Chemical composition of table grapes. Nutritional information about energy value of the grape per 100 grams of fresh weight for organic constituents; per 100 g of dry weight for minerals [78].
\r\n\tThis book aims to present an overview of the current status of nanofibers, fabrication and recent trends in the fabrication of nanofibers, and functional nanofibers and applications of nanofibers in various fields including environmental, bio-sensing, drug delivery, catalysis, and medical. The book hopes to provide a piece of up-to-date information about the mentioned topics and fundamental knowledge necessary for the advanced study in the field of nanofibers and their applications, making it interesting to research students, scientists, engineers, and material scientists.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-387-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-386-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-388-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"a255898117275990dffe83c75a9f815d",bookSignature:"Dr. Maaz Khan",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11462.jpg",keywords:"Nanofiber, Nanofiber Fabrication, Functional Nanofiber, Nanofiber Application, Fiber Technology, Electrospinning, Drug Delivery, Fabrication Strategy, Commercialization, Polymer, Tissue Engineering, Catalysis",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 23rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 26th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 25th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 13th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 12th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Maaz Khan is an expert in the field of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology with over 100 articles and 3,300 citations to his name.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"107765",title:"Dr.",name:"Maaz",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"maaz-khan",fullName:"Maaz Khan",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/107765/images/system/107765.png",biography:"Dr. Maaz Khan is working as Deputy Chief Scientist (Professor) at PINSTECH, Pakistan. He has done Ph.D. and post doctorate in the field of Material Science (Nanoscience). His research interests include fabrication of nanomaterials and their structural, optical, magnetic, and electrical characterizations. He has authored more than 100 research articles and published 10 books. Presently, he is the Editor-in-Chief of ‘Journal of Materials, Processing and Design\\' and \\'The Nucleus\\'. He is also the Executive Editor of \\'International Journal of Nano Studies and Technology\\'. 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From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5404",title:"Raman Spectroscopy and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d447d2811c5d3fc696761bb12fe3166",slug:"raman-spectroscopy-and-applications",bookSignature:"Khan Maaz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5404.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"107765",title:"Dr.",name:"Maaz",surname:"Khan",slug:"maaz-khan",fullName:"Maaz Khan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4644",title:"The Transmission Electron Microscope",subtitle:"Theory and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6ef878a14961b97ec0bc5c1762a46aa0",slug:"the-transmission-electron-microscope-theory-and-applications",bookSignature:"Khan 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Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"da3cb0d978d197ed95c07e8090e06136",slug:"modern-spectroscopic-techniques-and-applications",bookSignature:"Maaz Khan, Gustavo Morari do Nascimento and Marwa El-Azazy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7674.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"107765",title:"Dr.",name:"Maaz",surname:"Khan",slug:"maaz-khan",fullName:"Maaz Khan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10941",title:"Ferrites",subtitle:"Synthesis and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6a323bfa4565d7c676bc3733b4983b0",slug:"ferrites-synthesis-and-applications",bookSignature:"Maaz Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10941.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"107765",title:"Dr.",name:"Maaz",surname:"Khan",slug:"maaz-khan",fullName:"Maaz Khan"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5884",title:"Unraveling the Safety Profile of Nanoscale Particles and Materials",subtitle:"From Biomedical to Environmental Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e5811aa0f15ab9d8b6a235e8408875d",slug:"unraveling-the-safety-profile-of-nanoscale-particles-and-materials-from-biomedical-to-environmental-applications",bookSignature:"Andreia C. Gomes and Marisa P. Sarria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5884.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"146466",title:"Prof.",name:"Andreia",surname:"Ferreira de Castro Gomes",slug:"andreia-ferreira-de-castro-gomes",fullName:"Andreia Ferreira de Castro Gomes"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"80872",title:"Introductory Chapter: Antiphospholipid Antibodies - A Laboratory Criterion for the Antiphospholipid Syndrome, but Also Bystanders in Infections, Cancer, and Other Conditions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103846",slug:"introductory-chapter-antiphospholipid-antibodies-a-laboratory-criterion-for-the-antiphospholipid-syn",body:'Antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is a systemic autoimmune thromboinflammatory disorder characterized by vascular thrombosis and pregnancy-related morbidity accompanied by persistent positive antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) [1, 2]. APS is considered the most common acquired form of thrombophilia worldwide [3]. Obstetric APS is a complex entity that can affect both the mother and the fetus throughout pregnancy with high morbidity. The clinical complications of obstetric APS are diverse and include recurrent fetal loss, stillbirth, intrauterine growth failure, and preeclampsia [4]. In addition to thrombosis and pregnancy loss, other pathological manifestations regularly occur with APS including thrombocytopenia, destruction of heart valves, accelerated atherosclerosis, nephropathy, movement disorders, and cognitive decline [5]. Catastrophic APS (CAPS) is characterized by the rapid development of thrombosis in multiple organs and micro-thrombosis within a short period of time. Pediatric APS is a rare condition that is distinctly different from adult APS [6].
The classification of APS for clinical trials and studies is currently based on the international consensus statement established in Sapporo in 1999 and updated in Sydney in 2006, and includes a clinical criterion (vascular thrombosis or pregnancy morbidity) and a laboratory criterion (positive test result for aPL) [1] as shown in Figure 1. aPL are a heterogeneous family of IgG and/or IgM or, more rarely, IgA autoantibodies with an affinity for negatively charged phospholipids or protein-phospholipid complexes. Their persistent presence in sera has been associated with increased prothrombotic risk in various autoimmune diseases. The aPL that constitute the laboratory criteria for APS include lupus anticoagulant (LA), anticardiolipin antibodies (aCL), and anti-β2-glycoprotein I antibodies (anti-β2GPI) of immunoglobulin IgG and IgM classes. Extensive evidence has accumulated over the past decade that several other than those included in the APS classification criteria may be relevant to APS pathogenesis. Among them, antiprothrombin antibodies, especially antibodies against phosphatidylserine-prothrombin complex (aPS/PT), are supported by the most studies in the literature showing their strong correlation to LA activity and to clinical manifestations of APS [7, 8, 9]. An international multi-disciplinary initiative “APS action”, jointly supported by the American College of Rheumatology (ACR) and the European League Against Rheumatism (EULAR) is currently underway to establish a new diagnostic criterion for APS.
Classification criteria for APS and definition of high and low risk profile. Created with BioRender.com.
APS can either be a disease in the absence of evidence of other autoimmune disease, or it can be secondary to another autoimmune disease such as systemic lupus erythematous (SLE) [10]. The profile of aPL, including type and titer, is an important factor determining the risk for thrombotic and obstetric events [11, 12]. The presence of LA, triple positivity or double positivity with positive LA, and the persistent presence of high titers of aCL and anti-β2GPI antibodies pose a high risk for the development of APS. In contrast, isolated positivity at low or medium titers of aCL or anti- β2GPI antibodies, particularly when transiently positive, poses a low risk.
A very rare, but life-threatening form of multiorgan thrombosis is known as catastrophic anti-phospholipid syndrome (CAPS) [13, 14, 15]. It is characterized by simultaneous thrombosis in multiple organs within a short period of time, that is, within a few days. Thrombosis often occurs at unusual sites, and small and medium-sized arteries are most frequently involved [16]. Less than 1% of patients with APS develop CAPS. CAPS is the first manifestation of APS in about half of diagnosed CAPS patients. The remaining patients have a history of APS. The mortality rate has decreased over time, mainly due to triple therapy (anticoagulation, corticotherapy and therapeutic plasma exchange—TPE—or intravenous immunoglobulin—IVIG), but it still exceeds 30% [17]. An international registry established in 2000 by the European Forum on Anti-Phospholipid Anti-bodies, and the last reported data (2016) includes 500 patients [17].
