around the bacterial cell, affecting permeability and transport to the cell [57, 58]. It has been suggested that low molecular weight chitosan can penetrate bacterial cell walls and eventually enter the cytoplasm and bind to DNA affecting DNA transcription, mRNA synthesis and finally protein biosynthesis [59].
The difference in the hydrophilicity and the negative charge of the cell surface of the bacteria makes gram-negative bacteria interact more strongly with chitosan, resulting in higher antibacterial activity against them.
The antibacterial activity of chitosan or its derivatives on gram-negative bacteria has been demonstrated for various strains:
The antifungal activity of chitosan also depends on its molecular weight and degree of acetylation. It was found that chitosan shows antifungal activity against selected phytopathogenic fungi
The antiviral activity of chitosan derivatives is also suggested. The research focuses mainly on HIV. Peptide-chitosan conjugates (GlnMetTrp-chitosan and TrpMetGln-chitosan) show a protective effect on C8166 cells by counteracting the cytolytic effects of the HIV-1RF strain. These derivatives have the ability to suppress HIV-induced syncytium formation and reduce HIV load without inhibiting HIV-1 reverse transcriptase and protease
Recent studies have shown that chitosan and its derivatives exhibit anti-tumor activity in both
Various biological properties of chitosan also include good adhesion to cells, macrophage activation, stimulation of fibroblast proliferation, stimulation of cytokinin production, stimulation of type IV collagen synthesis, promoting angiogenesis processes, haemostatic properties [92, 93, 94, 95]. Moreover, it has a positive effect on granulation and epithelialization, and reduces scar formation. It is believed that many of the listed biological activities of chitosan are related to its unique feature, namely its cationic nature. Chitosan molecules with a positive charge interact with negatively charged erythrocytes and thrombocytes activating the extrinsic coagulation, effectively stopping bleeding.
Chemical modification of chitosan allows to modulate the biological activity of chitosan, for example, heparin inactivation or antiviral activity. Chitosan can be in the form of: gel, sponge, fiber or porous composition with ceramics, collagen or gelatin. Chitosan is used as a component of wound healing dressings, while in the case of scaffolds, it is usually used with other natural polymers (hyaluronic acid, alginic acid, poly-L-lactidic acid, elastin, collagen, gelatin) or additives (hydroxyapatite, calcium phosphate, ceramic components) [95, 96, 97].
Chitosan increases the inflow of phagocytic cells (segmented granulocytes and macrophages) to the site of infection, stimulates the migration and proliferation of endothelial cells and fibroblasts. The effect of chitosan on the proliferation of fibroblasts depends on the degree of deacetylation and molecular weight. Forms with a higher degree of deacetylation and lower molecular weight stimulate fibroblast proliferation to a greater extent [98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123]. Chitosan is widely researched for its use in bone and cartilage reconstruction. It has the ability to create porous structures, which makes it used in tissue engineering, orthopedics and bone regeneration. It has also been used in drug delivery systems or therapeutic substances (DNA plasmids, siRNA, nanosilver), for the production of surgical sutures, wound healing dressings and artificial internal organs [124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150].
An interesting chitosan feature is also its ability to bind with mucus and cross epithelial barriers, so that its use as an adjuvant or auxiliary adjuvant in vaccines is considered. It is also included among the auxiliary substances that enable the preparation of various forms of drugs with specific properties.
It is an excellent metal ion complexing agent. This parameter is useful due to the immobilization of metal ions with antibacterial activity and enabling their controlled release, depending on the needs [97].
Chitosan can also be an environmentally friendly agent used to obtain textiles with antibacterial properties. Attempts were made to introduce chitosan powder into cotton and polyester-cotton fabric. Chitosan was introduced after the fabric surface was activated by 20% NaOH. The performed studies confirmed that chitosan is well implemented in fabrics made of a cotton and polyester/cotton blend [151].
Due to its physicochemical and biological properties, chitosan and its derivatives are considered to be versatile biomaterials with various biological activities [152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159].
Chitosan and its derivatives as materials with antimicrobial activity and low immunogenicity are widely used in wound healing. They provide a three-dimensional matrix for tissue growth, activate macrophages and stimulate cell proliferation [160]. Chitosan improves the activity of polymorphonuclear leukocytes, macrophages and fibroblasts, which increase granulation and organization of repaired tissues [161]. Its degradation to N-acetyl-β-D-glucosamine stimulates the proliferation of fibroblasts, supports regular collagen deposition, and also stimulates the synthesis of hyaluronic acid at the wound site. These properties accelerate healing and prevent scarring [162]. The development of chitosan formation in the form of nanofibers with the assumed adhesive properties allowed to obtain a material useful for the creation of dressing materials [163]. Chitosan nanofibers obtained by electrospinning method are porous, have high tensile strength, large surface area combined with an ideal rate of water vapor and oxygen transfer. They are also compatible with stem cells derived from adipose tissue, which is beneficial for wound healing [164, 165].
