RAN classification.
\r\n\tGlobalization does not represent a pure and generous process for humanity or other species, but rather it implies social exclusion and also provokes situations of vulnerability in groups of people, forced exclusion, and apartheid: poor job opportunities, lack of access to education, worse socio-sanitary conditions. Specifically, it can be said that social segregation entails the apartheid of social groups of different ages, genders, and ethnicities; these groups live a reality manifested through the deepening of poverty, in terms of increased vulnerability of the poor and groups with little economic, social, cultural, labor and health stability.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to talk about some topics that are neglected in the discourses of academic communities and political elites. The inequality process is deeply rooted among humans and is part of many people's lives in the form of modern apartheid, gender segregation, lack of health access, and cultural gap. All those structural inequality processes are the product of the biopower perpetuated and produced in the macrosystem, exosystem, mesosystem, and microsystem. For many people from the academy, the information-consuming public, and the society in general, it is a problem to talk about these processes, since they have either lost interest or have normalized the structural and social inequity. For this reason, we see it as transcendental to explain how this situation occurs from the most internal fibers to the most evident processes, intending to make it more visible and thus expose the situation for possible solutions.
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Lab Medicine and biomedical research, both fields are interconnected by laboratory testing where new results, remaining patient’s blood sample, and genetic testing, etc. are some of the major ethical issues that commonly exist. Ethical issues plays very crucial role in laboratory medicine. Therefore, it is required for laboratories to strictly follow ethical principles. The field of ethics involves ‘a set of principles of right conduct’ [1] and bio-ethics is well-defined as a branch of applied ethics that studies the philosophical, social and legal issues arising in medicine and life sciences. IFCC-task force has suggested that all the area of medicine to fulfill with ethical standards and guidelines and the field of lab medicine is no exemption. According to the IFCC verdict, prognosis as well as medications associated with certain medical conditions is usually determined by outcome, results and analysis of laboratory tests [2]. When we talk about the laboratory system, staff comes at first as they are directly linked in interaction with patients and their care. Apart from laboratory staff, everyone who is involved on the way is equally responsible for maintaining laboratory ethical values. Henceforth, it is highly obligatory to evade any such activity that would downgrade the expertise, neutrality, outcomes, operational truthfulness or patient’s confidence in laboratory. Laboratory staff’s behavior and etiquettes also comes in this category, thus, their actions should be in a professional way for example, wearing laboratory coat/apron, proper dressed-up, phones should be turned silent/OFF during the time of testing and not discussing any report with clients and others. Hence, various international and national guidelines and declarations have been evolved with time to time and thus critically upgraded the practice of bio-ethics in the field of biomedical research. Compliance with these guidelines confirms the autonomy, dignity and well-being of participants as well as the integrity and credibility of research results [3].
Evolution of biologically-centered ethical guidelines in medical or biomedical research has upgraded the understanding of ethics over the years. Various guidelines and declarations evolved over the period, including international and national, are mentioned as below:
National ethical guidelines for Health Research and biomedical sciences involving Human Contributors; ICMR, 2017.
In 2017, Indian Council of Medical Research introduced ethical guidelines for research on Human Participants. In India, it is mandatory for all research organizations to strictly follow these guidelines in letter for all types of biomedical research involving human beings, along with complete documentation to protect safety and wellbeing of all participants [9].
The important three core ethical principles are discussed in all documents. These are as below (Figure 1):
Core principles of ethics.
Similar to other fields of medicine, laboratory medicine is obliged to adhere to high ethical standards. With the advancement of medical science in the area of laboratory medicine, special ethical considerations should be taken in addition to the general ethical framework followed in biomedical research. Various policies and guidelines related to ethical issues are being developed time to time by several countries or related societies.