The other major clinical manifestations of APS are obstetric. These include unexplained death of one or more morphologically normal fetuses at or after 10-week gestation, premature delivery of one or more morphologically normal newborns before 34-week gestation due to either eclampsia, severe preeclampsia, or recognized features of placental insufficiency, and three or more unexplained, consecutive spontaneous abortions before 10-week gestation.
The heterogeneity and non-specificity of potential clinical signs illustrates that APS is as a true systemic autoimmune disease and underscores the need for a better understanding of disease mechanisms that will enable a personalized approach to treatment. Despite some improvements in the diagnosis and prognosis of APS and the prevention of thrombosis reoccurrence, robust laboratory biomarkers are still lacking.
Because APS affects young patients in the most productive years of their lives, the consequences of organ or tissue damage lead to impaired health-related quality of life (HRQoL). There are several reasons why APS could adversely affect HRQoL. The clinical manifestations are diverse, and many of them damage vital tissues. In addition, APS may overlap with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and SLE, both of which already significantly affect HRQoL. Another aspect that affects HRQoL in APS is treatment with high-dose anticoagulation indefinitely in patients with thrombosis and/or at high risk of thrombosis.
In the general population, the incidence of clinical manifestations present in APS is high and could often be triggered by other underlying factors. Consequently, the diagnosis of APS relies predominantly on laboratory measurements. However, current laboratory tests are hampered by technical limitations in the pre-analytical and analytical phases and by the fact that there is no standardization of these tests. Despite the many attempts to increase the specificity of laboratory criteria and the establishment of consensus criteria for serology, a high number of patients are still misdiagnosed. One of the most important reasons for this is the high heterogeneity of aPL in patients with APS. Thus, it remains to be clarified whether different manifestations are caused by subpopulations of autoantibodies against different epitope specificities that are currently detected by the same test(s). Unfortunately, most APS patients exhibit more than one type of aPL, making it difficult to assign pathogenic effects to one epitope specificity or another. In addition, the diagnosis of pediatric APS is even more challenging since it is such a rare condition. Diagnosis may be delayed or missed when adult APS criteria are used, because in pediatric APS, non-thrombotic clinical manifestations, such as thrombocytopenia, hemolytic anemia, and neurologic disorders such as migraine, epilepsy, and chorea, may precede thrombotic manifestations.
While aPL circulate in relatively stable concentrations in the blood, thrombosis occurs only occasionally. The persistent presence of aPL is thought to shift the hemostatic balance toward a prothrombotic state, but then a “second hit” is required to trigger the thrombotic event itself. Although this two-hit model is generally accepted, much remains to be learned about how exactly aPL predispose to thrombosis
In the general population, the incidence of clinical manifestations which can be attributable to APS is high and could often be triggered by other underlying factors. Therefore, the diagnosis of APS relies primarily on the laboratory measurements of aPL. Methods for their determination differ and have not yet been standardized. The common weaknesses of aPL determination are high inter-assay and inter-laboratory variations, problems in interpretation and clinical evaluation of test results, and their low diagnostic specificity. Elevated aPL levels can be associated with many other conditions such as infections, malignancies, and also the use of certain medications. The lack of reliable, robust diagnostic markers for APS thus limits patient identification and treatment and challenges researchers to find better diagnostic markers. A systematic review of observational studies that excluded patients with autoimmune diseases found a pooled prevalence rate of aPL in up to 23.3% of patients with stroke, 23% with myocardial infarction, 15.8% with deep vein thrombosis, and 13% of women with pregnancy adverse events [18].
Many investigators are exploring the usefulness of testing for non-criteria aPL specificities to identify APS in patients with thrombosis and/or pregnancy morbidity, particularly in those who are repeatedly negative on currently used tests. Among them, IgA aPL and antiprothrombin antibodies are most commonly proposed to assess the risk of thrombosis and pregnancy morbidity in patients with suspected APS [19]. A number of studies have shown that antiprothrombin antibodies represent distinct antibody subsets with overall diagnostic relevance for APS [7, 20]. Similar to anti-β2GPI, antiprothrombin antibodies, particularly aPS/PT, have a considerable value as a biomarker for both diagnostic evaluation and prediction of the clinical manifestations of APS. In 2017, a large international multicenter study found that IgG aPS/PT to be more prevalent in patients with APS than in patients without the syndrome. A positive test for these antibodies conferred a 10-fold higher risk of APS [21]. There is debate about the feasibility of including aPS/PT in risk assessment for APS to increase the accuracy of diagnosis in seronegative APS patients [7, 20, 22]. Our research group has extensively studied the clinical significance of antiprothrombin antibodies, showing that aPS/PT have the highest percentage of LA activity compared with aCL or anti-β2GPI [8, 9, 23, 24, 25, 26] and that they are strongly associated with thrombosis and adverse pregnancy outcomes independently of other aPL [8, 26]. In fact, aPS/PT were the only antibodies associated with pregnancy complications (recurrent pregnancy loss) occurring before 10-week gestation and with some late complications (preeclampsia and eclampsia), indicating their important role in the pathogenesis of obstetric APS.
Recently, two research groups proposed a quantitative index to quantify the likelihood of thrombosis in APS. One included the aPL profile, the aPL score (aPL-S) [27], whereas the other included both aPL and conventional prothrombotic risk factors, the global APS score (GAPSS) [28]. Both groups included LA and IgG and IgM isotypes of aCL, anti-β2GPI, and aPS/PT. In contrast to risk stratification for thrombotic events, which has been well studied in aPL-positive patients, studies assessing the risk for obstetric complications are scarce. Our recent study investigated different scoring systems after 2 years of routine and systematic measurement of criteria and non-criteria aPL [9]. We showed that all non-criteria aPL, including IgA aCL, IgA anti-β2GPI, and IgA/IgG aPS/PT were as well significantly associated with thrombosis and obstetric complications. We proposed a new quantitative scoring [9] to evaluate the risk of adverse pregnancy events in aPL-positive patients, namely the obstetric risk score—ORS. The ORS showed much higher diagnostic accuracy for obstetric complications compared with any single aPL measure.
Risk stratification is a major challenge in the management of patients with APS, and a possible role of aPL as a risk or even prognostic factor for arterial/venous thrombosis and miscarriages has been intensively discussed [27, 29]. Single, double, and triple aPL positivity is not uncommon in patients with APS, and such multiple positivity is usually associated with a higher risk for the occurrence or recurrence of thrombotic or obstetric adverse event [30, 31]. Recently, two research groups proposed a quantitative index to quantify the likelihood of thrombosis in APS. One included the aPL profile, and the aPL score (aPL-S) [27], whereas the other included both aPL and conventional prothrombotic risk factors, the global APS score (GAPSS) [28]. Both groups included LA and IgG and IgM isotypes of aCL, anti-β2GPI and aPS/PT.
In contrast to risk stratification for thrombotic events, which has been well studied in aPL-positive patients, studies assessing the risk for obstetric complications are scarce. A recent study examined different scoring systems after 2 years of systematic review [9]. They showed that all non-criteria aPL, including IgA aCL, IgA anti-β2GPI, and IgA/IgG aPS/PT were significantly associated with both thrombosis and obstetric complications. They proposed a novel quantitative scoring to evaluate the risk of adverse pregnancy events in aPL-positive patients, namely the obstetric risk score—ORS. The ORS showed much higher diagnostic accuracy for obstetric complications compared with any single aPL measure.
It is known that aPL may be transiently elevated in sera during various infections, including skin infections (18%), human immunodeficiency virus infections (17%), pneumonia (14%), hepatitis C virus (13%), and urinary tract infections (10%) [32]. The presence of aPL in sera and also its clinical significance was first noted in patients with Treponema pallidum infection [33]. With the continued use of cardiolipin-based serologic tests for syphilis diagnosis, it became apparent that a small group of patients with autoimmune diseases, especially SLE, had “false-positive” tests. In 1983, researchers recognized that the presence of aPL in SLE patients was associated with thromboembolic events and recurrent miscarriage, and the term anticardiolipin syndrome and later antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) were coined [34, 35].