A characteristic feature of chitosan dressings is their ability to effectively control bleeding [166]. The most important element of hemostasis is blood clotting, which leads to the formation of a clot consisting mainly of the fibrin network and platelets embedded in it. This process prevents further loss of fluid and electrolytes from the wound and reduces contamination of the wound. There is erythema around the wound, swelling, pain and locally increased temperature. Inflammation widens local blood vessels, which facilitates the penetration of macrophage cells and fibroblasts into the wound, which cleanse the wound of tissue residues, vascular clots and pathogenic bacteria. In the next phase of healing, fibroblasts synthesize collagen and other proteins needed to build and regenerate connective tissue and rebuild damaged blood vessels. In the course of scar formation, type III collagen fibers transform into type I collagen until they reach the balance characteristic of healthy skin and are necessary to restore skin continuity. The final remodeling process leads to a significant increase in the mechanical strength of the wound. The haemostatic effect of chitosan has been clearly documented. Chitosan in the form of a non-woven fabric has a positive effect on each stage of wound healing. The unique features of chitosan include: macrophage activation, stimulation of fibroblast proliferation, absorption of growth factors, stimulation of cytokinin production, stimulation of type IV collagen synthesis, support for angiogenesis processes, antibacterial and hemostatic properties. The positive effect of chitosan on granulation tissue, epidermis and reduction of scar formation has been proven. Like chitin, chitosan is susceptible to enzymatic biodegradation which produces biologically active oligosaccharides. The positively charged chitosan molecules react with negatively charged erythrocytes and thrombocytes to activate the external clotting pathway and effectively block bleeding. At the same time, chitosan can serve as a carrier of specific medicinal substances (DNA plasmids, siRNA, nanosilver particles), which enhance its positive effect on the healing process. Chitosan has also been found to significantly increase the adhesion and aggregation of platelets in the process of hemostasis [167, 168].
Currently, there are many chitosan materials available on the market that are used to heal wounds in patients undergoing plastic surgery [169], skin grafting [170, 171] and endoscopic sinus surgery [172]. Chitosan-containing materials in the form of nonwovens, nanofibers, composites, films and sponges are: HemCon®, GuardaCare®, ChitoFlex®, ChitoGauze®, Celox™ Granules, Celox™ Gauze, Chito-Seal™, Clo-SurPLUS PAD Tegasorb™, Tegaderm™ ChiGel, ChitopackC®, and TraumaStat™ [173, 174, 175, 176].
Haemostatic dressings also include Tromboguard® - a multi-layer dressing made of three layers: semi-permeable polyurethane foil, hydrophilic polyurethane foam, and a layer containing chitosan. The film layer protects the dressing against seepage, allowing the wound environment to remain moist, ensuring optimal air permeability to its interior and creating a barrier against external factors. Polyurethane foam is a load-bearing layer and has strong absorbent properties thanks to the “pore-in-pore” structure. The polyurethane layer is responsible for storing exudate and keeping it outside the wound surface, ensuring adequate wound moisture. Additionally, it is a layer that protects the wound against mechanical damage.
The active layer, which is created by a unique composition of chitosan and alginates, activates the blood coagulation process, significantly reducing bleeding time. By reacting on the wound surface with erythro- and thrombocytes, chitosan significantly shortens the bleeding time. Calcium alginate accelerates the natural clotting process, and sodium alginate - by absorbing wound discharge - creates a layer of gel on the surface of the dressing that prevents it from sticking to the wound. Alginates are resorbable, non-toxic, non-carcinogenic, non-allergic and haemostatic [177]. When used as dressing materials, it is important that during contact with the wound, part of the alginate dressing passes in the form of a gel, which prevents the wound surface from drying out, and thus creates the possibility of creating a favorable, moist environment within the skin lesion [178]. At the same time, hemostatic properties result in a faster wound healing process and allow for more effective scarring. Patients also benefit from using these dressings to reduce pain when changing them. A significant advantage of using alginate-containing dressings is the elimination of the dressing sticking to the wound and high absorbency.
The Tromboguard® dressing (Figure 10) is used to stop bleeding in the case of: traumatic wounds, postoperative wounds, skin graft collection sites in surgery and reconstructive surgery - including combustiology, wounds requiring emergency care, gunshot and puncture wounds, wounds resulting from traffic accidents. It is characterized by a quick hemostatic effect (stops bleeding in 3 minutes), an antibacterial effect inside the product (protecting the dressing against the growth of microorganisms), and effective blood absorption even under pressure. It is not irritating, sensitizing and cytotoxic.