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) that created ISO 15189:2012 “Medical laboratories-Requirements for quality and competence” in 2012 [10]. Its section 4.1.1.3 elaborated the ethical conduct required in laboratories. ISO 15189 is technically applicable for laboratory equipment, personnel, environmental conditions, consumables, pre- and post-examination processes, reporting and release of laboratory results, and lab information management. As per ISO 15189 standards, the core principles that stated in documents are: (i) there should not be participation in any activities that would diminish confidence in the laboratory’s competence, impartiality, judgment or operational integrity; (ii) management and personnel are free from any undue commercial, financial, or others pressure and influences that may adversely affect the quality of work; (iii) where potential conflicts in competing interests exist, they shall be openly and appropriately declared; (iv) there are appropriate procedures to ensure that staff treat human samples, tissues or remains according to relevant legal requirements; (v) confidentiality of information is maintained.
The American Association for Clinical Chemistry (AACC) has also recommended fifteen principles of ethical conduct for laboratories. The major highlights are that [11]: (i) to be honest in all professional accomplishments, and retain the high level of personal veracity
Despite the importance of bio-ethics in lab medicine, still there are lacunae in education training focused on ethics in laboratory. To address this issue, IFCC has recently constituted a task force on ethics (TF-E) to rationalize the documents and spread the education and training on ethics [12]. This task force (TF-E) has created a toolkit which serves as a repository of documents developed worldwide in the kingdom of laboratory ethics [13]. Although the members of the IFCC Task Force on Ethics also contribute to achieve the goal of ethics education in the field of laboratory medicine through the publications on the topic of ethics in collaboration with the electronic journal of International Federation of Clinical Chemistry (eJIFCC).
Professional personnel of a medical laboratory are bound by the ethical codes of their respective profession. A code of ethics may be described as an expression of basic values –the principles and standards by which we should conduct ourselves. Several laboratory professional societies and organizations have developed codes of ethics, with common principles of conduct which act as guidelines to professional members of those organizations [14]. The International Federation of Biomedical Laboratory Science (IFBLS) suggests to maintain strict confidentiality of patient information and test results; safeguard the dignity and privacy of patients and above all be accountable for the quality and integrity of clinical laboratory services being provided [15]. In same line, the American Society of Clinical Pathologists (ASCP) has also advised laboratory staff to treat patients and colleagues with respect, care and thoughtfulness; perform duties in an accurate, precise, timely and responsible manner; and safeguard patient information as confidential, within the limits of the law.
There are several ethical issues in laboratory (Figure 2). These issues have divided into three phases according to the laboratory work distribution. Pre-analytical phase issues are related to patient’s interaction, specimen collection, sample receiving and its transport. Analytical phase issues are usually related to quality control, whereas, post-analytical phase issues are related to reporting of results, keeping and maintaining records [16].
Ethical issues in laboratory phases.
Clinicians ordering laboratory tests is also comes under the most important ethical obligations. The laboratory personnel are required to act every time to confirm whether the tests, which are referred by a clinician, are being met with the diseased person requesting the tests or not. However, it is commonly assumed that clinicians are referring laboratory tests so as to benefit the patient without any financial interests. In this phase, there is collective responsibility of many people including nurse, healthcare providers, researcher, or the technical staff collecting the samples. Their role includes:
Identification of a patient with respect to the tests ordered.
Proper collection, labelling, and handling of samples till the tests are performed.