Since the global COVID-19 pandemic, a possible link between the presence of aPL and infection with the SARS-CoV-2 virus has been investigated. Several groups have reported the presence of aPL in patients with COVID-19 and have suggested the possibility of SARS-CoV-2 virus-induced APS [36, 37, 38]. Coagulopathy and thrombotic events, including deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, and stroke, are serious manifestations in critically ill patients with COVID-19.
Currently, the role of aPL in thrombotic complications in COVID-19 is still unclear. Similar to the severe coagulopathies associated with COVID-19, patients with CAPS may develop thrombosis in multiple organs within a very short period of time [39]. Because of the similarity between the course of COVID-19 and CAPS, it was hypothesized that SARS-CoV-2 infection could be a possible trigger for APS. Detailed analysis of 23 studies (with a total of 250 patients) of aPL at COVID-19 showed that the presence of LA, aCL, and anti-β2GPI was 64%, 9%, and 13%, respectively [40]. However, none of the included studies reported re-examination of aPL after 12 weeks, so it is not clear whether the aPL presence in COVID-19 patients was transient or persistent. The only study in which aPL testing was repeated after 1 month and in which aPS/PT was also measured included 31 patients with COVID-19 [41]. In this study, elevated aPL levels were confirmed in 74% of patients, but 9/10 of the LA-positive patients retested were negative the second time. This observation supports the frequent single LA positivity during the acute phase of COVID-19 infection.
Later in the pandemic, two independent reviews were published that examined the prevalence of aPL in COVID-19 patients and its clinical significance [42, 43]. The prevalence of LA ranged from 35 to 92% in ICU patients, aCL IgG in 52%, and IgM in 40% of patients, and anti-β2GPI IgG and IgM were found in up to 39% and up to 34% of patients, respectively. Between 1 and 12% of patients had a triple-positive aPL profile [43]. In the second review, the authors primarily examined studies of aCL and anti-β2GPI but also addressed non-criteria aPL [42]. They concluded that aPL positivity may be a feature of COVID-19, at least in some patients, but in general the identified “solid-phase” aPL are of low titer and cannot be well associated with the thrombotic aspects of COVID-19. Also, in the few studies in which persistence was examined, the results seemed to indicate transient positivity of aPL that occurred only during infection. Importantly, high-titer aPL or multiple APL positivity (including double and triple positivity) was in the minority for COVID-19. There is also one important study where antigen specificity of aPL in COVID-19 has been investigated. These researchers have found that, contrary to APS, which is characterized by high aPL titers with specificity against domain 1 on β2GPI, patients with COVID-19 exhibit low titers of anti-β2GPI, with specificity against domains 4 and 5 [44].
The risk of a recurrent thrombotic event in patients with APS is greatly increased in those who have multiple subtypes of aPL (LA, aCL, anti-β2-GPI, aPS/PT), that is, double-, triple-positive patients. In patients with COVID-19, double or triple aPL positivity appears to be rare and aPL positivity appears to be transient. A well-designed, age- and sex-controlled observational study compared the aPL profile of hospitalized COVID patients with that of a) patients with thrombotic APS and b) patients with culturally/serologically proven infections [45]. Their data showed that positive aPL values can be found in half of the patients with infections, as 53% of patients with COVID-19 and 49% of patients with other viral/bacterial infections had positive aPL values. Importantly, however, the aPL profile was different when comparing patients with overt APS and patients with aPL detected in the setting of infections. Therefore, author conclude, caution is required in interpreting and generalizing the role of aPLs in the management of patients with COVID-19.
The relationship between thrombosis and cancer was first established by Trousseau in 1865. Since then, numerous studies have shown that thromboembolism is a common complication of cancer, occurring in 15% of all cancer patients [46, 47]. Despite extensive research and modern interventions, thromboembolic disorders are still a major cause of morbidity and mortality in these patients. The risk of thromboembolic events is four times higher in cancer patients than in the general population and this risk is further increased in patients undergoing chemotherapy [47, 48]. Much of this high risk is attributed to the cancer itself. However, patient-related factors such as age, performance status, body mass index, underlying comorbidities, and therapy are also the important factors. The biological origin of thromboembolic events is related to the pro-coagulant, hypoxic, and inflammatory state associated with tumors, especially in advanced stages [49]. Several mechanisms contribute to the hypercoagulable state observed in cancer, resulting in a complex interplay of various factors, including tissue factors, platelet and endothelial activation, coagulation abnormalities, procoagulants secreted by tumor cells, abnormal blood flow, and abnormal tumor angiogenesis [46, 50]. The question arises whether the presence of aPL further increases the thromboembolic risk in patients with malignancies.
A high prevalence of aCL, anti-β2GPI, LA, anti-phosphatidylcholine, anti-phosphatidylserine, anti-phosphatidylinositol, anti-phosphatidylethanolamine, and anti-prothrombin antibodies has been observed in patients with various types of hematologic malignancies and solid tumors [47]. Therefore, the already increased risk of thrombosis in cancer patients is even higher for carriers of aPL. The reported prevalence of elevated aPL levels in cancer patients varies from less than 5%, which is similar to the prevalence observed in healthy individuals, to as high as 70% [47]. This dramatic range is due in part to different methods being performed, differences in study design, and inconsistent definitions of aPL positivity in the medical literature. In general, aPL tests are highly heterogeneous and poorly standardized. In addition, most studies examined the prevalence of aPL only once and did not repeat the test after 3 months, so the frequency may be overestimated. A recent systematic review of observational studies found an increased risk of developing aPL in patients with gastrointestinal, genitourinary, and lung cancer, leading to thromboembolic events and death [51]. In addition, a 17-year observational study of 1592 non-thrombotic women with three consecutive spontaneous abortions before the 10-week gestation or fetal death at or after 10-week gestation showed that the risk of cancer was significantly higher in women with a history of obstetric APS than in the general population [52]. Recently, one research group investigated the presence of criteria and non-criteria aPL in patients with uterine malignancies [53]. The authors found that non-criteria aPL (against phosphatidic acid, phosphatidylserine, annexin V, and prothrombin) are more common in patients with uterine malignancies (UM) than in patients with non-cancerous gynecological diseases (NCGD). In contrast, the criteria aPL did not differ significantly between UM and the NCGD group. It is interesting to note that several studies associate non-criteria aPL, especially antiprothrombin antibodies, with obstetric complications, while they could not confirm the association with either anti-β2GPI or LA [11, 12].
In conclusion, aPL levels appear to be elevated in patients with various malignancies, increasing their risk for thromboembolic events. In the future, it would be important to conduct well-designed large-scale population studies as well as longitudinal studies on patients with various cancers to determine the true risk and confirm whether the increased prevalence of aPL positivity is transient. Although aPL positivity may help assess the risk of blood clots, there are currently no strong data to recommend aPL screening in cancer patients.
Low aCL levels are found in up to 10% of healthy individuals, and the prevalence of a positive aPL test increases with age [10]. High aPL levels and persistent positivity are rare in healthy individuals (less than 1%). There are no recent studies investigating the level of criterion-related or non-criterion-related aPL in the general population. The clinical significance of aPL in healthy individuals remains unclear. It is important to emphasize that not every positive test for aPL is of clinical significance, and patients with aPL are at different risk for adverse events related to aPL. A rare prospective study in which healthy blood donors were tested for aPL twice 1 year apart showed 10% positivity for aCL and 1% positivity LA at the first measurement. Of note, less than 1% of subjects were still positive after 1 year [54]. Therefore, in parallel with other cardiovascular risk factors such as hypertension, elevated cholesterol, diabetes, smoking or obesity, patients with aPL have a higher risk of adverse events. It is known that aPL can occur transiently during infections or other occasions. This is an important reason why aPL should be tested twice within 12 weeks, which is also embodied in the international classification criteria for APS.
