Consequences of abiotic stress and plant responses
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83881-922-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83881-921-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-923-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dcfc52d92f694b0848977a3c11c13d00",bookSignature:"Dr. Fiaz Ahmad and Prof. Muhammad Sultan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10454.jpg",keywords:"Agricultural Engineering, Technologies, Application, Sustainable Agriculture, Information Technology in Agriculture, Food Security, Renewable Energies, Precision Farming, Smart Agriculture, Farm Mechanization, Robotics, Post Harvest Technologies",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 25th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 23rd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 21st 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 12th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 11th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Ahmad is a researcher in the field of agricultural mechanization and agricultural equipment engineering, in-charge of Farm Machinery Design Laboratory at Bahauddin Zakariya University, with expertise in modeling and simulation. He applied for two patents at the national level.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Renowned researcher with a focus on developing energy-efficient heat- and/or water-driven temperature and humidity control systems for agricultural storage, greenhouse, agricultural livestock and poultry applications including HVAC, desiccant air-conditioning, adsorption, Maisotsenko cycle (M-cycle), and adsorption desalination.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"338219",title:"Dr.",name:"Fiaz",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"fiaz-ahmad",fullName:"Fiaz Ahmad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/338219/images/system/338219.jpg",biography:"Fiaz Ahmad obtained his Ph.D. (2015) from Nanjing Agriculture University China in the field of Agricultural Bioenvironmental and Energy Engineering and Postdoc (2020) from Jiangsu University China in the field of Plant protection Engineering. He got the Higher Education Commission, Pakistan Scholarship for Ph.D. studies, and Post-Doctoral Fellowship from Jiangsu Government, China. During postdoctoral studies, he worked on the application of unmanned aerial vehicle sprayers for agrochemical applications to control pests and weeds. He passed the B.S. and M.S. degrees in agricultural engineering from the University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Pakistan in 2007. From 2007 to 2008, he was a Lecturer in the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan-Pakistan. Since 2009, he has been an Assistant Professor in the Department of Agricultural Engineering, BZ University Multan, Pakistan. He is the author of 33 journal articles. He also supervised 6 master students and is currently supervising 5 master and 2 Ph.D. students. In addition, Dr. Ahmad completed three university-funded projects. His research interests include the design of agricultural machinery, artificial intelligence, and plant protection environment.",institutionString:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"199381",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sultan",slug:"muhammad-sultan",fullName:"Muhammad Sultan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199381/images/system/199381.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sultan completed his Ph.D. (2015) and Postdoc (2017) from Kyushu University (Japan) in the field of Energy and Environmental Engineering. He was an awardee of MEXT and JASSO fellowships (from the Japanese Government) during Ph.D. and Postdoc studies, respectively. In 2019, he did Postdoc as a Canadian Queen Elizabeth Advanced Scholar at Simon Fraser University (Canada) in the field of Mechatronic Systems Engineering. He received his Master\\'s in Environmental Engineering (2010) and Bachelor in Agricultural Engineering (2008) with distinctions, from the University of Agriculture, Faisalabad. He worked for Kyushu University International Institute for Carbon-Neutral Energy Research (WPI-I2CNER) for two years. Currently, he is working as an Assistant Professor at the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University (Pakistan). He has supervised 10+ M.Eng./Ph.D. students so far and 10+ M.Eng./Ph.D. students are currently working under his supervision. He has published more than 70+ journal articles, 70+ conference articles, and a few magazine articles, with the addition of 2 book chapters and 2 edited/co-edited books. Dr. Sultan is serving as a Leading Guest Editor of a special issue in the Sustainability (MDPI) journal (IF 2.58). In addition, he is appointed as a Regional Editor for the Evergreen Journal of Kyushu University. His research is focused on developing energy-efficient heat- and/or water-driven temperature and humidity control systems for agricultural storage, greenhouse, livestock, and poultry applications. His research keywords include HVAC, desiccant air-conditioning, evaporative cooling, adsorption cooling, energy recovery ventilator, adsorption heat pump, Maisotsenko cycle (M-cycle), wastewater, energy recovery ventilators; adsorption desalination; and agricultural, poultry and livestock applications.",institutionString:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Bahauddin Zakariya University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"252211",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Debeuc",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252211/images/7239_n.png",email:"sara.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3621",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"silver-nanoparticles",bookSignature:"David Pozo Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3621.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6667",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Pozo",slug:"david-pozo",fullName:"David Pozo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"18407",title:"Plant Genes for Abiotic Stress",doi:"10.5772/22465",slug:"plant-genes-for-abiotic-stress",body:'\n\t\tAbiotic stress is the primary cause of crop loss worldwide, reducing average yields for most major crop plants by more than 50%. Plants as sessile organisms are constantly exposed to changes in environmental conditions. When these changes are rapid and extreme, plants generally perceive them as stresses. However stresses are not necessarily a problem for plants because they have evolved effective mechanisms to avoid or reduce the possible damages.
\n\t\t\tThe response to changes in environment can be rapid, depending on the type of stress and can involve either adaptation mechanisms, which allow them to survive the adverse conditions, or specific growth habitus to avoid stress conditions. In fact, plants can perceive abiotic stresses and elicit appropriate responses with altered metabolism, growth and development. The regulatory circuits include stress sensors, signalling pathways comprising a network of protein-protein interactions, transcription factors and promoters, and finally the output proteins or metabolites (table 1).
\n\t\t\tA number of abiotic stresses such as extreme temperatures, high light intensity, osmotic stresses, heavy metals and a number of herbicides and toxins lead to over production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) including H2O2 causing extensive cellular damage and inhibition of photosynthesis.
\n\t\t\tNormally, ROS are rapidly removed by antioxidative mechanisms, but this removal can be impaired by stresses themselves (Allan & Fluhr, 2007), causing a rise in their intracellular concentration and an increase of the damage. To prevent or repair these damages, plant cells use a complex defence system, involving a number of antioxidative stress-related defence genes that, in turn, induce changes in the biochemical plant machinery. Studies have shown that ROS probably require additional molecules to transduce and amplify defence signals. ROS production and anti-oxidant processes, all act in a synergistic, additive or antagonistic way, related to the control of oxidative stress.
\n\t\t\tResponses to stress are not linear pathways, but are complex integrated circuits involving multiple pathways and in specific cellular compartments, tissues, and the interaction of additional cofactors and/or signalling molecules to coordinate a specified response to a given stimulus (Dombrowski, 2009). Onset of a stress triggers some (mostly unknown) initial sensors, which then activate cytoplasmic Ca2+ and protein signalling pathways, leading to stress-responsive gene expression and physiological changes (Bressan et al., 1998,
\n\t\t\tStress | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tConsequences | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tPlant Responses | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Heat stress | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tHigh temperature lead to high evaporation and water deficit. The consequent increased turnover of enzymes leads to plant death. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tEfficient protein repair systems and general protein stability support survival, temperature can lead to acclimation. | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Chilling and cold stress | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tBiochemical reactions proceed at slower rate, photosyntesis proceeds, carbon dioxide fixation lags, leading to oxigen radical damage. Indeed, freezing lead to ice crystal formation that can distrupt cells membranes. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tCessation of growth in adaptable species may be overcome by changes in metabolism. Ice crystal formation can be prevent by osmolyte accumulation and synthesis of hydrophilic proteins. | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Drought | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tInability to water transport to leaves leads to photosyntesis declines. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tLeaf rolling and other morphological adaptations. Stoma closure reduces evaporative transpiration induced by ABA. Accumulation of metabolities, consequently lower internal water potential and water attracting. | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Flooding and submergence | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tGenerates anoxic or microaerobic conditions interfering with mitochondrial respiration. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tDevelopment of cavities mostly in the roots that facilitate the exchange of oxigen and ethylene between shoot and root (aerenchyma). | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Heavy metal accumulation and metal stress | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tIn excess, detoxification reactions may be insufficient or storage capacity may exceeded. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tExcess of metal ions may be countered by export or vacuolar deposition but metal ions may also generate oxygen radicals. | \n\t\t\t\t\t
High light stress | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tExcess light can lead to increased production of highly reactive intermediates and by-products that can potentially cause photo-oxidative damage and inhibit photosynthesis. | \n\t\t\t\t\t\tExposure of a plant to light exceeding what is utilized in photochemistry leads to inactivation of photosynthetic functions and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The effects of these ROS can be the oxidation of lipids, proteins, and enzymes necessary for the proper functioning of the chloroplast and the cell as a whole. | \n\t\t\t\t\t
Consequences of abiotic stress and plant responses
Xiong et al., 2002). Also, accumulation of abscisic acid (ABA) plays an important role in abiotic stress signalling and transduction pathways, mediating many responses (Wasilewska et al., 2008).
\n\t\t\tIt is well known that abiotic stresses in general, through regulation of both gene expression and protein turnover, alter the abundance of many transcripts and proteins (Wong et al., 2006, Yan et al., 2006, Jiang et al., 2007), indicating that transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation play an essential role in the adaptation of cellular functions to the environmental changes.
\n\t\t\tRecent advances in molecular biology, genomics, proteomics and metabolomics have provided insight into plant gene regulatory network system, which is mainly composed of inducible-genes (environmental factors and developmental cues), expression programming and regulatory elements (cis-element and trans-element), corresponding biochemical pathways and diverse signal factors (Tang et al., 2003, Wang et al., 2003, Zhu, 2003, Munns, 2005). Genetic studies revealed that stress tolerance traits are mainly quantitative trait loci (QTLs), which make genetic selection of traits difficult.