Three basic ethical principles in pre-analytical phase are:
In laboratories settings confidentiality, quality and competency are essential. During this, confidentiality is almost a by-product of laboratory automation which uses automated code readers, automated analysis, as well as auto-verification and also names of patients are normally given a unique sequential number for processing. Maintaining confidentiality is more challenging during the analytical phase in small laboratories as compared to larger ones, as smaller laboratories perform manual testing. However, it is most important to maintain ethical standards by each laboratory in conducting patient’s testing. The three principles in this phase are as follows:
This phase includes reporting and interpretation of tests results, storage of residual sample, and access to the data. All laboratories should have a procedure for storage of a specimen that is analyte dependent. An essential part of good laboratory practice is to archive the results either in electronic and/or hard copy format. Documents that can be archived include request forms, raw analytical as well as quality control data, results, and reports. Guidelines on retention or destruction of medical records along with remaining sample retention and its dispose of should be kept in place. Policy manual should also mention the strategies on the identification of authorized personnel such as doctors, patients, and laboratory staff; that would be allowed to access medical records. Besides this, the patient should have the right to give consent to access by others (such as family members), if required. Applying the basic ethical principles in post analytical phase as follows:
Finally, it has been observed that it is necessary to incorporate the core principles and guidelines of bioethics in the areas of laboratory medicine. Any laboratory involving human participants should follow international standards and practices of ethics. Laboratories shall not engage in practices restricted by law and should uphold the reputation of their profession. It is required to develop an ethics policy and add it to the laboratory’s quality assurance manual. Development and implementation of an ethics training program for laboratory staff should be done in such a way that it would promote the development of the professional life of laboratory staff, highlighting human values and responsibility, honesty in their work. This will surely initiates and encourages the change of paradigm with the aim of increasing knowledge keeping in mind ethical principles in daily procedures.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
From the first generation (1G) that were introduced in 1979 by Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT) to today’s fifth generation (5G), mobile communication networks are constantly improving the speed and efficiency of bandwidth usage to support various applications with diverse requirements such as latency, high data rates and real-time support for random traffic demands [1].
The increasing number of not only smart phones, tablets and laptops but also the huge number of other devices such as IoT (Internet of Things) nodes, wearable devices for healthcare will demand significant challenges in 5G systems to manage a huge amount of devices and connections [2]. Besides, the exponential growth of mobile video services (e.g., live video streaming, online video gaming, mobile TV) requires wider bandwidth and higher spectral efficiency than that of 4G systems [3].
Such a huge volume of data traffic and connections will lead to 5G systems to use new and higher frequency bands [4]. Some other factors such as ultra-low latency (less than one millisecond), fast-tracking will also be considered in the design of 5G system architecture. 5G systems support radio connections and end-to-end network connectivity at ultra-high speed, lower latency, higher reliability and massive connectivity [5].
This book chapter gives the reader an up-to-date multiplexing techniques that are implemented in 5G systems. The contributions of this book chapter are listed below:
First, this book chapter provides a brief introduction of 5G system architecture for the readers to understand the components of 5G systems.
Second, provides an overview of basic multiplexing techniques as a foundation for 5G systems to implement FDD, TDD modes.
Finally, it describes MIMO service and data multiplexing operations from a mathematical background, physical antenna configurations, channels and signals, procedures for downlink and uplink MIMO schemes.
Today we see the evolution of Industry 4.0 manifested in smart factories, where collaborative robots are instantly connected. The entertainment industry advances dramatically with AR/VR technologies. People are using Zero Search with intelligent personal digital assistants. The Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) require all cars connected via C-V2X protocol. The Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT) is used in smart cities and smart agriculture. This is the business ecosystem of 5G systems [6]. 5G systems enable people for living in an intelligently connected world. The 5G system architecture is illustrated in Figure 1. At the highest level, the 5G system consists of 5G NR RAN (gNB), 5G Core Network (5GCN)/EPC and different kinds of UEs for three kinds of service including Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB), Ultra-reliable and Low-latency Communications (uRLLC), and Massive Machine Type Communications (mMTC) in a business ecosystem [7].
5G system architecture (vRAN approach).
5G NR (New Radio) is the global standard for the air interface of 5G networks developed by 3GPP with operation from below 1 GHz up to more than 40 GHz and massive MIMO beamforming capability [8].
RAN stands for Radio Access Network. RAN provides radio access and coordinates network resources across User Equipment (UE). For more general, the RAN is divided into two parts. The first part is the lower layer RAN split including the antenna integrated Radio Unit (RU) and the Distributed Unit (DU). The second part is the higher layer RAN split, a 3GPP standard F1 interface between the DU and the Centralized Unit (CU). DU and CU constitute Baseband Unit (BBU) [9].