Recently, an administrative database study of aPL in the general population was published that characterized patterns of aPL testing in a sample from the United States using laboratory data from 2010 to 2015. They identified 33,456 individuals with at least one aPL test. Of these, only 6391 (19%) had all three tests (LA, aCL, aGP1) performed. Confirmatory aPL tests were performed at least 12 weeks later in 77, 45, and 41% of initially positive LA, aCL, and aGP1, respectively. Of those retested, only 255 (10.6%) had a confirmatory positive aPL test. The most important finding is the low rate of a confirmatory positive aPL test ≥12 weeks after the first test, indicating that aPL testing is often be incomplete. Further investigation in the form of large-scale population studies as well as longitudinal studies is needed to better understand the clinical relevance of aPL in healthy individuals from different backgrounds.
The heterogeneity and non-specificity of the possible clinical symptoms highlight that APS is a true systemic autoimmune disease and emphasizes the need for a better understanding of the disease mechanisms that will allow a personalized treatment approach. In the general population, the incidence of clinical manifestations in APS is high and could often be triggered by other underlying factors. Therefore, the diagnosis of APS relies predominantly on laboratory measurements. Despite the many attempts to increase the specificity of laboratory criteria and to establish consensus criteria for serology, a high number of patients are still misdiagnosed. Treatment of APS requires an interprofessional team approach involving multiple specialties. Family physicians play an important role in identifying patients with APLS. Hematologists and rheumatologists play a critical role in diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up. Involvement of other specialties such as neurology, nephrology, cardiology, and dermatology may also be necessary if a particular organ system is affected. In addition, anticoagulation clinics can play an important role in monitoring therapeutic warfarin levels and INR levels with close follow-up. Last but not the least, pharmacists can help in the management of these patients, especially in identifying drug–drug interactions. Close communication between the interprofessional team and close monitoring of the patient is essential in the management of APS.
Table grapes are destined for fresh human consumption because of their sensory, nutritional, and commercial attributes, which is in line with the definition adopted for table grapes by the
The consumption of the grapes can be fresh, or derived products such as juices, wines, raisins, and has increased due to the identification of beneficial compounds for human health in its constitution [2].
The culture of the vine is one of the most important agricultural crops in the world. The world production of grapes intended for all uses, in 2018, was 77.8 million tons, 57% wine grapes, 36% table grapes and 7% dried grapes [3]. In 2018 the world production of table grapes was 27.3 million tons (Figure 1).
Major producer countries by type of grape in 2018 [
In 2020, the world area planted with vines for all purposes, wine, juices, table grapes and raisins, is estimated at 7.3 million hectares. An apparent stabilization hides the reduction in the vineyard surface in Iran, Turkey, Portugal, Uzbekistan, and USA. The leading countries in 2020, were Spain, France, China, and Italy, respectively with 13.1%, 10.9%, 10.7%, 9.8% of vineyard surface area (Figure 2) [4].
Evolution of the world vineyard surface area from 2000 to 2020 (in million hectares) [
The world consumption of table grapes has increased in recent decades, and there has been an increase in consumer demand for high quality table grapes [5]. According to the
World table grapes production from 2000 to 2018 in million tons [
A more detailed analysis of the world table grape production, considering the 2018/2014 ratio, shows an overall value of 2% and allows us to verify that Latin American countries like Peru and Mexico show an important production increase (respectively 0.8% and 0.5%) and Uzbekistan, USA, Brazil, South Africa, Greece, Spain, and Australia show more modest increments between 0.1 and 0.3%. In contrast, Turkey and India show even slight decreases in production [4]. In 2019, Europe produced 1.7 million tons of table grapes for fresh consumption, and ten years ago the production was more than 2.0 million tons (https://www.cbi.eu/market-information/fresh-fruit-vegetables/table-grapes/market-potential).
In the year 2018, China was outstanding as the world’s leading table grape producer, producing 9.5 million tons of grapes. The second ones were Turkey and India producing 1.9 million tons each, as it can be appreciated a much lower value.
Another important observation is the increasing exportation of fresh grapes from Chile, Peru, and Turkey, developing countries and new producers. Chilean season starts in December until April, and the USA, China, Netherlands, UK, Korea are main markets for Chilean grapes due to the cycle opposite to that of the Northern Hemisphere.
The import volume of table grapes from non-European suppliers has gradually increased from 602,000 to 694,000 tonnes between 2015 and 2019, corresponding to a value of 1.4 billion Euros in 2019 (Figure 4).
European imports of table grapes from non-European suppliers (
The main grape producing countries worldwide are Italy, France, USA, Spain, and China. The more non-European significant grape exporters in the international market were Chile, and USA and in Europe, Italy. On the other side, in 2018, only three countries in Europe imported 25% of the grapes traded globally, namely United Kingdom, Germany, and Netherlands.
The existence of market strategies can be perceived as the introduction of new varieties to different products, a goal to be reached by producers, mainly important producers and companies that are gaining prominence in the international market. Big grape companies are anticipating consumer preferences of seedless grapes and sustainable packaging, for large markets, such as the United Kingdom and Germany.
The crisis caused by the Covid-19 pandemics, turned 2020 into an abnormal year, regarding international trade, and dramatically decreased the demand for table grapes in the supermarkets, for example in Germany and in the UK. This crisis serves to test the resilience of the sector and to be expecting new opportunities in the value chain [6].
The
Axis I - Promote environmentally friendly viticulture, facing climate change through mitigation and adaptation activities.
Axis II - Promote economic activity in accordance with the principles of sustainable development and growth and globalization of markets.
Axis III - Contribute to social development through vitiviniculture.
In the 2020/2021 season, the global production of table grapes is estimated to be maintained at 25.7 million tons, although production in key productive regions, such as Chile, Europe, and the United States substantially decreased, mainly due to the increased production in China [7].
Grapevine is a hardy perennial plant, which belongs to the family
The genus
The subgenus
Nowadays, the genus
The existing grape varieties have different features, regarding shape and size of the berry and bunch, berry tonality, organoleptic quality, productivity, among others, which give them aptitude for different uses.
Grapes can be considered for different uses according to their characteristics: (a) wine production and fermented grape products using varieties with higher acidity and moderate sugar content, (b) table grapes for fresh consumption, using varieties with low acidity, low in sugar and that meet specific standards of size, color and shape and (c) raisins, suitable varieties being seedless, with low acidity and rich in sugars [13].
According to recent data presented in the
In table grape cultivars, berry size, firmness, sweetness, and color are important characteristics [14]. Berry size and yield are desirable in table grape vineyards, for which full irrigation is recommended [15].
However, some trials conducted by Shahidian and colleagues [16], in a vineyard of ‘Crimson’, with different irrigation sub-treatments with stress periods, showed significant decrease in mean berry weight, and thus in marketable fruit and also reduction in total soluble solids and an increase titratable acidity (TA), so the consequences of this stress period were a reduction in the maturity index and a delay in the maturity. The use of sap flow ratio between well irrigated reference vines and vines under reduced irrigation can potentially contribute to water savings, in order to find the level of irrigation reduction at non-critical stages of vine growth, triggering irrigation events only at a previously defined critical threshold.
The quality parameters of table grapes differ from wine berries quality parameters, and therefore irrigation practices to optimize berry quality can be quite different [17].
In wine vineyards, full irrigation is not recommended because it increases the size of the berries, which produces a decrease in the proportion of pulp in the skin, which does not benefit the quality of the wine.
Not be forgotten the use of rootstocks in grape plantation, that has become a common practice among grape growers around the world, mainly because rootstocks allow the culture to be conducted under unfavorable soil conditions, such as the presence of nematodes, diseases and pests, high salinity, among others [18, 19]. Around the world, most vineyards are grafted onto commercial hybrid rootstocks from
In the last decades, the cultivation of seedless table grape cultivars has increased considerably, because consumers in many countries highly appreciate these new varieties, seedless, with firm and sweet berries [21]. However, those who think that these seedless table grapes are new are mistaken, because as early as the 19th century, William Thompson in California achieved the first significant crop, 50 pounds of seedless grapes. This breeding work has relied on varieties from Turkey and local rootstocks.