\n\t\t\tResponses to abiotic stress require the production of important metabolic proteins such as those involved in synthesis of osmoprotectants and of regulatory proteins operating in the signal transduction pathways, such as kinases or transcriptional factors (TFs). In addition, new transcripts are made and within a few hours a steady level of stress adaptation has been reached. In general, the transcriptional regulation of genes is directly controlled by a network of TFs and transcription factor binding sites (TFBS) (Chaves & Oliveira, 2004). TFs are proteins with a DNA domain that binds to the cis-acting elements present in the promoter of a target gene. They induce (activators) or repress (repressors) the activity of the RNA polymerase, thus regulating gene expression. TFs can be grouped into families according to their DNA-binding domain (Riechmann et al., 2000). The presence or absence of transcription factors, activators and suppressors regulating transcription of target genes often involves a whole cascade of signalling events determined by tissue type, developmental stage or environmental condition (Wyrick & Young, 2002).
\n\t\t\tEnvironmental stress-inducible genes can be mainly divided into two groups in terms of their protein products: one type of genes, whose coding products directly confer to plant cells the resistence to environmental stress such as late embryogenesis abundant (LEA) protein, anti-freezing protein, osmotic regulatory protein, enzymes for synthesizing betaine, proline and other osmoregulators; the other groups of genes, whose coding products play an important role in regulating gene expression and signal transduction such as the transcriptional elements. At least four different regulons can be identified, two ABA independent (1 and 2) and two ABA dependent (3 and 4): (1) the CBF/DREB regulon; (2) the NAC (NAM, ATAF and CUC) and ZF-HD (zinc-finger homeodomain) regulon; (3) the AREB/ABF (ABA-responsive element-binding protein/ ABA-binding factor) regulon; and (4) the MYC (myelocytomatosis oncogene)/MYB (myeloblastosis oncogene) regulon.
\n\t\t\tOur knowledge of the molecular mechanisms underlying the responses of plants to such environmental stresses is still rather limited, but an increasing number of genes have been identified in recent years that mediate these responses. Some of these genes are induced by stress stimuli and encode products that confer tolerance to adverse conditions, whereas others encode upstream regulators that function within signalling pathways controlling the stress response.
\n\t\t\tThe aim of this book chapter is to describe the regulation of gene expression under abiotic stresses and report recent advances in the stress-response mechanisms.
\n\t\tThe complex plant response to abiotic stress involves many genes and biochemical-molecular mechanisms. The analyze of the functions of stress-inducible genes is an important tool not only to understand the molecular mechanisms of stress tolerance and the responses of higher plants, but also to improve the stress tolerance of crops by gene manipulation. Hundreds of genes are thought to be involved in abiotic stress responses (Seki, 2003, Avni Öktem et al., 2008).
\n\t\t\tMany drought-inducible genes are also induced by salt stress and cold, which suggests the existence of similar mechanisms of stress responses.
\n\t\t\tThese genes are classified into three major groups: (1) those that encode products that directly protect plant cells against stresses such as heat stress proteins (HSPs) or chaperones, LEA proteins, osmoprotectants, antifreeze proteins, detoxification enzymes and free-radical scavengers (Bray et al., 2000, Wang et al., 2000); (2) those that are involved in signalling cascades and in transcriptional control, such as Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), Calcium-dependent protein kinase (CDPK) (Ludwig et al., 2004) and SOS kinase (Zhu et al., 2001), phospholipases (Frank et al., 2000) and transcriptional factors (Cho et al., 2000, Shinozaki et al., 2000); (3) those that are involved in water and ion uptake and transport such as aquaporins and ion transporters (Blumwald et al., 2000).
\n\t\tPlant growth and productivity are under constant threat from environmental changes in the form of various stress factors. The most common abiotic stresses are drought, flooding or submergence, salinity, extreme temperatures (heat and freezing) and high light. Furthermore, the continued modification of the atmosphere by human activities lead to increase in the concentration of ozone in the troposphere and this can generate oxidative stress, which leads to the destruction of proteins and cells, premature ageing and reduced crop yields.
\n\t\t\tTolerance or susceptibility to these abiotic stresses is a very complex phenomenon, both because stress may occur at multiple stages of plant development and more than one stress simultaneously affects the plant. Therefore, the perception of abiotic stresses and signal transduction to switch on adaptive responses are critical steps in determining the survival and reproduction of plants exposed to adverse environments (Chinnusamy et al., 2004).
\n\t\t\tDuring the past few years, transcriptome analysis has indicated that distinct environmental stresses induce similar responses. Overlap between stress responses can explain the phenomenon known as cross-tolerance, a capability to limit collateral damage inflicted by other stresses accompanying the primary stress.
\n\t\t\tResponses to abiotic stresses require the production of important metabolic proteins such as those involved in synthesis of osmoprotectants and regulatory proteins operating in signal transduction pathways, that are kinases or transcription factors (TFs). The regulation of these responses requires proteins operating in the signal transduction pathways, such as transcriptional factors, which regulate gene expression by binding to specific DNA sequences in the promoters of respective target genes. This type of transcriptional regulatory system is called regulon. At least four different regulons that are active in response to abiotic stresses have been identified. Dehydration-responsive element binding protein 1 (DREB1)/C-repeat binding factor (CBF) and DREB2 regulons function in abscisic acid (ABA)-independent gene expression, whereas the ABA-responsive element (ABRE) binding protein (AREB)/ABRE binding factor (ABF) regulon functions in ABA-dependent gene expression (Saibo et al., 2009). In addition to these major pathways, other regulons, including the NAC (or NAM, No Apical Meristem) and Myeloblastosis-Myelocytomatosis (MYB/MYC) regulons, are involved in abiotic stress-responsive gene expression (Fig. 1). Particularly, NAC- type TF OsNAC6 is induced by abiotic stresses, including cold, drought
\n\t\t\tTranscriptional network of abiotic stress responses.
and high salinity. Microarray analysis showed that many abiotic inducible genes were up regulated in rice plants over-expressing OsNAC6 (Nakashima et al., 2007).
\n\t\t\tTFs are powerful targets for genetic engineering in abiotic stress resistance in crop plants and many studies have been done in the last two decades on this topic.
\n\t\t\tTranscription factors are shown in ovals. Transcription factor-modifying enzymes are shown in circles. The small triangles correspond to post-translational modifications. Green squares with question marks represent putative MYC ICE1-like transcription factors that may activate CBF1/DREB1B and CBF2/DREB1C. The green boxes represent the cis-elements present in stress-responsive genes. The red dot corresponds to the sumoylation modification by SIZ1 of the ICE1 transcription factor. The dashed black line from SIZ1 to HOS1 represents competition for binding places on the ICE1 transcription factor. SIZ1 blocks the access of HOS1 to the ubiquitination sites on the ICE1. CBF4/DREB1D is a DRE cis-element binding factor that is ABA dependent.
\n\t\tThe genome controls the regulation of the response to water deficit as well as the effectiveness of the response. Microarrays, largely performed using Arabidopsis thaliana as model plant, have been used to catalogue the many genes that are induced or repressed in response to conditions that may lead to cellular water-deficit stress (Seki et al., 2002). These genes can be placed in at least four different functional groups: signal transduction, transcriptional regulation, cellular metabolism and transport and protection of cellular structures.
\n\t\t\tThere are at least six different classes of TFs that participate in gene induction or repression in response to water deficit. Homeobox domain and NAC domain containing TFs are induced by multiple treatments that mimic water-deficit stress. Accumulation of proteins which have metabolic or structural functions promote adaptation to stress. One class of genes that could play a role in protection is called the late embryogenesis abundant (Lea) genes. The Lea genes are also developmentally programmed for expression in desiccating seeds. These genes encode small hydrophilic proteins that are predicted to protect proteins and membranes through chaperone-like functions. These proteins were thought to improve the performance of rice plants by protecting cell membranes from injury under abiotic stress (Chandra et al., 2004).
\n\t\t\tA recent review (Shinozaki & Yamaguchi-Shinozaki, 2007) on analysis of gene expression during drought stress response in plants show and summarize the functions of some genes in both stress response and tolerance. Microarray analysis performed on wheat genome, showed that among 300 unique single expressed sequences tag (ESTs), the 30% of genes were significantly up-regulated and the 18% were down-regulated under drought stress (Way et al., 2005).
\n\t\t\t\tPotential functions of approximatively 130 genes of A. thaliana up-regulated in water-deficit was reported by Bray (2002). These genes are involved in cellular response to drought stress by signalling events, detoxification and other functions. cDNA microarray analysison 7000 Arabidopsis full-length cDNAs clarify relationship between rehydratation-, proline- and water-treatment inducible genes. Among the 152 rehydratation-inducible genes, 58 genes conteined in their promoter regions the ACTCAT sequence involved in proline- and hypoosmolarity- inducible gene expression, suggesting that this motif is a major cis-activing element involved in rehydratation-inducible gene expression (Oono et al., 2003).
\n\t\t\t\tMoreover, microarray analysis performed on two moderately drought-tolerant native Andeon potato clones revealed that there was 1713 differentially expressed genes with 186 up-regulated involved in drought tolerance by inducing of osmotic adjustment, changes in carbohydrate metabolism, membrane modifications and cell rescue mechanisms, such as detoxification of oxygen radicals and protein stabilization (Schafleitner et al., 2007).
\n\t\t\t\tThese recent study underline how the expression of genes in response to water deficit is complex and can be regulated at the transcriptional, post-transcriptional and translational levels. Two major transcriptional regulatory pathways of gene expression play an important role in response to water-deficit stress: the ABA-independent pathway and ABA-dependent pathway. The first is controlled largely by a family of TFs called dehydration response element binding protein (DREB), which contains a DNA binding motif originally identified in a flower patterning protein called APETALA2 (AP2) (Fig. 2), while transcription factor families known to be as the most responsive to ABA signalling under drought are NAC, AREB/ABF, and MYB.