Legacy LTE uses Evolved Node B (eNodeB or eNB) like Base Station (BTS) in GSM networks. Similarly, gNodeB (gNB – next generation Node B) is 5G Base Station. gNB features Software Defined Radio (SDR) with various MIMO options described in session 3 of this chapter [10].
In 5G NR, RU handles digital front end (DFE), part of the physical layer (low physical) and multiple beamforming operation. RU consists of a Remote Radio Head (RRH) and Active Antenna System (AAS) [11]. Antennas in AAS for 5G NR make use of the shorter element sizes at high frequencies to incorporate a larger count of radiating elements. These antenna arrays are essential for MIMO beamforming operations that play a vital role in 5G systems [12]. The RRH performs all RF functions like ADC/DAC, digital up/down-conversion, filtering and transmitting and receiving signals to the BBU including beamforming. RRH can also provide monitoring and control functions to optimize system performance.
In LTE systems, RRH is connected to the antenna by RF coaxial cable and is usually mounted near the antenna to reduce transmission line losses. In 5G NR, RRH and AAS are integrated in a small and compact form factor [6].
Common Public Radio Interface (CPRI) is the standardized interface that sends data from the RRHs to the Base Band Unit (BBU). CPRI is a very high-speed connection on fiber optic cable. eCPRI is enhanced CPRI which is used to reduce the burden on the fiber. The connection between the RUs and the DU is called fronthaul and it is fiber optic cable.
DU stands for Distributed Unit. DU is placed close to RU and runs RLC, MAC, parts of the Physical layer. This function consists of signal processing, network access. DU is controlled by CU (Centralized Unit). DU also supports FFT/IFFT functions [13].
CU provides support for the higher layers of the protocol stack such as SDAP, PDCP and RRC. Practically, there is a single CU for each gNB. A CU can control multiple DUs (can be more than 100 DUs). Each RU corresponds to one cell. Each DU can support one or more RUs, so in 5G systems, one gNB can control hundreds of cells. 5G NR cell can be femtocell, smallcell or macrocell [14]. 5G Small Cell Radio Nodes can be installed on walls or ceilings with network connectivity and power are provided over Ethernet. Midhaul connects the CU with the DU via F1 interface. Backhaul connects the 5G core to the CU. The 5G core may be up to 200 km away from the CU.
RIC is RAN Intelligent Controller which is responsible for all RAN operation and optimization procedures such as radio and resource connection management, mobility management, QoS management to support the best effective network operation.
There are three different approaches to design a RAN as abstracted in Table 1 [15].
Centralized/Cloud RAN (C-RAN) | Virtual RAN (vRAN) | Open-RAN (O-RAN) | |
---|---|---|---|
RU | Proprietary | GPP COTS hardware (e.g., SDR)/ OEM vendor | |
BBU hardware | Centralized functionality, proprietary hardware, software | Generic hardware platforms (e.g., COTS Server with virtualized software), BBU splits into DU and CU. | |
BBU software | Proprietary | Virtualized | Virtualized with open API |
Interface | Proprietary | Open | |
Interoperability | Single vender for RU and BBU | Single vender for RU and software | Multiple venders |
RAN classification.
COTS: commercial-off-the-shelf.
According to the definition of 3GPP, 5G has two networking modes: SA (Standalone) and NSA (Non-Standalone). 5G system Service-based architecture is illustrated in Figure 2 and corresponding functions are described in Table 2 [16].
5G system service-based architecture with core network functions.
Main functions | ||
---|---|---|
NSSF | Network Slice Selection Function | Selects the Network Slice Instance (NSI) based on information provided during UE attach. |
NEF | Network Exposure Function | Facilitates secure, robust, developer-friendly access to the exposed network services. |
NRF | Network Repository Function | Provides a single record of all network functions. |
UDM | Unified Data Management | Authentication Credential Repository, Access Authorization. |
AUSF | Authentication Server Function | Authentication and Authorization. |
PCF | Policy Control Function | Ensures policy and charging control, authorized QoS. |
AMF | Access and Mobility Management Function | NAS Signaling TerminationMobility ManagementNetwork Slicing. |
SMF | Session Management Function | Selection and control of UP function, UE IP address allocation and management. |
UPF | User Plane Function | Packet routing and forwarding, QoS handling. |
SMF | Session Management Function | Responsible for interacting with the decoupled data plane, creating updating and removing PDU sessions and managing session context with the UPF. |
Core network functions.