The production of seedless, i.e., apyrenic, table grape varieties has been of increasing interest, mainly because the demand in recent decades has grown, since this type of fruit is more convenient to consume [21, 22]. In addition, the selling price of these varieties is usually higher than that of seeded grapes. So, many of the new table grape varieties that have recently come onto the market are apyrenic, and more appreciated and sought after by consumers.
In the case of seedless grapes, it is possible to distinguish two mechanisms of seedlessness depending on the time when development was disrupted: (a) parthenocarpy (observed in Corinth cultivars), which occurs when the ovary is able to develop without fertilization of the ovum; (b) stenospermocarpy (observed in Thompson cultivars), when pollination and fertilization trigger ovary development, but embryo/ovule abortion occurs 2 to 4 weeks after fertilization, and partially developed seeds or traces of seed are visible in the grape [23, 24, 25]. In seeded grapes, the transition from flower to fruit requires pollination and fertilization of the ovary for seed formation [23].
According to Costenaro-da-Silva et al. [26] and Varoquaux et al. [25] the parthenocarpy mechanism leads to the development of very small seedless and spherical berries that are usually considered for raisin production, while stenospermocarpy leads to the development of berries with dimensions compatible with commercial requirements for fresh consumption.
According to Picarella and Mazzucato [24] the term parthenocarpy is used in the broad sense to indicate both forms of apyrenia.
However, to obtain a bunch of grapes with a considerable number of well-developed berries, it is necessary to apply particular and complex hormonal treatments. Gibberellic acid is used to thin the bunch berries, elongate the bunch, increase berry size, and reduce seed traces. The concentration of the initial spray of gibberellic acid depends on the cultivar [25].
Seedlessness can also be induced by applying hormones to young inflorescences [24].
The shelf-life of seedless fruits is expected to be longer than seeded fruits, since seeds produce hormones that activate senescence [25].
The bunches are pyramid-shaped, conical, with wings, semicircular. They can reach exceptionally large dimensions and weight. Berries are seeded large and spherical (9–10 g), consistent, the skin can be easily peeled, with a physical resistance worth mentioning that allow easy management and contribute to a long shelf-life. ‘Red Globe’ grapes are very sweet with a high soluble solids content (SSC) (19°Brix) and an SSC/TA ratio of 49, which makes them highly appreciated by consumers [27]. They also have a high resistance to rupture in compression, which makes them particularly interesting for postharvest handling and transport [27]. It is an early-budding variety with a long and late maturity period and a long shelf-life.
This variety is the second most cultivated variety for table grapes, covers 159,000 hectares worldwide, and 91% of the area under this variety is in China. ‘Red Globe’ yields between 8 and 30 tons per hectare [11].
‘Cardinal’ berries are large, spherical with a bright green color and a crisp flesh. They present a slight muscat flavor when fully ripe. This variety was introduced in Europe after the Second World War, and it is very important in the Mediterranean region. Preliminary results obtained with ‘Cardinal’ grapes grown in the south of Portugal have 17.5°Brix, an acidity of 0.43 g/100 g−1 fresh weight, and an SSC/TA ratio of 45 [27].
The berries are large, oval, with a crunchy texture, juicy, sweet, and present a very yellow color. The bunches are medium-sized and well filled out. Long harvest period until the end of the season.
The bunches are long, medium full and have an average weight of 600 g. The berries are large (17–20 mm) and oval, with a medium-thick, firm skin covered with pruin, and the pulp is crunchy, resistant, juicy, and medium sweet (14°-16°Brix). Preliminary results for ‘Palieri’ grapes from the south of Portugal have 15°Brix, an acidity of 0.20 g/100 g−1 fresh weight, and an SSC/TA ratio of 40 [27]. ‘Palieri’ grapes are resistant to handling and transport due to high coefficients of apparent elasticity and firmness of the flesh. Moreover, berries are characterized by their high resistance to compression and a low resistance to rupture [27].
‘Dona Maria’ is a Portuguese variety obtained in the 1950’s in the
The cultivation and consumption of seedless table grape cultivars has increased considerably in recent years, by demand of the consumer who highly appreciates the absence of seeds and is willing to pay more for these sweet, firm and seedless grapes [17]. In fact, one of the objectives of the current breeding programs is to obtain varieties with good characteristics and mandatorily seedless [23]. ‘Thompson Seedless’ is the main source of seedlessness for breeding programs around the world, while also being an important commercial seedless variety for consumption [26].
According to FAO and OIV [29], the criteria to select the new varieties, among other, are: the presence or absence of seeds, shape, color, skin thickness, maturity period, resistance against diseases and pests, capacity to be transported without damage and shelf-life.
Although it seems impossible to list the current commercialized varieties of table grapes, a summary description of those considered to be the most significant, taking into account the following criteria: the varieties with commercial/economic importance, worldwide; the varieties that are very innovative and those that, in our opinion, will be prominent in the future.
According to Fortes and Pais [30], the traditional varieties of
Recently, a group of researchers from the
‘Sultanina’ is the first apyrenic or seedless variety cultivated in the world. The synonyms for ‘Sultanina’ are numerous: ‘Kishmish’ in Afghanistan, ‘Thompson Seedless’, ‘Sultana’, or ‘White Sultana’, ‘Kišmiš’, among others [11]. It is an ancient grape variety, originating from Afghanistan. This variety has a multiple purpose use, for drying to produce raisins, for vinification to produce wine especially in Turkey and the USA, distilled to make a spirit beverage (Raki, a typical Turkish beverage obtained by distilling fresh or dried grapes, flavored with aniseed and with an alcohol content of 45%) and also for fresh consumption [11, 32]. ‘Sultanina’ grapes are highly valued by customers as table grapes due to their organoleptic quality characteristics, mainly sweetness, sharpness, firmness, and light green brilliant color. The berries are seedless, elliptical, of small to medium size, 16–22 mm, and cylindrical in shape, yellowish green. Their flavor is said to be sharp, sweet (17°-19°Brix), juicy and the pulp crisp and consistent. The bunches are large, cylindrical, or conical and compact, with a very variable weight depending on cultivation practices, between 350 g and 700 g. Their small caliber can be improved trough applications of gibberellic acid. Maturation is somewhat late.
According to OIV [11], this variety is the leading variety of table and raisin grapes in the world, with about 273,000 hectares, however, the OIV estimates a decrease of vineyards. It is particularly cultivated in Middle Eastern countries and Central Asia. As extreme production values we can refer to 80 tons/hectare in South Africa [11]. This is one of the most economically important fruit crops worldwide [33, 34].
‘Kyoho’ or ‘Kioho’ is one of the obtained varieties in Japan before the Second World War, resulting of a cross between tetraploid cultivars of
‘Kyoho’ cultivation area reached 365,000 hectares in 2015, being the most widely grown grape variety in the world. In China more than 90% of the table grape area is occupied with this variety, in Japan, is the most produced one, and ‘Kyoho’ grapes are very appreciate in South Korea, China and Thailand. The Asiatic consumers appreciate the big caliber and the soft pulp.
‘Crimson Seedless’ is a late apyrenic table grape variety. It is one of the most produced table grape cultivars in the world. It results from five generations of hybridizations at the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Horticultural Field Station in Fresno (California), and this breeding program started in 1926 [35]. The last cross was between the
The berries contain inside two aborted seeds that are practically undetectable by consumers. The pulp is light yellow, translucent, fleshy, and firm. Regarding epidermis, it is thick, offers medium resistance and well adhered to the pulp [35]. ‘Crimson’ grapes present a medium degree of acidity, and the index of ripeness, SSC/TA ratio, varying between 35 and 40 [37]. ‘Crimson’ presents heterogeneously colored berries and bunches, which depreciates its external evaluation. So, to avoid this obstacle the bunches must be exposed to adequate sunlight during ripening, for this it is common to thin out the shoots and remove the basal leaves that surround the bunches increasing the sun incidence on the bunches [38].