\n\t\t\t\tThe inset shows the different types of transcription factors involved in induction/repression of regulons.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\tFig. 2. Classes of genes that are induced by water-deficit stress.\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
DREB are important TFs which induce a set of abiotic stress-related genes and confer stress resistance to plants. The DREB TFs could be divided into two group: DREB1, involved signal transduction pathways under low temperature; DREB2, involved in signal transduction pathways under dehydration. They belong to the ethylene responsive element binding factors (ERF) family of TFs. ERF proteins are a sub-family of the AP2/ethylene responsive element binding protein (EREBP) TFs that is distinctive to plants. ERF proteins share a conserved 58–59 amino acid domain (the ERF domain) that binds to cis-elements, the GCC box, found in many pathogens related (PR) gene promoters conferring ethylene responsiveness (Gu et al., 2000), and to the C-repeat CRT/dehydration responsive element (DRE) motif involved in the expression of cold and dehydration responsive genes (Agarwal et al., 2006).
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe DREB proteins contain an ERF/AP2DNA-binding domain quite conserved: amino acid alignment shows high sequence similarity in the nuclear localization signal at the N-terminal region and some similarity in the C-terminal acidic domain (Agarwal et al., 2006). Indeed, TFs containing ERF/AP2DNA-binding domain are widely found in many plants such as Arabidopsis (Okamuro et al., 1997), tomato (Zhou et al., 1997), tobacco (Ohme-Takagi & Shinshi, 1995), rice (Sasaki et al., 1994, Weigel, 1995) and maize (Moose & Sisco, 1996).
\n\t\t\t\t\tAnother ABA-independent pathway was identified after the observation that Early Responsive to Dehydration Stress 1 (ERD1) gene transcripts accumulated before any increase of ABA in response to dehydration and high salinity (Nakashima et al., 1997). Promoter analysis of ERD1 revealed TFs belonging to the NAC family and zinc finger homeodomain (ZF-HD) as essential to the activation of the ERD1 gene (Tran et al., 2007). The increased drought tolerance may be due both to the reduced transpiration rate (increased stomatal closure) and to an increased ABA sensitivity.
\n\t\t\t\t\tMany genes (e.g. Aquaporin, ERD10, ERD13 and ERF) already described as being involved in plant response to water stress are down-regulated in drought stress (Cominelli et al., 2005). A member of the A. thaliana family of R2R3-MYB TFs, AtMYB61, is also specifically expressed in guard cells in a consistent manner, being involved in the regulation of stomatal aperture (Liang et al., 2005).
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe strong induction of Stress Responsive –NAC1 (SNAC1) gene expression by drought in guard cells suggests an effect in stomatal closure (Hu et al., 2006). It has been reported that modulation of transcription plays an important role in controlling guard cell activity. Recently two MYB-type TFs were identified as regulators of stomatal movements.
\n\t\t\t\tABA-dependent gene induction during water deficit is controlled by at least five different classes of TFs. The ABA response element (ABRE) with the consensus ACGTGG/TC is bound by basic Leucine Zipper Domain (bZIP-type) TFs (Fig. 2). Three Arabidopsis bZIP TFs (AREB1/ABF2, AREB2/ABF4, and ABF3) are expressed in response to water-deficit stress and ABA treatment. Activation of the TFs requires ABA accumulation and the induction of an ABA-responsive protein kinase which activates the TF through phosphorylation.
\n\t\t\t\t\tOther TFs are also involved in ABA regulation of gene expression during cellular water deficit. Three genes encoding a class of TFs that is unique to plants, the NAC domain proteins ANAC019, ANAC055, and ANAC072 are induced by water deficit and ABA treatment. The NAC domain is a 60 bp DNA binding domain that is predicted to form a helix-turn-helix motif.
\n\t\t\t\t\tMYB, MYC and homeodomain TFs, and a family of transcriptional repressors (Cys2/His2-type zinc-finger proteins) are also involved in the ABA response to water deficit. Expression of the drought-inducible gene Responsive to Dehydration 22 (RD22) from Arabidopsis was found to be induced by ABA. The promoter region of RD22 contains MYC (CANNTG) and MYB (C/TAACNA/G) cis-element recognition sites. MYC and MYB TFs only accumulate after an increase of ABA concentration. Over-expression of these TFs result in enhanced sensitivity to ABA and drought tolerance (Abe et al., 2003).
\n\t\t\t\tFlooding and submergence are two conditions that cannot be tolerated by most plants for periods of time longer than a few days. These stresses lead to anoxic conditions in the root system. At a critical oxygen pressure, mitochondrial respiration that provides the energy for growth in the photosynthetically inactive roots will decrease, then cease and the cells will die (Bray, 2004).
\n\t\t\tRecent reviews on gene expression analysis performed by microarray tools reported as the expression of several transcription factors, such as heat shock factors, ethylene response-binding proteins, MADS-box proteins, AP2 domain, leucine zipper, zinc finger and WRKY factors, increases in response to various regimes of oxygen deprivation in Arabidopsis and rice (Loreti et al., 2005, Lasanthi-Kudahettige et al., 2007).
\n\t\t\tRecently Licausi et al. (2010), using a qRT-PCR platform (Czechowski et al., 2002; Scheible et al., 2004, Morcuende et al., 2007, Osuna et al., 2007, Barrero et al., 2009), have identified TFs that are differentially expressed by hypoxic conditions. Among the TFs that have been characterized, members of the AP2 ⁄ ERF-type family are the most commonly represented in the set of up-regulated TFs, followed by Zinc-finger and basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH-type) TFs, while TFs belonging to the bHLH family are the most commonly represented in the set of down-regulated TFs, together with members from the bZIP and MYB families.
\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tIn silico experiments and trans-activation assays shown that some TFs active in flooding stress are able to regulate the expression of hypoxia responsive genes. Particularly, five hypoxia-induced TFs (At4g29190; LBD41, At3g02550;HRE1, At1g72360; At1g69570; At5g66980) from different TF families [Zinc Finger, Ligand Binding Domain (LBD) or Lateral Organ Boundary Domain, ERF, DNA binding with one finger (DOF), ARF] showed this ability (Licausi et al., 2010).
\n\t\t\tAccumulation of ROS is a common consequence of biotic and abiotic stresses, including oxygen deprivation. There is evidence of redox-sensitive TFs, at least one of which might be involved in the adaptive response to low oxygen. ZAT12, a putative zinc finger-containing TF, is recognized as a component in the oxidative stress response signalling network of Arabidopsis (Rizhsky et al., 2004), promotes expression of other TFs and the upregulation of cytosolic ascorbate peroxidase 1, a key enzyme in the removal of H2O2.
\n\t\t\tAdvances have been made in molecular analyses of cDNAs and genes involved in the anaerobic response. Huq and Hodges (2000) reported early activation of a rice (Oryza sativa L.) gene by anoxia, the aie (anaerobically inducible early) gene. This gene encodes for a putative protein that shows short stretches of similarities to functionally interesting proteins (e. g. DNA binding proteins and nitric oxide synthase), indicating its putative involvement in signalling.
\n\t\tHigh salinity is a critical environmental factor that inimically affects large areas of cultivated land. Plant growth, physiological and metabolic processes are affected, resulting in significant reductions in global crop productivity (Magomeet al., 2008, Zhang et al., 2009). Exposure to high levels of NaCl not only affects plant water relations but also creates ionic stress in the form of cellular accumulation of Cl- and, in particular, Na+ ions. Salt stress also changes the homeostasis of other ions such as Ca2+, K+, and NO3-.
\n\t\t\tSalt accumulation can modify plant cell plasma membrane lipid and protein composition, cause ion imbalance and hyperosmotic stress and eventually disturb normal growth and development (Fujii & Zhu 2009, Lόpez-Pérez et al., 2009).
\n\t\t\tIn general, high NaCl concentrations affect plant physiology and metabolism at different levels (water deficit, ion toxicity, nutrient imbalance, and oxidative stress; Vinocur & Altman, 2005), and at least two main responses can be expected: a rapid protective response together with a long term adaptation response. During initial exposure to salinity, plants experience water stress, which in turn reduces leaf expansion. During long-term exposure to salinity, plants experience ionic stress, which can lead to premature senescence of adult leaves, and thus a reduction in the photosynthetic area available to support continued growth (Cramer & Nowak, 1992).
\n\t\t\tSalt tolerance determinants are categorized either as effectors that directly modulate stress etiology or attenuate stress effects, or as regulatory molecules that are involved in stress perception, signal transduction, or modulation of effector function. Genomics studies are focused on gene expression analysis following exposure of plants to high salinity, using salt shock experiments to mimic stresses that affect hydration and ion homeostasis.
\n\t\t\tThe stress-responsive genes can be classified into two classes, i.e. early and delayed response genes (Sairam & Tyagi, 2004). The former are induced quickly and transiently, while the latter are activated more slowly and their expression is sustained. The early response genes encode transcription factors that activate downstream delayed response genes (Zhu, 2002).
\n\t\t\tWhen microarray expression profiles of wild type plants, a T-DNA insertion knockout mutant of AtNHX1 (nhx1), and a rescued line (NHX1::nhx1) exposed to both short (12 h and 48 h) and long (one and two weeks) durations of a non-lethal salt stress were investigated, 147 transcripts showed both salt responsiveness and a significant influence of AtNHX1. Fifty-seven of these genes showed differential regulation across all salt treatments, while the rest were regulated as a result of a particular duration.
\n\t\t\tA large number of genes from a variety of biochemical pathways participate in responses conferring salt tolerance. These pathways include notably those involved in: signal transduction; carbon metabolism and energy production; oxidative stress protection; uptake, exclusion, transport and compartmentalization of sodium ions; modifications of structural components of cell walls and membranes.