The EPC (Evolved Packet Core) network consists of MME (Mobility Management Entity), S-GW (Service Gateway) and PDN gateway. EPC performs functions such as mobility management, IP connection, QoS management, and billing management.
The structure and organization of this book chapter are illustrated in Figure 3.
Structure and organization of the book chapter.
The term “multiplexing” refers to the sharing of a
Multiplexing allows multiple channels/users to share the same SR. Multiplexing helps to increase the efficiency of using the SR and the transmission capacity of the system. Dynamic multiplexing makes the allocation of the SR more efficient.
5G NR systems also use “duplexing schemes” for Uplink (UL) and Downlink (DL) data transmission.
The traditional multiplexing techniques are:
We are now considering basic multiplexing techniques.
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is the division of total channel bandwidth into multiple, non-overlapping subbands. Each of these subbands is assigned to a user or a signal by modulating with the appropriate carrier frequency.
The multiplexer from the transmit side is responsible for multiplexing the modulated signals with different carrier frequencies into a total signal for transmission. The demultiplexer at the receiver is responsible for separating the total signal into signals of different users by different frequencies.
FDM has some disadvantages:
Analog system: noise accumulates in each hop if we use repeaters.
Difficult to fabricate high-Q bandpass filters.
Low multiplexing factor.
Frequency division multiplexing.
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) is a technique for the serial transmission of user data over a common medium such as a coaxial cable.
At a time, only one user’s data are transmitted serially in a time slot. TDM allows each user to use the entire system bandwidth.
In addition to user data, signaling and frame alignment word (FAW) are inserted into the frame. At the receiver, there is clock recovery and frame synchronization to recover data for each channel (Figure 5).
Time division multiplexing.
Space-Division Multiplexing (SDM) is a multiplexing technique for optical data transmission where multiple spatial channels are utilized. Figure 6 shows a generic optical MIMO-SDM system. At the transmitter, the user data signals are encoded, modulated, E/O converted and then multiplexed onto different wavelengths (λ1, λ2 ... λ
Space-division multiplexing for optical communications and application to 5G systems.
At the receiver, the transmitted signals are recovered using MIMO digital signal processing consisting of an N × N array of equalizers by DSP (digital signal processor). First, the N channels signal is demultiplexed by an SDM demultiplexer. Then the separate signals
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a multiple access method that allows multiple users to share the same time and frequency resources.
In a CDMA system, each user is assigned with specific spreading code, and all users can send information simultaneously over a single communication channel. Since CDMA is based on the spread spectrum principle, each transmitter will use a pseudo-random code to modulate the data, and the receiver decodes the modulated signal using its own pseudo-random code. The principle of CDMA is illustrated in Figure 7.
Code division multiple access.
5G NR supports both Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) and Time Division Duplex (TDD) schemes. TDD is the main duplexing mode for higher frequencies while FDD is used for lower frequencies as the interference problems with large cells is reduced by having different frequencies in UL and DL. FDD is similar to FDM, UL and DL use separate carrier frequencies. Data are transmitted in both directions simultaneously. TDD is similar to TDM, only one carrier frequency is used. Transmission/Reception in UL and DL is assigned by different time slots.
Since TDD is the main duplexing mode of a 5G NR, we will discuss more detail about TDD. We start with 5G NR frame structure. Just like the TDM system, 5G NR is frame structured. A frame has a fixed duration of 10 ms which consists of 10 subframes of 1 ms duration. Each subframe can have
Figure 8 shows the 5G NR frame structure. The number of slots per subframe (i.e.,
5G NR frame structure.