Because it is a variety with the characteristics already described and late harvesting, it becomes desirable to increase the availability of these grapes in the market for a longer period, in order to sell them during a time of low supply, when there are higher prices, which could be extremely important for producers [39].
‘Autumn Royal’ developed by the University of California in Fresno, USA, is a seedless variety that presents large berries, which confers a high commercial value to these grapes. A recent seedless grape variety with large, conical bunches (400-600 g) and elongated, 17–22 mm, dark purple-black thin skin and crunchy skin, translucent white yellow-green and firm flesh. The thin skin hides a firm texture and a crunchy flesh with a neutral flavor and medium sweetness (14°-19°Brix). Generally, these grapes are seedless, however they can develop seed beginnings not detected by consumers.
‘Autumn Royal’ is a late-season grape adequate to extend the season. Ripening in the middle of summer, Spanish producers harvested this variety from mid-August to mid-September [40].
This variety is susceptible to berry cracking, and this problem has been the subject of numerous studies [41, 42]. Another negative aspect is the weak attachment of the berries to the rachis, for what it should be recommended to handle the bunches very carefully during harvest and postharvest [43].
The grapes are clustered into berries, and each cluster is made up of two distinct parts: the stalk (the woody part) and the berries (the fleshy, edible part). The stalk is composed of a main axis, the rachis (longest branch) that is attached to the peduncle, and shorter branches, the pedicels, which support the berries and provide them with water and mineral salts [44, 45].
The berry, in which the edible part corresponds to the pericarp, is the complex of tissues that surround the seeds, being constituted by three layers [10, 44, 45]:
The exocarp (skin) is the external part of the berry, consisting of a heterogeneous and elastic membrane that distends with the development of the berry. The constituent cells of this layer have an active metabolism, presenting a regulatory function, namely of transpiration, of other tissues of the pericarp. The compounds responsible for the color, flavor and aroma are accumulate in the tissues of this layer.
The mesocarp (flesh or pulp) is composed of large, thin-walled, polygonal-shaped cells, which are apparently somewhat disorganized. This layer accumulates high amounts of organic acids and sugars in the vacuoles.
The endocarp is the tissue surrounding the seeds, with more organized cells, but difficult to distinguish from the mesocarp.
The process of berry development and growth has been the subject of numerous studies, it seems to be consensual that it is characterized by a double sigmoid curve, divided into three distinct stages that report to periods in which specific changes occur in berry development [44, 46, 47]:
This initial phase is characterized by a rapid period of berry growth, which is due to both cell division and an increase in cell volume [43, 45]. The berry, green and firm, behaves like any other green organ of the vine, i.e., it performs photosynthesis and respiration functions [48]. Chlorophyll is the predominant pigment during this phase [47]. In this period the respiration rate is high and there is accumulation of organic acids, such as malic acid and tartaric acid, but the sugar content is reduced, since sugars are consumed during cell multiplication [43]. Cell division decreases and the number of cells becomes definitive, and the final size and shape of the berries is determined [10].
This period is characterized by a decrease in the rapid growth rate of the berry and the concentration of organic acids reaches its highest level [45]. The berries remain firm, but photosynthesis, respiration rate and chlorophyll concentration decrease [43]. The determination of the maturity phase is accomplished by the duration of a phase of near stability, referred to as the lag phase [10]. The transition between phases II and III is known as
This final stage is characterized by a decrease in the growth of the berry, due to the cessation of cell multiplication, and the increase in volume caused exclusively by the enlargement of its cells. The ripening of the berry begins, and the loss of firmness is marked [45]. The loss of chlorophyll and the increase in the level of abscisic acid, which has an influence on the accumulation of polyphenols, leads to the white cultivars acquiring a translucent yellow and the red ones a light and later dark red color [43]. The supply of water, minerals, cations and sugars is carried by the phloem, since the xylem vessels are blocked from the moment when the berry reaches 6 to 7°Brix [47]. Sugar content increases, while TA decreases [43].
Water is one of the main constituents of grape berries, and significant amounts are required for their full growth and development [43]. At maturity, grape berries have a water content of around 75–80% of their fresh weight [49].
Throughout berry development, water losses occur mainly due to transpiration, and this intensity depends on climatic conditions and changes during berry development [49]. Most of the water required by the fruit is supplied by the xylem until
Sugars result from the photosynthesis process carried out in the green organs of the vine, migrating to the various parts of the plant in the form of sucrose [49]. Until the beginning of the
Sucrose, a sugar predominantly transported in the phloem, is formed by the union of a glucose and a fructose molecule. When the sucrose is in the berry it is hydrolyzed, forming again the referred hexoses (fructose and glucose), existing in the pulp [43, 44].
At harvest, the amounts of glucose and fructose are approximately identical, varying between 8 and 12% of the fresh weight of the fruits, and after maturity there is a tendency for fructose to predominate [43]. Sucrose and other sugars are present in the fruit, but in very small amounts [43].
The main organic acids present in grape berries are tartaric, malic and citric acids, with the first two representing more than 90% of the total acids in the berry [43, 44, 45]. Tartaric acid is a secondary product of sugar metabolism and its content increases during herbaceous growth due to intense cell multiplication. Regarding malic acid, it is an intermediate of sugar metabolism and during herbaceous growth the sugar produced gives rise to this acid that is stored in the vacuoles of the pulp cells [45]. Tartaric acid is biosynthesized before
During
Phenolic compounds, also called polyphenols, are organic compounds that result from the secondary metabolism of plants and are biosynthesized through the shikimic acid cycle. They are defined as substances that have an aromatic ring consisting of six carbon atoms with one or more hydroxyl groups or derivatives of this basic structure [49]. The phenolic content of plant-based food depends on intrinsic factors such as genus, species and variety and extrinsic factors such as agronomic and environmental conditions, ripening process, and storage conditions. Phenolic compounds are present in the berry since its formation, resulting from the catabolism of sugars [44]. They are synthesized in the berry, with different amounts, proportion and types in the skin, pulp, and seeds, and can vary significantly among cultivars [44, 50]. Regarding the total phenolic compounds present in the berry, it is known that in the skin the total extractable phenolic compounds are between 28 and 35%, the pulp presents values below 10% and the seeds between 60 and 70% [50]. Grape is one of the major sources of phenolic compounds in the human diet, the main classes of phenolics compounds in grapes are flavan-3-ols, tannins, anthocyanins, flavonols, hydroxycinnamic acids, hydroxybenzoic acids and stilbenes [49]. These compounds are of great interest since they have high nutritional value and protective function against diseases caused by oxidative damage, such as heart disease, stroke and cancer [49]. White grapes, when compared to red grapes, have lower total phenolics contents, partially because they do not synthesize anthocyanins in significant amounts [44]. These compounds can act as antioxidants in several ways, namely by scavenging free radicals, scavenging oxygen radicals and as chelators of metal ions [50]. Moreover, they play an important role in grape quality, since they inhibit lipid oxidation and participate in the processes responsible for color, astringency and aroma, inhibit lipid oxidation and fungal proliferation [50].
Mineral elements naturally originate in the soil and their accumulation in grape berries is accomplished via the xylem, except for potassium which accumulates via phloem [51]. These elements constitute between 0.2 and 0.6% of the fresh weight of the berry [52]. During berry growth, the accumulation of large amounts of nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, and magnesium occurs, with the main mineral being potassium [49]. The accumulation of nitrogen and potassium is carried out before and after
There are different definitions for food texture, and it can be evaluated through sensory analysis and/or instrumental methods, which are related to the evaluation of food structure and the determination of its chemical composition. Textural attributes vary during the pre- and postharvest period, being affected by ripening stage, plant nutrition, water stress, storage temperature and relative humidity [53].