\n\t\t\tSeveral genes have been identified as functional components in the plant response to salt stress, including those encoding detoxifying enzymes like glutathione peroxidase (Roxas et al., 1997), Na+/H+ antiporter AtNHX1 (Apse et al., 1999), osmolytes such as glycine-betaine and LEA (late embryogenesis abundant protein) (Xu et al., 1996), flavoprotein AtHAL3 (Espinosa-Ruiz et al., 1999), signal mediator Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein phosphatase (Pardo et al., 1998) and transcription factor Alfin1 (Bastola et al., 1998). Analyses of complete transcriptomes suggest that systems like synthesis of osmolytes and ion transporters and regulation of transcriptional and translational machineries have distinct roles in salt-stress response. In particular, induction of transcripts of specific TFs, RNA-binding proteins, ribosomal genes and translation initiation and elongation factors has been reported to be important during salt stress (Sahi et al., 2006).
\n\t\t\tSince not many stress-specific consensus sequences were identified in promoters of stress specific genes to activate or repress transcription, transcription factors must be located in the nucleus, bind DNA and interact with the basal transcription apparatus. Transcription factors involved in stress responses include DRE-related binding factors, leucine zipper DNA-binding proteins, putative zinc finger proteins, myb proteins, bZIP/HD-ZIPs, and AP2/EREBP (Chen et al., 2002, Seki et al., 2002), interact with promoters of osmotic-regulated genes (Abe et al., 1997, Liu et al., 1998; Hasegawa et al., 2000a, 2000b). Particularly, AP2/ERF domain proteins include the DREB or CBF proteins binding to dehydration response elements (DRE) or C-repeats. A major transcriptional regulatory system is represented by DRE/C-repeat promoter sequences in stress-activated genes and DREBs/CBF factors that control stress gene expression (Stockinger et al., 1997, Liu et al., 1998). Several stress-inducible genes such as rd29A, Cor6.6, Cor15a and Kin1 are target genes of DREBs/CBFs in Arabidopsis and contain DRE/C-repeat sequences in their promoters.
\n\t\t\tMoreover, basic region leucine zipper (bZIP) proteins contain a DNA binding domain rich in basic residues that bind to an ACGT core sequence. One bZIP subfamily has been linked genetically to an ABA response: ABI5 and its homologs, theABREbinding factors (ABFs/AREBs). ABRE binding factors (ABFs)/ABA-responsive element binding (AREBs) proteins respond at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional level to dehydration and salt stress (Choi et al., 2000, Uno et al., 2000).
\n\t\t\tOther regulatory intermediates that modulate plant salt stress responses include SOS3 (Ca2+ -binding protein), SOS2 (Suc nonfermenting- like) kinase, Ca2+ -dependent protein kinases, and mitogen-activated protein kinases (Halfter et al., 2000). Genetic and physiological data indicate that SOS3, SOS2, and SOS1 are components of a signal pathway that regulates ion homeostasis and salt tolerance and their functions are Ca2+ dependent. In particular, SOS1, encoding a plasma membrane Na+/H+ antiporter, plays a critical role in sodium extrusion and in controlling long-distance Na+ transport from the root to shoot (Liu & Zhu, 1998). This antiporter forms one component in a mechanism based on sensing of the salt stress that involves an increase of cytosolic [Ca2+] and reversible phosphorylation with SOS1 acting in concert with SOS2 and SOS3 (Shi et al., 2000). SOS2 encodes a Suc non-fermenting-like (SNF) kinase, and SOS3 encodes a Ca2+ -binding protein with sequence similarity to the regulatory subunit of calcineurin and neuronal Ca2+ sensors (Liu & Zhu, 1998, Liu et al., 2000). In yeast, co-expression of SOS1, SOS2, and SOS3 increases the salt tolerance of transformed yeast cells much more than expression of one or two SOS proteins (Shi et al., 2000), suggesting that the full activity of SOS1 depends on the SOS2/SOS3 complex.
\n\t\t\tSeveral studies have shown that reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxidative stress may be mediating at least some of the toxic effects of NaCl on legumes (Jungklang et al., 2004) and other vascular plants (Attia et al., 2008). ROS are predominantly generated in the chloroplast by direct transfer of excitation energy from chlorophyll to produce singlet oxygen, or by univalent oxygen reduction at photosystem I, in the Mehler reaction (Allen, 1995) and to some extent in mitochondria. ROS have the potential to interact non-specifically with many cellular components, triggering peroxidative reactions and causing significant damage to proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. To cope with ROS and to maintain redox homeostasis, living organisms evolved antioxidant defense systems, comprised of enzymatic and non-enzymatic components, which normally maintain ROS balance within the cell. Major nonenzymatic antioxidants include ascorbate (vitamin C) and glutathione in plants, although tocopherol (vitamin E), flavonoids, alkaloids, and carotenoids can also act as antioxidants.
\n\t\t\tIntracellular ROS can also influence the ROS induced MAPK signal pathway through inhibition of phosphatases or downstream transcription factors (Mittler et al., 2004) (Fig. 3).
\n\t\tCold stress prevents the expression of full genetic potential of plants owing to its direct inhibition of metabolic reactions and, indirectly, through cold-induced osmotic (chilling-induced inhibition of water uptake and freezing-induced cellular dehydration), oxidative and other stresses. Cold stress, which includes chilling (<20 C) and/or freezing (<0 C) temperatures, adversely affects the growth and development of plants. Chilling and freezing
\n\t\t\tROS signal transduction pathway under salt stress.
are stresses that show different effects on plants: the first leads to slow biochemical reactions, such as enzyme and membrane transport activities; the second leads to ice crystal formation that can cause the disruption of cell membrane system (Chinnusamy et al., 2007).
\n\t\t\tA large number of studies have used a transcriptional profiling approach to identify genes in Arabidopsis that respond to cold (4 C) and chilling (13 C) temperatures. Results have shown that plants respond to low temperatures by altering mRNA levels of a large number of genes belonging to different and independent pathways. The quantitative and qualitative difference in transcriptional response to low temperature suggests the presence in higher plants of different molecular mechanisms to cold-stress response (Zhu & Provart, 2003).
\n\t\t\tThe cold induction of genes involved in calcium signalling, lipid signalling or encoding receptor-like protein kinases are also affected by the ice1 mutation (Lee et al., 2005).
\n\t\t\tControlled proteolysis of transcriptional regulators also plays an important role in shaping the cold-responsive transcriptome in plants.
\n\t\t\tTFs that bind to the DRE/CRT are named DREB1/CTR-binding factor (CBF) and DREB2. Cold stress induces the expression of AP_2/ERF family TFs, that is, CBFs, which can bind to cis-elements in the promoters of COR genes and activate their expression (Fig. 4). CBFs regulate the expression of genes involved in phosphoinositide metabolism, transcription, osmolyte biosynthesis, ROS detoxification, membrane transport, hormone metabolism and signalling and many others with known or presumed cellular protective functions (Fowler et al., 2002, Maruyama et al., 2004, Lee et al., 2005).
\n\t\t\tThe first isolated cDNAs encoding DRE binding proteins were DREB1A and DREB2A (Liu et al., 1998) from Arabidopsis and then, DREB genes have been isolated from a wide variety of plants. In wheat and barley, a number of CBF homologs have been mapped to low temperature QTLs, Fr-2 chromosomal region (Skinner et al., 2005, Vágújfalvi et al., 2005, Miller et al., 2006). Thus, it is clear that the DREB1/CBF regulon is ubiquitous within higher plants.
\n\t\t\tExpression of DREB1 genes was extensively investigated in various crops with regard to different abiotic stresses. It was found that the expression of AtDREB1 gene is induced by cold, but not by dehydration, or high salt stress (Liu et al., 1998, Shinwari et al., 1998). Similarly, CBF genes also showed high expression in response to low temperature treatment and its transcript was detectable after 30 min of exposure to 4 C, and showed maximum expression at 1 h (Medina et al., 1999). Indeed, CBF regulon could be sub-regulated by cold-responsive transcription factor genes RAP2.1 and RAP2.7 as shown by microarray analysis of transgenic Arabidopsis plants ectopically expressing CBFs (Fowler et al., 2002).
\n\t\t\tCold-responsive transcriptional network in Arabidopsis. CBFs regulate the expression of COR genes that confer cold tolerance. CBFs might cross-regulate the each other’s transcription. CBFs induce the expression of ZAT10 which might downregulate the expression of COR genes. Costitutive expressed ICE1 is actived throught sumoylation and phosphorylation induced by cold stress. ICE1 actived induce the transcription of CBFs and reprime MYB15. The expression of CBFs is negatively regulated by MYB15 and ZAT12. HOS1 mediates the ubiquitination and proteolysis of ICE1, thus negatively regulates CBF regulons. Lines ending with bar indicate negative regulation; question mark (?) indicate unknown cis-elements; broken arrows indicate post-translational regulation; solid arrows indicate activation; lines ending with bar indicate negative regulation.
In Arabidopsis, ICE1 (Inducer of CBF Expression1), a MYC-type bHLH TF, can bind to MYC recognition elements in the CBF3 promoter and is important for the expression of CBF3 during cold acclimation. ICE1 is constitutively expressed and localized in the nucleus, but it induces expression of CBFs only under cold stress (Fig. 4). This suggests that cold stress-induced post-translational modification is necessary for ICE1 to activate downstream genes in plants (Chinnusamy et al., 2003).
\n\t\t\tTwo important post-translational protein modifications are the ubiquitination and the sumoylation. Ubiquitination is mediated by High Expression of Osmotically Responsive1 (HOS1). For HOS1 encodes for a RING finger ubiquitin E3 ligase that physically interacts with ICE1 and mediates the ubiquitination of ICE1 to regulate negatively the expression of ICE1 target genes (Fig. 4) and is thus critical for the de-sensitization of plant cells to cold stress (Dong et al. 2006). Sumoylation is induced by SUMO (Small Ubiquitin-related Modifier) proteins that are conjugated to proteins substrates in a process dependent on SUMO E3 ligases. Sumoylation might protect target proteins from proteasomal degradation preventing the ubiqiutination (Ulrich, 2005).