Tromboguard® dressing structure.
Tests of operational parameters: tensile strength, the ability to adapt to the injury site or the transmission of moisture vapors have shown that this dressing has a tensile strength (for porous materials) of min. 75 kPa (according to PN-EN ISO 1798), which corresponds to the value recommended for dressing materials, and vapor permeability (transmission of moisture vapor) of min. 400 g/m3/24h.
The results of clinical trials have demonstrated the high haemostatic efficacy of Tromboguard®. The high effectiveness and durability of the antihaemorrhagic effect was confirmed 24 hours after application, which allowed the introduction of an absorbent foam dressing [179] and a three-layer hemostatic dressing to the market [96, 97].
Chitin and its ester derivatives, as well as chitosan obtained as a result of chitin deacetylation, have many valuable chemical, physical and biological properties that determine their use in many areas, also in medicine.
The widest use of chitin and its derivatives is observed in biomedical sciences, in particular: in dressing materials (active dressings), active substance carriers (drugs and growth factors), in tissue engineering (cell scaffolds - scaffolds, mainly orthopedics) and in regenerative medicine (stem cell differentiation). Chitin accelerates the wound healing process by having a beneficial effect on processes such as angiogenesis, granulation, epithelialization and scar formation, which play a key role in the physiological wound healing process. It increases the inflow of phagocytic cells (segmented granulocytes and macrophages) to the site of infection, stimulates the migration and proliferation of endothelial cells and fibroblasts. Chitin derivative dressings are considered to be very effective medical devices in the healing of difficult-to-heal wounds [6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11].
The results of clinical trials with dressings based on butyryl-acetyl chitin co-polyesters have also shown their high effectiveness in healing wounds of various etiologies, mainly those caused by chronic venous insufficiency and diabetes. Their use leads to a reduction in the ulcer area and its depth. These dressings were assessed as having a high safety profile [38].
On the other hand, the results of clinical trials with chitosan dressings showed high effectiveness and durability of the anti-haemorrhagic effect. These studies also confirmed the safety of the dressing [96]. The antibacterial test confirmed that the dressing is bactericidal. Thus, there are currently many different hemostatic dressings based on chitosan on the market.
This research was funded by the National Centre for Research and Development under Project POIR.04.01.02-00-0004/17.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. 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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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These reactions occur through a regular radical chain causing growth of polymer by three steps, namely, initiation, propagation, and termination. To understand ionizing radiation-induced polymerization, the water radiolysis must be taken into consideration. This chapter explores the mechanism of water molecules radiolysis paying especial attention to the basic regularities of solvent radicals’ interaction with the polymer molecules for forming the crosslinked polymer. Water radiolysis is the main engine of the polymerization processes, especially the “free-radical polymerization.” The mechanisms of the free-radical polymerization and crosslinking will be discussed in detail later. Since different polymers respond differently to radiation, it is useful to quantify the response, namely in terms of crosslinking and chain scission. A parameter called the G-value is frequently used for this purpose. It represents the chemical yield of crosslinks, scissions and double bonds, etc. For the crosslinked polymer, the crosslinking density increases with increasing the radiation dose, this is reflected by the swelling degree of the polymer while being immersed in a compatible solvent. If crosslinking predominates, the crosslinking density increases and the extent of swelling decreases. If chain scission predominates, the opposite occurs. 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The natural resources are limited, and due to the natural disasters like sudden and severe abiotic stress factors, excessive floods, etc., the production capacities are changed per year. In contrast, the yield potential should be significantly increased to cope with this problem. Despite rich genetic diversity, manipulation of the cultivars through alternative techniques such as mutation breeding becomes important. Radiation is proven as an effective method as a unique method to increase the genetic variability of the species. Gamma radiation is the most preferred physical mutagen by plant breeders. Several mutant varieties have been successfully introduced into commercial production by this method. Combinational use of in vitro tissue culture and mutation breeding methods makes a significant contribution to improve new crops. Large populations and the target mutations can be easily screened and identified by new methods. Marker assisted selection and advanced techniques such as microarray, next generation sequencing methods to detect a specific mutant in a large population will help to the plant breeders to use ionizing radiation efficiently in breeding programs.",book:{id:"5451",slug:"new-insights-on-gamma-rays",title:"New Insights on Gamma Rays",fullTitle:"New Insights on Gamma Rays"},signatures:"Özge Çelik and Çimen Atak",authors:[{id:"147362",title:"Dr.",name:"Özge",middleName:null,surname:"Çelik",slug:"ozge-celik",fullName:"Özge Çelik"},{id:"147364",title:"Prof.",name:"Çimen",middleName:null,surname:"Atak",slug:"cimen-atak",fullName:"Çimen Atak"}]},{id:"32846",doi:"10.5772/36950",title:"Current Importance and Potential Use of Low Doses of Gamma Radiation in Forest Species",slug:"current-importance-and-potential-use-of-low-doses-of-gamma-radiation-in-forest-species",totalDownloads:5277,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:13,abstract:null,book:{id:"1590",slug:"gamma-radiation",title:"Gamma Radiation",fullTitle:"Gamma Radiation"},signatures:"L. 