The fruit texture is dependent on the biomolecules involved in the cellular structure of the cell walls being the changes mostly attributed to changes in the composition and structure of cell wall polysaccharides [54].
With the initiating changes in fruit texture, there are modifications in the chemistry of the middle lamella and primary cell wall components (pectins, celluloses, and hemicelluloses) that accelerate the loss of fruit firmness [55, 56]. Studies conducted during storage period of grapes suggest that a reduction of cell wall pectins and hemicelluloses occurs, since during fruit ripening these undergo solubilization and depolymerization, which contributes to cell wall disintegration [56, 57]. Moreover, softening has also been associated with the flow of carbohydrates and osmotically active nutrients to the fruit due to competition for the accumulated reserves and the phytohormonal-caused differential movement of solutes [38].
According to Ejsmentewicz et al. [56], homogalacturonan (HG) is proposed as one of the main components of the cell wall, involved in the texture changes of fruits.
The importance of texture evaluation is due to the knowledge of these textural changes during ripening, and storage and with the differences found among varieties, being a quality attribute valued by consumers in table grapes.
The rheological behavior of foods is related to the deformation, disintegration, and flow when a force is applied, and the response can be evaluated as a function of force, time, and deformation. According to Abbott [58], fruits have a viscoelastic behavior when subjected to a load, so the force, time and deformation (intensity, duration and speed of the load) determine their rheological behavior.
In table grapes, the instrumental determination of the consistency of the berry epidermis and the compactness of the pulp, provides relevant information about the acceptability of the product by the consumer [59]. Grape berry texture is one of the most important quality parameters affecting the consumption of this fruit [56, 58].
According to Rolle et al. [60], from the point of view of consumer texture of table grape berry includes different attributes, mainly hardness (firmness), elasticity, shape, and sensations in the mouth during chewing.
The texture analysis is a rapid, and low-cost analytical technique, that can be applied in viticulture and enology as a routine monitoring tool for the grape quality. Previous studies have indicated that the grape texture is linked to cultivar and growing location, reflecting a terroir influence on grape quality [61, 62], and instrumental texture parameters were used to investigate the effects of vineyard practices [38, 50].
The color of the grape skin or exocarp is classified as green-yellow, pink, red, red-gray, violet-dark red, blue-black and red-black [63]. This attribute can be easily assessed instrumentally in color spaces, the most commonly used being CIELab, in which the color is defined by the coordinates L*, a* and b*.
The quality of a product encompasses sensory attributes, nutritional value, chemical constituents, textural properties, functional properties, and defects [58]. Consumers use their five senses - sight (appearance), smell (aroma), taste, touch (texture) and hearing to evaluate the product quality, and integrate all these senses to decide on the acceptability of the product [58].
In the specific case of consumer acceptability and quality evaluation of table grapes different attributes must be considered, which are reached in the third and last stage of berry development, and includes intrinsic (visual, mechanical, chemical, etc) and extrinsic (cultivar, production methods, country of origin, price, etc) attributes [59].
Visual characteristics and physicochemical properties are involved in sensory and quality evaluation of table grapes. The color, size and shape of the berry are the primary characteristics that consumers observe, together with taste, aroma, and texture [59, 64]. Consumers favor freshly picked, moderately dense triangular bunches, with a fresh, green-colored rachis. They also prefer grapes with juicy, firm flesh and few or no seeds [45, 59].
The firmness of grape berries is a quality parameter widely associated with the characteristic of crunchiness, and indicates that they have been recently harvested [54]. Loss of firmness is associated with loss of turgidity and physiological modifications that affect berry structure [54, 56].
The harvest date of table grapes is set by the producer taking into account the following quality parameters: SSC, TA, SSC/TA ratio and color [59].
Table grapes are considered non-climacteric fruits with a relatively low rate of physiological activity that exhibits a gradual decrease in respiration during ripening [65]. The berries exhibit very low ethylene production and low respiratory intensity, while the respiratory intensity of the rachis is 15 times higher than that of the berries [45]. Therefore, the quality of table grapes tends to deteriorate rapidly during postharvest, reducing its shelf-life.
Table grapes are subject to severe postharvest losses during the storage and long-distance transport, being mainly of physiological, mechanical, and microbial infection origin [66]. During postharvest, table grapes are sensitive to rapid moisture loss, which results in rachis drying and browning, water loss, berry shatter, and fungal infections (mainly caused by
It is generally agreed that the most important and destructive postharvest disease in table grapes is gray rot, caused by the fungus
Magnifying glass observation of Botrytis cinerea on a ‘Crimson’ table grape berry using an Olympus SZ61 at 350X magnification.
Another disease that occurs during the postharvest period is blue rot caused by fungi of the genus
Magnifying glass observation of Penicillium spp. on a ‘Crimson’ table grape berry using an Olympus SZ61 at 350X magnification.
The contact of infected fruit with healthy fruit, leads to its contamination, so that through the existence of an inoculum in a berry, it easily spreads throughout the cluster [47]. The infection can be initiated in the vineyard, in the packaging units or during the storage period.
The most commonly applied postharvest techniques are based on the optimization of temperature and control of the relative humidity of surrounding atmosphere, as well as the development of packaging, which limits the decrease in moisture content and protects against physical damage during the entire postharvest period.
Temperatures between −1 and 1°C and 90 to 95% relative humidity are established as assertive conditions for table grapes [45, 47]. Refrigeration, associated with high relative humidity, is one of the most appropriate technologies to extend the shelf-life of fruits, since low temperatures decrease biochemical reactions, microbial activity and minimize moisture loss by reducing transpiration [67].
The commercially recommended method for table grape preservation consists of rapid pre-cooling immediately after harvest followed by sulfur dioxide (SO2) spraying, keeping the temperature and relative humidity at these values constantly throughout the storage period, which will decrease the losses associated with this period [47]. The use of sodium metabisulfite generators is another of the table grape preservation practices commonly used in the international market, in the form of papers impregnated with the active substance, or bags with the solution or powder formulation, considering the higher the temperature and relative humidity, the faster the gas is generated [47].
Modified atmosphere packaging (MAP), associated with refrigeration, has beneficial effects in preventing weight loss, reducing metabolic activity, decreasing color changes in the berry and rachis, reducing respiration rate, decreasing microbial populations with consequent reduction of fungal incidence over shelf-life [68, 69]. Moreover, several studies have referred the use of MAP in table grapes, with perforated and non-perforated plastic films, based especially on polyethylene and polypropylene [69].
The use of controlled atmospheres (CA) is another technique used to maintain quality attributes and control postharvest losses in table grapes.
In addition to the techniques presented, it is also possible to mention the use of ultraviolet radiation (UV-C) [70], hypobaric and hyperbaric treatments [71] and treatments with gaseous ozone, ozone in water or ozone injection in the cooling chambers [72, 73, 74].
Therefore, it remains necessary to develop strategic, residue-free alternatives for postharvest quality control of table grapes that are safe for health and the environment and compatible with commercial practices.
In recent years, there has been a growing interest in the use of innovative and environmentally friendly technologies, such as edible coatings or films and biodegradable films associated with the application of natural compounds, like essential oils, that will both add value to food products and extend their shelf-life [75, 76, 77].