\n\t\tUptake of excess metal ions is toxic to most plants. Phytotoxicity of heavy metals can be attributed to symplastic accumulation of heavy metals, particularly in the plasmatic compartments of the cells, such as the cytosol and chloroplast stroma (Brune et al., 1995). Metal-induced changes in development are the result of either a direct and immediate impairment of metabolism (Van Assche & Clijsters, 1990) or signalling processes that initiate adaptive or toxicity responses that need to be considered as active processes of the organism (Jonak et al., 2004). The detoxification of heavy metals by plants is achieved by uptake and translocation, sequestration into the vacuole and metabolization, including oxidation, reduction or hydrolysis and conjugation with glucose, glytanyl cysteine syntase (GSH) or amino acids (Salt et al., 1998, Meagher, 2000, Dietz & Schnoor, 2001).
\n\t\t\tSo, in order to determine genes involved in response to heavy metal, recently, several studies, based on use of A. thaliana as model plant, performed the analysis of global gene expression after exposure to salts of lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd). The analysis revealed 65 and 338 up- and down-regulated genes by Cd and 19 and 76 by Pb (Kovalchuk et al., 2005). Particularly, it was found that ABC transporters were differentially regulated after Cd treatments, suggesting for some plant ABC transponders a key role in glutathione-Cd or phytochelatins-Cd complex transport both into cellular compartments and outside of the cell (Bovet et al., 2005).
\n\t\t\tSubsequently studies performed on Arabidopsis, using microarray tools, demonstrated that exist a complex regulatory network which differentially modulates gene expression in a tissute-specific manner. Responses observed in roots included the induction of genes involved in sulphur assimilation-reduction and glutathione metabolism. Therefore, it was suggested that plants activate the sulphur assimilation pathway by increasing transcription of related genes to provide an enhanced supply of glutathione for phytochelatin biosynthesis (Fig. 5).
\n\t\t\tNon specific defense mechanisms include accumulation of osmolytes, antioxidants, aminoacids and changes in hormonal balances.
\n\t\t\tThe significance of glutathione and the metal-induced phytochelatins (PCs) in heavy metal tolerance has been summarized intensely in excellent reviews (Rauser, 1995, 1999, Hall, 2002). Depletion of glutathione appears to be a major mechanism in short-term heavy metal toxicity and in accordance with this hypothesis, a good correlation between glutathione contents and tolerance index was observed with 10 pea genotypes differing in Cd sensitivity (Metwally et al., 2005).
\n\t\t\tIn roots, after Cd exposure, three categories of genes were identified from transcriptome analysis: (1) common responses conserved across species; (2) metallophyte-specific responses representing candidate genes for Cd hypertolerance; (3) specific responses to Cd (Weber et al., 2006).
\n\t\t\tResponse of plant cell to toxic levels of heavy metals. The synthesis of phytochelatins (PCs) accompanies with decrease in cell glutathione pool and increase in the activities of glytanyl cysteine syntase (GSH1), glutathione synthetase (GSH2) and glutathione reductase (GR). The elevated activities of GSH1, GSH2 and GR is correlated with enhanced expression of corresponding genes gsh1, gsh2, gr1 and gr2.
In leaves, instead, was reported an early induction of several genes encoding enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of phenylpropanoids (Herbette et al., 2006).
\n\t\tLight plays a critical role in regulating plant growth and development through the modulation of expression levels of light-responsive genes that regulate developmental and metabolic processes. Light signals are perceived through at least four distinct families of photoreceptors, which include phytochromes (Phy), cryptochromes, phototropins and unidentified ultraviolet B (UVB) photoreceptor(s). For each developmental response, more than one photoreceptor can contribute to the perception of light signals, indicating that signal integration points for different light signals must exist in transcriptional hierarchies. Light can modulate photoreceptor activity by inducing changes that alter their cellular localization. The best characterized light receptor is Phy, which exists in two photochemically interconvertible forms, Pr and Pfr, and is encoded by a small family of genes in angiosperms. Phytochromes are synthesized in the inactive Pr form, that absorbs red light, (660 nm), and are activated on light absorption by conversion to the biologically active Pfr form, that absorbs far-red light (730 nm). The photoconversion of phytochromes results in their translocation from the cytoplasm into the nucleus, which is crucial for allowing them to interact with transducers in initiating downstream transcriptional cascades (Quail, 2002).
\n\t\t\tThe responses of plants to light are complex: seed germination, seedlings photomorphogenesis, chloroplast development and orientation, photodinesis, stem growth, pigment biosynthesis, flowering and senescence (Kendrick & Kronenberg, 1994). Collectively these processes are known as photomorphogenesis.
\n\t\t\tBesides excess light, a range of abiotic environmental conditions such as O3, salt, toxic metals, and temperature can induce increased production of ROS by limiting the ability of a plant to utilize light energy through photosynthesis (Shinozaki & Yamaguchi-Shinozaki, 2000). Exposure of a plant to light exceeding what is utilized in photochemistry leads to inactivation of photosynthetic functions and the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), superoxide (O2\n\t\t\t\t-), hydroxyl radicals, and singlet oxygen (1O2; Niyogi, 1999). Indeed, high light drove change in the redox potential of plastoquinone (PQ) regulating the expression of two cytosolic peroxidases during HL stress (Karpinski et al., 1999). Furthermore, the redox state of PQ has been shown to be involved in the expression of chloroplast encoded genes (Pfannschmidt et al., 1999).
\n\t\t\tClassical genetic and molecular approaches have identified various regulators downstream of photoreceptors. Many of these encode TFs, as well as kinases, phosphatases and degradation-pathway proteins. Although some of these regulators are specific for light quality, others regulate signal transduction networks in response to various light signals, representing potential signal integration points. Several basic post-translational mechanisms are involved in regulating TF activities and the subcellular localization in response to light. The phosphorylation of TFs is a common modification that can influence their ability to bind to promoters. For example, the level of G-Box Binding Factor 1 (GBF1) is constant, but its affinity for the G-box is modulated by its phosphorylation status: its phosphorylation by nuclear Casein Kinase II (CKII) enables G-box binding (Klimczak et al., 1995).
\n\t\t\tIn the dark, some TFs that positively regulate gene expression in response to light, such as Long After Farred Light 1 (LAF1), are ubiquitylated by Constitutive Photomorphogenic 1 (COP1), a ring-finger-type ubiquitin E3 ligase. In darkness, COP1 acts as E3 ligase in the nucleus, targeting TFs like Long Hypocotyl5 (HY5) and LAF1 to degradation via the 26S proteasome. Upon exposure to light, COP1 migrates from the nucleus to the citosol. The study by Ulm and coworkers (2004) established that HY5, a bZIP transcription factor that is one of the key regulators of cryptochrome and phytochrome controlled photomorphogenesis, is an important component of the UVB-induced signalling network. UVB promotes rapid transcriptional activation of HY5 (and its interacting partner Long Hypocotyl5-Like [HYH]) independently of all known photoreceptors, and loss of HY5 results in the impairment of the transcriptional induction of a subset of UVB-responsive genes. Taken together, these observations demonstrate that UVB up-regulates HY5 transcription by yet-unknown signalling pathway (s), and that the signalling cascades that mediate responses to visible light and long-wavelength UVB (300–320 nm) use shared components. Additional studies suggested that HY5 also regulates the transcription of several photosynthesis-related genes, such as the ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase small subunit (RbcS1A) (Lee et al., 2007). Given that HY5 appears to regulate the expression of several Arabidopsis genes known to respond to abiotic stress conditions (e.g. CBF1, DREB2A, RD20 and MYB59) (Lee et al., 2007), it is inferred that HY5 could also be involved in the regulation of photosynthesis by adverse environmental conditions.
\n\t\t\tIn vitro analysis showed that HY5 directly binds to the promoters of several light-inducible genes (Hiltbrunner et al., 2006) and a recent chromatin immuno-precipitation analysis in combination with a whole-genome tiling microarray revealed that HY5 binds directly to a large number of genomic sites, mainly at the promoter regions of annotated genes. HY5 interacts specifically with the G-box (CACGTG) and is required for normal control by light of promoters bearing this sequence (Lee et al., 2007).
\n\t\t\tRecently, some review showed as DNA cis-elements responsible for light regulated transcription are located within 5\' upstream sequences.
\n\t\t\tThe evolution of regulatory sequences, which determine where, when, and the level at which genes are transcribed, has been largely neglected. In the case of the photosynthesis-associated nuclear genes (PhANGs) from higher plants, interesting evolutionary aspects of the molecular mechanisms by which transcription is activated by light receptors (e.g. phytochrome) could be addressed through the comparative analysis of promoter sequences. For instance, why does light profoundly affect transcription of PhANGs in monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants, while PhANG promoters in conifers, ferns, and mosses are either light insensitive or, at most, weakly photoresponsive (Mukai et al., 1992).
\n\t\t\tLight-responsive Transcriptor Factors (TFs) have been identified through screens for light-responsive cis-element (LRE)-binding proteins and through genetic analyses of mutants that are deficient in their response to specific types of light. A combination of various methods has been used to identify these LREs. Such analyses have been successfully perdormed in identifying cis-acting elements involved in the light responsiveness of PhANGs, such as the G-box and I-box elements from rbcS genes (Giuliano et al., 1988) and the GATA motifs of Lhcb1 genes (Gidoni et al., 1989, Millar et., 1994).
\n\t\t\tAlthough many LREs and their binding proteins have been identified, no single element is found in all light-regulated promoters, suggesting a complex light-regulation network and a lack of a universal switch (Jiao et al., 2007). Sequence heterogeneity of regulatory elements may be functionally overcome if multiprotein regulatory complexes facilitate binding to imperfect target sites (Miner et. 1991). The individual elements found within a multipartite cis-regulatory region are termed phylogenetic footprints (PFs); they share high conservation over a segment of 6 contiguous base pairs in alignments of orthologous upstream sequences and represent potential binding sites for transcription factors (Gumucio et al., 1993).