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In this chapter, the following aspects of radiation treatment process are considered: sources of contamination and major contaminants of water and wastewater; primary processes in aqueous systems initiated by ionizing radiation; principal ways of contaminant conversion as consequences of primary processes (complete mineralization of organic compounds, partial decomposition of organic molecules resulted in detoxification, decolorization, disinfection of polluted water, and improvement in biological degradation of contaminant, polymerization of monomers’ contaminants, oxidation-reduction processes, and coagulation of colloids); sources of ionizing radiation; and main equipment applied in radiation technologies of aqueous system purification.",book:{id:"6149",slug:"ionizing-radiation-effects-and-applications",title:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications",fullTitle:"Ionizing Radiation Effects and Applications"},signatures:"Igor E. Makarov and Alexander V. 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These reactions occur through a regular radical chain causing growth of polymer by three steps, namely, initiation, propagation, and termination. To understand ionizing radiation-induced polymerization, the water radiolysis must be taken into consideration. This chapter explores the mechanism of water molecules radiolysis paying especial attention to the basic regularities of solvent radicals’ interaction with the polymer molecules for forming the crosslinked polymer. Water radiolysis is the main engine of the polymerization processes, especially the “free-radical polymerization.” The mechanisms of the free-radical polymerization and crosslinking will be discussed in detail later. Since different polymers respond differently to radiation, it is useful to quantify the response, namely in terms of crosslinking and chain scission. A parameter called the G-value is frequently used for this purpose. It represents the chemical yield of crosslinks, scissions and double bonds, etc. For the crosslinked polymer, the crosslinking density increases with increasing the radiation dose, this is reflected by the swelling degree of the polymer while being immersed in a compatible solvent. If crosslinking predominates, the crosslinking density increases and the extent of swelling decreases. If chain scission predominates, the opposite occurs. 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Gamma rays are everywhere: in the atmosphere; gamma nuclides are produced by radiation of the sun; in the Earth, the primordial radioactive nuclides thorium and uranium are sources for gamma and other radiation. The technical enrichment and use of radioisotopes led to the unscrupulously use of radioactive material and to the Cold War, with over 900 bomb tests from 1945 to 1990, combined with global fallout over the northern hemisphere. The friendly use of radiation in medicine and for the production of energy at nuclear power plants (NPPs) has caused further expositions with ionising radiation. This chapter describes in a practical manner the instrumentation for the detection of gamma radiation and some results of the use of these techniques in environmental and food investigations.",book:{id:"5451",slug:"new-insights-on-gamma-rays",title:"New Insights on Gamma Rays",fullTitle:"New Insights on Gamma Rays"},signatures:"Markus R. 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Some candidates of the GeV counterpart of gamma-ray bursts, observed by Tupi telescopes, are also presented.",book:{id:"5451",slug:"new-insights-on-gamma-rays",title:"New Insights on Gamma Rays",fullTitle:"New Insights on Gamma Rays"},signatures:"Carlos Navia and Marcel Nogueira de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"189908",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Navia",slug:"carlos-navia",fullName:"Carlos Navia"},{id:"243084",title:"MSc.",name:"Marcel",middleName:null,surname:"De Oliveira",slug:"marcel-de-oliveira",fullName:"Marcel De Oliveira"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"227",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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He also obtained an MSc in Molecular and Genetic Medicine, and a Ph.D. in Clinical Immunology and Human Genetics from the University of Sheffield, UK. He also completed a short-term fellowship in Pediatric Clinical Immunology and Bone Marrow Transplantation at Newcastle General Hospital, England. Dr. Rezaei is a Full Professor of Immunology and Vice Dean of International Affairs and Research, at the School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, and the co-founder and head of the Research Center for Immunodeficiencies. He is also the founding president of the Universal Scientific Education and Research Network (USERN). Dr. Rezaei has directed more than 100 research projects and has designed and participated in several international collaborative projects. He is an editor, editorial assistant, or editorial board member of more than forty international journals. He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. 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His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. 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In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
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Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. 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