The nutritional and functional interest of grapes in the human diet makes relevant the knowledge of its chemical composition, which is very complex. Although there are differences in the chemical level for different varieties, agronomic aspects, and locations. The chemical composition of grapes (European type, such as ‘Thompson seedless’), red or green, raw, is presented below in a generic way, according to the USDA
Water | 80.54 g | Total dietary fiber | 0.90 g |
Energy | 69.00 Kcal | Sugars | 15.48 g |
Protein content | 0.72 g | Sucrose | 0.15 g |
Fat content | 0.16 g | Glucose | 7.20 g |
Carbohydrates (by difference) | 18.10 g | Fructose | 8.13 g |
Calcium (Ca) | 10.00 mg | Potassium (K) | 191.00 mg |
Iron (Fe) | 0.36 mg | Sodium (Na) | 2.00 mg |
Magnesium (Mg) | 7.00 mg | Zinc (Zn) | 0.07 mg |
Phosphorus (P) | 20.00 mg | Copper (Cu) | 0.13 mg |
Vitamin C (total ascorbic acid) | 3.200 mg | Folate, total | 2.000 μg |
Thiamin | 0.069 mg | Vitamin B12 | 0.000 μg |
Riboflavin | 0.070 mg | Vitamin A | 3.000 μg |
Niacin | 0.188 mg | Vitamin E | 0.190 mg |
Vitamin B6 | 0.086 mg | Vitamin D | 0.000 μg |
Saturated fatty acids (SFA) | 0.054 g | ||
Monounsaturated Fatty Acids (MUFA) | 0.007 g | ||
Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFA) | 0.048 g |
Chemical composition of table grapes. Nutritional information about energy value of the grape per 100 grams of fresh weight for organic constituents; per 100 g of dry weight for minerals [78].
In general, table grapes, like other fruits, have a high-water content, close to 80%, provide carbohydrates, mainly in the form of sugars, and are low in proteins and lipids. It also noteworthy the large quantity and diversity of vitamins, essential amino acids, and minerals, with a high potassium content.
It should also be noted that grapes are rich in different polyphenols (phytochemicals which are antioxidant compounds), which contribute to physiological and biological activity for the food industry such as antioxidant and antimicrobial activities [79, 80].
Resveratrol is a phenolic compound with antioxidant activity, present in berry skin of grapes. Analyses with ‘Dona Maria’ grapes revealed that this variety has high concentrations of this compound [28].
In recent years, there has been a notable increase in the interest for grape by-products, such as seeds and skins, which have nutritional properties and biological potential with nutritional and pharmaceutical application, such as anticancer, anti-inflammatory, cardiovascular prevention [79, 81, 82].
Table grape production worldwide has been stable for several years, mainly due to increased production in China. In fact, conventional production areas, such as Europe or the United States, have decreased their production area in recent years. Some players in the international table grape market are gaining relevance, such as South Africa and South American countries.
Traditional table grape varieties, such as ‘Red Globe’ or ‘Cardinal’, are still commercially interesting varieties, mainly due to their extended shelf-life. However, consumers prefer seedless varieties, especially for their sweetness, such as ‘Crimson’ or ‘Thomson Seedless’/‘Sultanina’. In fact, although research on some of these varieties has been done for quite some time now, they are still a challenge to producers due to their shorter shelf-life, related to reduced viability and browning of the rachis, among other problems.
Innovative preservation postharvest methodologies need to be further developed and tested under field conditions, in a joint, collaborative effort between academia and producers, to extend the shelf-life of the most valued seedless table grape varieties.
This work was supported by Portuguese National Funds through FCT -
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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He received his Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Assiut University, Egypt, in 1989. His research interest is in analytical and environmental chemistry with special emphasis on: (1) monitoring and assessing biological trace elements and toxic metals in human blood, urine, water, crops, vegetables, and medicinal plants; (2) relationships between environmental heavy metals and human diseases; (3) uses of biological indicators for monitoring water pollution; (4) environmental chemistry of lakes, rivers, and well water; (5) water and wastewater treatment by adsorption and photocatalysis techniques; (6) soil and water pollution monitoring, control, and treatment; and (7) advanced oxidation treatment. Prof. Rashed has supervised several MSc and Ph.D. theses in the field of analytical and environmental chemistry. He served as an examiner for several Ph.D. theses in analytical chemistry in India, Kazakhstan, and Botswana. He has published about ninety scientific papers in peer-reviewed international journals and several papers in national and international conferences. He participated as an invited speaker at thirty international conferences. Prof. Rashed is the editor-in-chief and an editorial board member for several international journals in the fields of chemistry and environment. He is a member of several national and international societies. He received the Egyptian State Award for Environmental Research in 2001 and the Aswan University Merit Award for Basic Science in 2020. Prof. Rashed was recognized in Stanford University’s list of the World’s Top 2% Scientists in 2020 and 2021.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"11478",title:"Recent Advances in the Study of Dyslexia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11478.jpg",hash:"26764a18c6b776698823e0e1c3022d2f",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"June 30th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"294281",title:"Prof.",name:"Jonathan",surname:"Glazzard",slug:"jonathan-glazzard",fullName:"Jonathan Glazzard"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:54,paginationItems:[{id:"81595",title:"Prosthetic Concepts in Dental Implantology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104725",signatures:"Ivica Pelivan",slug:"prosthetic-concepts-in-dental-implantology",totalDownloads:22,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Current Concepts in Dental Implantology - From Science to Clinical Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10808.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"80963",title:"Pain Perception in Patients Treated with Ligating/Self-Ligating Brackets versus Patients Treated with Aligners",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102796",signatures:"Farid Bourzgui, Rania Fastani, Salwa Khairat, Samir Diouny, Mohamed El Had, Zineb Serhier and Mohamed Bennani Othmani",slug:"pain-perception-in-patients-treated-with-ligating-self-ligating-brackets-versus-patients-treated-wit",totalDownloads:21,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Current Trends in Orthodontics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10780.jpg",subseries:{id:"2",title:"Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry"}}},{id:"80964",title:"Upper Airway Expansion in Disabled Children",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102830",signatures:"David Andrade, Joana Andrade, Maria-João Palha, Cristina Areias, Paula Macedo, Ana Norton, Miguel Palha, Lurdes Morais, Dóris Rocha Ruiz and Sônia Groisman",slug:"upper-airway-expansion-in-disabled-children",totalDownloads:35,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Oral Health Care - An Important Issue of the Modern Society",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10827.jpg",subseries:{id:"1",title:"Oral Health"}}},{id:"80839",title:"Herbs and Oral Health",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103715",signatures:"Zuhair S. 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He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:null},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. 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He obtained his Master’s degree in the Department of Information and Communications from Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST) in 2003. In 2010, he received his Ph.D. degree in the School of Information and Mechatronics from GIST. In the meantime, he was an executed team leader at Culture Technology Institute, GIST, 2010-2012. In 2011, he worked at Lancaster University, the UK as a visiting scholar. In September 2012, he joined Daegu University, where he is currently an associate professor in the School of ICT Conver, Daegu University. Also, he served as the Board of Directors of KSIIS since 2019, and HCI Korea since 2016. From 2017~2019, he worked as a center director of the Mixed Reality Convergence Research Center at Daegu University. From 2015-2017, He worked as a director in the Enterprise Supporting Office of LINC Project Group, Daegu University. His research interests include Activity Fusion & Reasoning, Machine Learning, Context-aware Middleware, Human-Computer Interaction, etc.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Daegu Gyeongbuk Institute of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"262719",title:"Dr.",name:"Esma",middleName:null,surname:"Ergüner Özkoç",slug:"esma-erguner-ozkoc",fullName:"Esma Ergüner Özkoç",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Başkent University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"346530",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Kaya",slug:"ibrahim-kaya",fullName:"Ibrahim Kaya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"419199",title:"Dr.",name:"Qun",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"qun-yang",fullName:"Qun Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Auckland",country:{name:"New Zealand"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"24",type:"subseries",title:"Computer Vision",keywords:"Image Analysis, Scene Understanding, Biometrics, Deep Learning, Software Implementation, Hardware Implementation, Natural Images, Medical Images, Robotics, VR/AR",scope:"The scope of this topic is to disseminate the recent advances in the rapidly growing field of computer vision from both the theoretical and practical points of view. Novel computational algorithms for image analysis, scene understanding, biometrics, deep learning and their software or hardware implementations for natural and medical images, robotics, VR/AR, applications are some research directions relevant to this topic.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11420,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. 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His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403"},editorialBoard:[{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:"J. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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