\n\t\t\tThe “phylogenetic-structural method” is based on the search of “homologous” (rather than “similar”) DNA sequences of a functionally characterized promoter. Two sequences are homologous when they share common ancestry, regardless of the degree of similarity between them (Doolittle et al., 1987).
\n\t\tThe history of postmortem examination, commonly known as an autopsy, dates back to ancient Egyptian days, where there was considerable interest in the relationship of wounds and fractures to anatomy, but little interest in the nontraumatic diseases. It was not until the 20th century when leaders of medicine in North America, including Sir William Osler (1849–1919), emphasized the importance of the autopsy in medical education. The objectives of an autopsy would include the establishment of final diagnoses and of the causes of death, and the unique opportunity for physicians to correlate their clinical observations with pathologic changes of disease. The autopsy establishes a standard for evaluating the accuracy of pre-mortem diagnoses and outcome of therapy. It provides critical data for quality assurance and makes room for quality improvement. It also provides the surviving family the basis for genetic counseling for hereditary diseases, thereby directing preventative care for living family members, which is particularly true in cases of sudden death. Family members can be comforted by obtaining information on the causes of death of their loved ones, obtaining answers to questions surrounding terminal events, and irrational guilt can be alleviated [1, 2, 3, 4, 5].
The first step to any examination is to determine the identity of the individual. This can be carried out by law enforcement (who are usually the first responders to the death scene), or by the presiding Coroner or Medical Examiner. Thus, by the time the body arrives in the morgue, the identity has been determined.
Establishment of identity can occur through various methods. The degree of certainty is best classified as definitive, presumptive, or speculative. Definitive identification is legally sufficient, and it is based on the objective comparison of antemortem and postmortem information. This includes visual recognition (most widely used method of identification), fingerprints, dental record comparison, radiographs/unique anthropomorphic features and/or surgical devices (somewhere serial numbers can be obtained), and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) analysis. Presumptive identification is when positive identification has more likely than not been established. This includes recognition of clothing, unique tattoos, scars, birthmarks, or items at scene such as various papers, medication bottles, or identification bearing the decedent’s name. Speculative identification is an initial guess, which carries the lowest degree of certainty. In many instances, not one but many methods based on the circumstances surrounding the death, investigation of the scene, and examination of the body are used to accumulate sufficient evidence that points to the decedent’s identity [6]. Various special techniques such as artist’s sketches and reconstruction methods (forensic sculptors, computer programs) can also be employed in selected circumstances [7, 8].
External examination begins by obtaining measurements of height and weight without clothing, and any other features that may help with documentation (such as arm span, foot length, center of gravity from umbilicus to heel, etc.). Medical interventions should be documented, such as endotracheal tubes, intravascular catheters, penetrating tubes or wires. The descriptions should preferentially involve assessments of proper positioning of interventions through markings that are visible externally, as well as externally visible injuries associated with the interventions.
The overall appearance and assessment of nutritional status are also documented. Postmortem changes are assessed, which include the degree of rigor mortis, the distribution of livor mortis, and any other postmortem changes that may be present (decompositional changes of various degrees).
The rest of the external examination can be carried out in various orders depending on personal practice, but a logical way would be to start from the top of the head. The quality and distribution of hair over the head are recorded, together with observations of the scalp including skin conditions and/or injuries. The facial features are then documented, including descriptions of the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and palpation of the bones of the face to identify any fractures underneath. Description of the eyes should include the color of the irides, and examination of the sclera and palpebral conjunctivae for any discoloration (e.g., scleral jaundice) and/or petechial hemorrhages. Evaluation of pupillary sizes after death is not indicative of their ante-mortem appearance due to early changes after death [9].
Examination of the neck should include documentation of any abnormal markings and injuries that may suggest self-harm and/or criminal actions. If injuries are suspected, a layered neck dissection procedure should be performed in a bloodless field (see Section 4 below).
Examination of the extremities aims to look for any deformities that may suggest acute or previous injuries, and scars or markings that may add to the social history (such as scars on the wrist in cases of self-harm, or track marks in cases of intravenous drug use). In certain criminal investigations, fingernails can be clipped and submitted for further testing that may link the victim to the assailant.
Examination of the torso follows, with documentation of overall size and shape that may suggest underlying diseases (such as a barrel chest in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) and/or injuries (such as a flail chest in multiple rib fractures). Examination of the torso also includes the back, which is ideally performed with the body positioned prone on the table. Again, documentation of any abnormalities that may suggest disease or injuries is done, and the anus is also examined for any abnormalities.
The body is then positioned supine, lying on a block between the shoulder blades, and the internal examination can begin.
There are several ways of incising into the skin to expose the underlying structures. The most commonly employed skin incisions include the Y-shaped incision, the modified Y-shaped incision, and the I-shaped incision. The Y-shaped incision goes from the tips of the shoulder on each side obliquely down, joining at the middle of the chest, roughly between the nipples, and the incision is then continued down vertically along the midline of the front of the body, stopping at the pubis. The modified Y-shaped incision is when the top most incisions start from behind each ear down the sides of the neck toward the middle of the chest. The I-shaped incision is a single straight vertical incision that goes from the top of the neck down the midline of the front of the body to the pubis [10, 11].
The skin is then peeled back from the underlying bones, by cutting roughly parallel to the skin surface along the subcutaneous layer of soft tissues. The chest plate is removed by first separating the sternoclavicular joints, and cutting the ribs near the anterior costochondral junctions, preferably cutting through the cartilaginous parts so that the cut edges are relatively dull to reduce risk of injury during subsequent evisceration.
There are several techniques for evisceration (the removal of organs from body cavities) [12, 13]. The technique of Virchow employs removal of body organs one after another. This technique is good for demonstrating pathology in individual organs, but the relationships between various organs may be hard to interpret. The technique of Letulle or the en masse technique is when the cervical, thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic organs are removed as one mass, and then subsequently dissected into organ blocks. This technique is good for preserving vascular supply and relationships between organs. However, the organ mass is sometimes awkward to handle, and an assistant may be required to help with handling. The technique of Ghon or the en bloc technique is where the cervical and thoracic organs, the abdominal organs, and the urogenital system are removed as separate organ blocks. This is a mixture of the Virchow and en masse techniques, allowing the preservation of anatomical relationship sufficiently while enabling one person to execute without an assistant. Finally, the technique of Rokitansky consists of in-situ dissection combined with en bloc removal.
The organs are then examined individually, and any diseases and/or injuries are documented. During examination, sections of organs may be submitted for subsequent microscopic examination (see Section 5.1 below).
Selected procedures and techniques that differ from or are added to the routine autopsy are performed in certain situations to better demonstrate the diseases or injuries involved.
Pneumothorax is usually associated with injury to the lung, although pure pneumothorax, although rare, can happen. The pleural cavities, therefore, should be checked for the presence of air in cases of chest injuries.
The skin and muscle on the injured side of the chest are reflected and dissected to form a pocket lateral to the chest wall, just below the level of the axilla. This pocket is then filled with water, and a scalpel is introduced under the water level, incising into an intercostal space through to the pleural cavity. Air bubbles observed exiting through this incision represent presence of pneumothorax. An inverted graduated cylinder filled with water can be held over the pocket prior to the incision into the pleural cavity to collect and measure the amount of air in the pleural cavity if desired [14].
Deep vein thrombosis in the calves is frequently seen associated with cases of death by pulmonary embolism, and is a frequent complication of immobilization and/or trauma. With the body positioned prone, the calf is incised vertically from the heel to the popliteal fossa, and the skin is then reflected. The tendon of Achilles is severed, and the attached calf musculature is then reflected and dissected gently from the underlying tibia and fibula from the heel upward. Transverse sections through the reflected musculature are then performed, and thrombi, if present, will thus be transversely sectioned, and their relationship with the attached vessels can be visualized. Antemortem thrombi typically maintain their sausage-like shape even if they become dislodged from the vessels, and show a concentrically layered cut surface (an indication of antemortem organization) [14]. Postmortem clots are typically soft and collapsible in nature, and do not show concentric laminations on cut surfaces.
Examination of the neck structures can aid in determining injuries in the neck that may have medicolegal implications. The neck should be examined at the end of the autopsy following removal of all other organs including the brain so as to create a dry/bloodless field to minimize the possibility of introducing blood seepage into the neck structures during dissection.
The routine Y-incision is extended from the tips of both shoulders upward along the posterior-lateral aspects of the neck and behind the ears toward the level of mid-ear. The skin is then undermined and reflected from the shoulder regions to the ears, proceeding to the level of the mandible on both sides. Layerwise reflection of the muscles of the neck is then carried out and injuries of the anterior neck are documented. Examination of the posterior neck takes on a similar approach, which is most easily done with the body positioned prone. A single vertical incision from the protruding C7 spinous process up toward the midline occiput is coupled with a horizontal incision at the mid posterior neck, effectively creating a cross-shaped incision, where the skin can then be reflected back to expose underlying musculature. The posterior neck muscles are then reflected in a layerwise manner and examined for injuries.
Sometimes it is necessary to examine the soft tissues of the face, and the anterior skin flap can be further reflected by undermining the facial skin from the level of the mandible. Subcutaneous severing of the external auditory meatus will mobilize the skin for better visualization of the facial skull, and will not interfere with the cosmetic appearance of the face as long as midline attachments of skin to subcutaneous tissues are maintained at the midline of the face.
The middle and inner ears are encased in the petrous portions of the temporal bones, located at the base of the skull.
Following the removal of the brain, the dura is stripped from the middle fossa, and the petrous regions are dried. Bone cutters are used to excise the petrous ridge from all four sides to produce a roughly rectangular segment. The inner surface of the tympanic membrane is exposed and can be examined for evidence of inflammation. Findings of purulent inflammation should be reported and swabs may be submitted for culture. The entire petrous block can be decalcified and submitted for microscopic examination if so desired [14].
Air embolism should be suspected in cases involving an open wound to the neck area, diving misadventures, chest trauma, or cases associated with childbirth or abortions. An interrupted blood column at autopsy in cerebral or cardiac vessels is often artefactual and thus is not regarded as evidence of air embolism.
The pericardial sac is opened anteriorly, and the edges are grasped with tools such as forceps or hemostats to create a pocket. Water is poured into the sac and the heart is submerged. A scalpel is then used to incise into the right side of the heart under the water level. Bubbles will arise if air is present. For measurement, an inverted graduated cylinder filled with water can be placed in the water prior to incising the heart [14].
The presence of water in the sphenoid sinus, although recognized to be present in any body that has been immersed in water, is one extra finding that can lend support to cases of drowning, which remains a diagnosis of exclusion. A large-bore needle attached to a syringe is used to perforate the sphenoid bone on either side of the sella, while it is directed downward and medially at a 45° angle. An average of 2–3 ml (sometimes up to 5 ml) of water may be aspirated [14].
The spinal cord can be visualized or removed for further examination by either an anterior or posterior approach, traditionally by sawing through the pedicles (anterior approach) or the laminae (posterior approach) to expose the underlying spinal cord following the routine autopsy and removal of the brain. Alternatively, an intervertebral disc in the lumbar spine can be transected, as well as another intervertebral disc in the thoracic area. A Stryker saw is used to cut out the segment of vertebral bodies between the two transected discs. The exposed dura is visualized, and can be slit vertically and reflected sideways. The exposed portion of the cord/cauda is then loosened by severing the nerves within the spinal canal, and slow downward traction toward the feet can be applied to retrieve the remaining cord in its entirety [14, 15].
Examination of the cervical spine may be warranted in cases of traffic deaths, falls, diving deaths, and suspected shaken baby cases. One radiological study showed that cervical injuries in road crash victims can be above C3 (50% of cases) or below C3 (22% of cases) [16]. Injuries range from severe fractures and dislocations to a few deep hemorrhages in the musculature. Injuries to the vertebral artery can sometimes occur when hyperextension/flexion and rotational forces are in play, with the most vulnerable regions being the third section [17].
The body is placed face down, and a head block is placed under the chest, with the head flexed at the neck. A posterior midline incision is made, and the musculature dissected in a layered fashion down to the vertebral column. The atlanto-occipital joint capsules are incised into, so that the articular surfaces can be examined. The atlas is disarticulated and removed. Laminectomy is then performed on the cervical vertebrae, and the dura mater can be incised and the spinal cord examined prior to removal. The exposed underside of the base of the skull can now be examined for fractures [14].
To begin the vertebral artery examination, the brain should be examined for basal subarachnoid hemorrhage, and if present, the basilar artery can be clamped with a hemostat. The skull cap can be replaced to ensure stability. The vertebral arteries can then be accessed from its branching point from the subclavian artery (most often the first branch) and cannulated with an 8F catheter, and secured and sutured to ensure no leakage around the catheter. An anterior–posterior x-ray is then obtained, and each cannulated artery is injected with 3–5 ml of contrast medium repeatedly until the vessel is visible on x-ray. The lesion, if present, can be established radiographically, and the entire neck block can be excised by cutting around the foramen magnum superiorly and disarticulating the seventh cervical vertebra inferiorly [14]. Fixation and decalcification can then proceed, and the vertebral arteries and surrounding tissues can then be exposed and examined.
The brain is a soft structure that goes into decomposition quickly following death, thus making processing and examination difficulty in the fresh state. In addition, many brain findings can be subtle and require the tissue to sbe in optimal condition in order for these findings to be exhibited. Thus, it is advisable for the brain, following removal from the cranial cavity, to be suspended in a bucket of formalin using a string placed under the basilar artery of the circle of Willis, for at least a week and most optimally beyond 2 weeks prior to cutting into the brain parenchyma. The hardened tissue also provides better exhibits for photographing subtle lesions.
Some conditions (such as myocarditis) are diagnosed only on microscopic examination, with no specific corresponding gross findings. Forensic microscopy should be a part of investigations of sudden unexpected deaths, determination of the premortem nature of diseases or injuries, and interpretation and substantiation of gross findings (such as in cases of infections and/or malignancies). In my experience, samples of major organs (heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, and brain) should be microscopically examined in every autopsy.
Collection of postmortem specimens for toxicological testing has become almost routine for many institutions involved in death investigation, and can be performed with or without a complete internal examination. The routinely collected specimens include blood from a peripheral source, urine, vitreous humor, and liver tissue [18]. Other specimens that may be of value include bile and stomach contents.
Blood should be collected from a peripheral site such as the femoral vessels to minimize effects of postmortem redistribution of certain drugs. Collection can be achieved by inserting a large bore needle attached to a syringe through the skin, overlying the location of the femoral vessels (medial anterior inguinal regions), or internally by directly visualizing the vessels during the autopsy. Urine can be collected through the skin as well by inserting needle into the suprapubic area. Vitreous humor is collected by inserting needle into the whites (scleral portion) of the eyes, aiming toward the center of the globes.
Fluid specimens should be deposited and stored in glass tubes with sodium fluoride, to preserve the storage stability of drugs such as cocaine [19]. Vitreous fluid is also useful in the evaluation of diabetic complications, in that glucose and ketones are seen to increase substantially in cases of diabetic ketoacidosis [20].
The author declares no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen publishes different types of publications
",metaTitle:"Types of publications",metaDescription:"IntechOpen publishes different types of publications",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"IntechOpen Edited Volumes are integrated collections of chapters about particular topics that present new areas of research or novel syntheses of existing research and, as such, represent perspectives from various authors.
\\n\\nEdited Volumes can be comprised of different types of chapters:
\\n\\nRESEARCH CHAPTER – A research chapter reports the results of original research thus contributing to the body of knowledge in a particular area of study.
\\n\\nREVIEW CHAPTER – A review chapter analyzes or examines research previously published by other scientists, rather than reporting new findings thus summarizing the current state of understanding on a topic.
\\n\\nCASE STUDY – A case study involves an in-depth, and detailed examination of a particular topic.
\\n\\nPERSPECTIVE CHAPTER – A perspective chapter offers a new point of view on existing problems, fundamental concepts, or common opinions on a specific topic. Perspective chapters can propose or support new hypotheses, or discuss the significance of newly achieved innovations. Perspective chapters can focus on current advances and future directions on a topic and include both original data and personal opinion.
\\n\\nINTRODUCTORY CHAPTER – An introductory chapter states the purpose and goals of the book. The introductory chapter is written by the Academic Editor.
\\n\\nMonographs is a self-contained work on a particular subject, or an aspect of it, written by one or more authors. Monographs usually have between 130 and 500 pages.
\\n\\nTYPES OF MONOGRAPHS:
\\n\\nSingle or multiple author manuscript
\\n\\nCompacts provide a mid-length publishing format that bridges the gap between journal articles, book chapters, and monographs, and cover content across all scientific disciplines.
\\n\\nCompacts are the preferred publishing option for brief research reports on new topics, in-depth case studies, dissertations, or essays exploring new ideas, issues, or broader topics on the research subject. Compacts usually have between 50 and 130 pages.
\\n\\nCollection of papers presented at conferences, workshops, symposiums, or scientific courses, published in book format
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"IntechOpen Edited Volumes are integrated collections of chapters about particular topics that present new areas of research or novel syntheses of existing research and, as such, represent perspectives from various authors.
\n\nEdited Volumes can be comprised of different types of chapters:
\n\nRESEARCH CHAPTER – A research chapter reports the results of original research thus contributing to the body of knowledge in a particular area of study.
\n\nREVIEW CHAPTER – A review chapter analyzes or examines research previously published by other scientists, rather than reporting new findings thus summarizing the current state of understanding on a topic.
\n\nCASE STUDY – A case study involves an in-depth, and detailed examination of a particular topic.
\n\nPERSPECTIVE CHAPTER – A perspective chapter offers a new point of view on existing problems, fundamental concepts, or common opinions on a specific topic. Perspective chapters can propose or support new hypotheses, or discuss the significance of newly achieved innovations. Perspective chapters can focus on current advances and future directions on a topic and include both original data and personal opinion.
\n\nINTRODUCTORY CHAPTER – An introductory chapter states the purpose and goals of the book. The introductory chapter is written by the Academic Editor.
\n\nMonographs is a self-contained work on a particular subject, or an aspect of it, written by one or more authors. Monographs usually have between 130 and 500 pages.
\n\nTYPES OF MONOGRAPHS:
\n\nSingle or multiple author manuscript
\n\nCompacts provide a mid-length publishing format that bridges the gap between journal articles, book chapters, and monographs, and cover content across all scientific disciplines.
\n\nCompacts are the preferred publishing option for brief research reports on new topics, in-depth case studies, dissertations, or essays exploring new ideas, issues, or broader topics on the research subject. Compacts usually have between 50 and 130 pages.
\n\nCollection of papers presented at conferences, workshops, symposiums, or scientific courses, published in book format
\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5775},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5238},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1721},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10409},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15805}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118373},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"23"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10656",title:"Intellectual Property",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"135df9b403b125a6458eba971faab3f6",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sakthivel Lakshmana Prabu and Dr. Suriyaprakash TNK",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10656.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"91590",title:"Dr.",name:"Sakthivel",surname:"Lakshmana Prabu",slug:"sakthivel-lakshmana-prabu",fullName:"Sakthivel Lakshmana Prabu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10658",title:"Multilingualism",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"a6bf171e05831c00f8687891ab1b10b5",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Xiaoming Jiang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10658.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"189844",title:"Prof.",name:"Xiaoming",surname:"Jiang",slug:"xiaoming-jiang",fullName:"Xiaoming Jiang"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10660",title:"Heritage - New Paradigm",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d0b747909f95bd54d009ed0838c38f84",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Daniela Turcanu-Carutiu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10660.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"176482",title:"Prof.",name:"Daniela",surname:"Turcanu-Carutiu",slug:"daniela-turcanu-carutiu",fullName:"Daniela Turcanu-Carutiu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:3},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5240},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"459",title:"Education",slug:"globalization-education",parent:{title:"Globalization",slug:"globalization"},numberOfBooks:3,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:73,numberOfWosCitations:38,numberOfCrossrefCitations:31,numberOfDimensionsCitations:51,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"globalization-education",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"2922",title:"Globalization",subtitle:"Education and Management Agendas",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"68cb740dac25a7b8096685d2aa71943d",slug:"globalization-education-and-management-agendas",bookSignature:"Hector Cuadra-Montiel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2922.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31673",title:"Dr.",name:"Hector",middleName:null,surname:"Cuadra-Montiel",slug:"hector-cuadra-montiel",fullName:"Hector Cuadra-Montiel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"470",title:"New Knowledge in a New Era of Globalization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"08e011d059a55b7a904787039b394b29",slug:"new-knowledge-in-a-new-era-of-globalization",bookSignature:"Piotr Pachura",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/470.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"33832",title:"Prof.",name:"Piotr",middleName:null,surname:"Pachura",slug:"piotr-pachura",fullName:"Piotr Pachura"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3590",title:"Globalization",subtitle:"Today, Tomorrow",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"63d2eefe753f6b341adc052fbca3d766",slug:"globalization--today--tomorrow",bookSignature:"Kent G. Deng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3590.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"125761",title:"Dr.",name:"Kent",middleName:null,surname:"Deng",slug:"kent-deng",fullName:"Kent Deng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"38271",doi:"10.5772/47800",title:"Human Resource Management and Performance: From Practices Towards Sustainable Competitive Advantage",slug:"human-resource-management-and-performance-from-practices-towards-sustainable-competitive-advantage",totalDownloads:19308,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"globalization-education-and-management-agendas",title:"Globalization",fullTitle:"Globalization - Education and Management Agendas"},signatures:"Asta Savaneviciene and Zivile Stankeviciute",authors:[{id:"146659",title:"Prof.",name:"Asta",middleName:null,surname:"Savaneviciene",slug:"asta-savaneviciene",fullName:"Asta Savaneviciene"},{id:"148268",title:"MSc.",name:"Zivile",middleName:null,surname:"Stankeviciute",slug:"zivile-stankeviciute",fullName:"Zivile Stankeviciute"}]},{id:"17529",doi:"10.5772/21231",title:"Sport in Asia: Globalization, Glocalization, Asianization",slug:"sport-in-asia-globalization-glocalization-asianization",totalDownloads:5301,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"new-knowledge-in-a-new-era-of-globalization",title:"New Knowledge in a New Era of Globalization",fullTitle:"New Knowledge in a New Era of Globalization"},signatures:"Peter Horton",authors:[{id:"42366",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Horton",slug:"peter-horton",fullName:"Peter Horton"}]},{id:"38270",doi:"10.5772/48702",title:"Internationalization and Globalization in Higher Education",slug:"internationalization-and-globalization-in-higher-education",totalDownloads:7258,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"globalization-education-and-management-agendas",title:"Globalization",fullTitle:"Globalization - Education and Management Agendas"},signatures:"Douglas E. Mitchell and Selin Yildiz Nielsen",authors:[{id:"148079",title:"Prof.",name:"Douglas",middleName:null,surname:"Mitchell",slug:"douglas-mitchell",fullName:"Douglas Mitchell"},{id:"148080",title:"Dr.",name:"Selin",middleName:null,surname:"Nielsen",slug:"selin-nielsen",fullName:"Selin Nielsen"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"17523",title:"The Importance of Globalization in Higher Education",slug:"the-importance-of-globalization-in-higher-education",totalDownloads:9051,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"new-knowledge-in-a-new-era-of-globalization",title:"New Knowledge in a New Era of Globalization",fullTitle:"New Knowledge in a New Era of Globalization"},signatures:"Patricia Fox and Stephen Hundley",authors:[{id:"29989",title:"Prof.",name:"Patricia",middleName:"Lynn",surname:"Fox",slug:"patricia-fox",fullName:"Patricia Fox"},{id:"45640",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephen",middleName:null,surname:"Hundley",slug:"stephen-hundley",fullName:"Stephen Hundley"}]},{id:"17540",title:"The Impact of Globalization Determinants and the Health of the World’s Population",slug:"the-impact-of-globalization-determinants-and-the-health-of-the-world-s-population",totalDownloads:12027,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"new-knowledge-in-a-new-era-of-globalization",title:"New Knowledge in a New Era of Globalization",fullTitle:"New Knowledge in a New Era of Globalization"},signatures:"Mario J. Azevedo and Barbara H. Johnson",authors:[{id:"31127",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario",middleName:null,surname:"Azevedo",slug:"mario-azevedo",fullName:"Mario Azevedo"},{id:"45668",title:"Dr",name:"Barbara",middleName:"H.",surname:"Johnson",slug:"barbara-johnson",fullName:"Barbara Johnson"}]},{id:"38267",title:"The Impact of Globalization on Cross-Cultural Communication",slug:"the-impact-of-globalization-on-cross-cultural-communication",totalDownloads:24556,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"globalization-education-and-management-agendas",title:"Globalization",fullTitle:"Globalization - Education and Management Agendas"},signatures:"Lowell C. Matthews and Bharat Thakkar",authors:[{id:"148763",title:"Dr.",name:"Bharat",middleName:"S.",surname:"Thakkar",slug:"bharat-thakkar",fullName:"Bharat Thakkar"},{id:"149061",title:"Dr.",name:"Lowell",middleName:"Christopher",surname:"Matthews",slug:"lowell-matthews",fullName:"Lowell Matthews"}]},{id:"17543",title:"Globalization and Global Public Goods",slug:"globalization-and-global-public-goods",totalDownloads:2911,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"new-knowledge-in-a-new-era-of-globalization",title:"New Knowledge in a New Era of Globalization",fullTitle:"New Knowledge in a New Era of Globalization"},signatures:"Bernur Açıkgöz Ersoy",authors:[{id:"43498",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernur",middleName:null,surname:"Açıkgöz",slug:"bernur-acikgoz",fullName:"Bernur Açıkgöz"}]},{id:"17547",title:"Future of Heritage – A Condition for Space Integrity",slug:"future-of-heritage-a-condition-for-space-integrity",totalDownloads:2052,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"new-knowledge-in-a-new-era-of-globalization",title:"New Knowledge in a New Era of Globalization",fullTitle:"New Knowledge in a New Era of Globalization"},signatures:"Lemja Chabbouh Akšamija",authors:[{id:"33190",title:"PhD.",name:"Lemja",middleName:null,surname:"Chabbouh -Aksamija",slug:"lemja-chabbouh-aksamija",fullName:"Lemja Chabbouh -Aksamija"}]},{id:"38272",title:"Global Standards for Supply Chain Management in Consumer Packaged Goods Industry",slug:"global-standards-for-supply-chain-management-in-consumer-packaged-goods-industry",totalDownloads:8362,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"globalization-education-and-management-agendas",title:"Globalization",fullTitle:"Globalization - Education and Management Agendas"},signatures:"Virgil Popa",authors:[{id:"149628",title:"Prof.",name:"Virgil",middleName:null,surname:"Popa",slug:"virgil-popa",fullName:"Virgil Popa"}]},{id:"38244",title:"The Context of Globalization and Human Resource Need and Strategy for Developing Countries - The Case of African Countries",slug:"the-context-of-globalization-and-human-resource-need-and-strategy-for-developing-countries-the-case-",totalDownloads:3216,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"globalization-education-and-management-agendas",title:"Globalization",fullTitle:"Globalization - Education and Management Agendas"},signatures:"Philemon Kazimil Mzee",authors:[{id:"70613",title:"Dr.",name:"Philemon",middleName:"Kazimil",surname:"Mzee",slug:"philemon-mzee",fullName:"Philemon Mzee"}]},{id:"12111",title:"Globalization of Markets, Marketing Ethics and Social Responsibility",slug:"globalization-markets-and-business-eth-cs-and-social-responsibility",totalDownloads:61313,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"globalization--today--tomorrow",title:"Globalization",fullTitle:"Globalization - Today, Tomorrow"},signatures:"Recep Yücel",authors:null},{id:"12104",title:"Globalization and Economic Growth in Sub Sahara Africa",slug:"globalization-and-economic-growth-in-africa",totalDownloads:6043,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"globalization--today--tomorrow",title:"Globalization",fullTitle:"Globalization - Today, Tomorrow"},signatures:"Samuel Adams",authors:null},{id:"17528",title:"How to Discover a New World Without Being in Danger of Wreck",slug:"how-to-discover-a-new-world-without-being-in-danger-of-wreck",totalDownloads:1638,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"new-knowledge-in-a-new-era-of-globalization",title:"New Knowledge in a New Era of Globalization",fullTitle:"New Knowledge in a New Era of Globalization"},signatures:"Miguel González-Carbajal Pascual and Ludmila Martínez Leyva",authors:[{id:"37410",title:"Prof.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"González-Carbajal",slug:"miguel-gonzalez-carbajal",fullName:"Miguel González-Carbajal"},{id:"83806",title:"Dr.",name:"Ludmila",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez Leyva",slug:"ludmila-martinez-leyva",fullName:"Ludmila Martínez Leyva"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"globalization-education",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/102696/huseyin-ademgil",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"102696",slug:"huseyin-ademgil"},fullPath:"/profiles/102696/huseyin-ademgil",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var t;(t=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(t)}()