SCS | μ | Number of slots per subframe | Slot duration | Number of slots in a frame | Guard Period |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
15 Khz | 0 | 1 | 1 ms | 10 | Normal |
30 Khz | 1 | 2 | 500 μs | 20 | Normal |
60 Khz | 2 | 4 | 250 μs | 40 | Normal/Extended |
120 Khz | 3 | 8 | 125 μs | 80 | Normal |
Number of slots per subframe, slot duration, number of slots in a frame and guard period for reference SCS.
5G NR scalable slot duration.
Each slot is comprised of either 14 OFDM symbols or 12 OFDM symbols based on normal Guard Period (GP) and extended GP respectively. However, mini slots (2, 4, or 7 symbols) can be allocated for shorter transmissions. Slots can also be aggregated for longer transmissions.
Now we know the frame structure. When operating in TDD mode, we have to specify the exact timing for the uplink and downlink transmission. So, how do we define the time slots for uplink and downlink transmission?
Timeslots for uplink and downlink transmission are organized into DL-UL patterns. In LTE TDD, there are 7 predefined patterns for UL and DL allocation in a radio frame. There is no predefined pattern for 5G NR, but we can define a flexible pattern thanks to parameters in TDD UL/DL Common Configuration (
Field | Description |
---|---|
referenceSubcarrierSpacing | Reference SCS used to determine the number of slots in the DL-UL pattern. Only the values 15, 30 or 60 kHz (FR1), and 60 or 120 kHz (FR2) are applicable. |
dl-UL-TransmissionPeriodicity | Periodicity of the DL-UL pattern in ms. This time results in even number of slots depending on the SCS. Possible values are: 0.5 ms, 0.625 ms, 1 ms, 1.25 ms, 2 ms, 2.5 ms, 5 ms and 10 ms. |
nrofDownlinkSlots | Number of consecutive full DL slots at the beginning of each DL-UL pattern. |
nrofDownlinkSymbols | Number of consecutive DL symbols in the beginning of the slot following the last full DL slot (as derived from nrofDownlinkSlots). The value 0 indicates that there is no partial-downlink slot. |
nrofUplinkSlots | Number of consecutive full UL slots at the end of each DL-UL pattern. |
nrofUplinkSymbols | Number of consecutive UL symbols in the end of the slot preceding the first full UL slot (as derived from nrofUplinkSlots). The value 0 indicates that there is no partial-uplink slot. |
5G NR TDD DL/UL common configuration parameters.
You may ask yourself what is the difference between the DL-UL pattern and radio frame? The
From the above parameters, we can define TDD DL/UL configuration, aka. DL-UL pattern for 5G NR radio transmission as shown in Figure 10. In 5G NR, the slot configuration is flexible and can be changed from time to time while maintaining the focus on inter-cell interference aspects [21].
5G NR TDD UL/DL common configuration frame structure.
Then, the next question is how to design a transmission pattern? We know that time slots allocation for UL and DL depends on UL and DL traffic. We call that UL/DL traffic load ratio. To adapt with actual traffic, 5G NR supports 3 different TDD configurations as follows:
Field name | Value |
---|---|
dl-UL-TransmissionPeriodicity | 2.5 ms |
nrofDownlinkSlots | 3 |
nrofDownlinkSymbols | 10 |
nrofUplinkSlots | 1 |
nrofUplinkSymbols | 2 |
Since slot duration for reference SCS of 30 kHz is 0.5 ms, the number of slots in DL-UL periodicity would be
This DL-UL pattern is illustrated in Figure 11. This pattern repeats itself in the timeline.
Example on design a TDD downlink frame structure.
Perhaps the most challenging part of the 5G NR system is the MIMO operation modes. Let us start with SU-MIMO and MU-MIMO. SU-MIMO stands for Single-User MIMO. In Single User MIMO, both the base station and UE have multiple antennas, and the base station can transmit multiple data streams simultaneously to the UE using the same time/frequency resources. By doing so, it doubles (2 × 2 MIMO), or quadruples (4 × 4 MIMO) the peak throughput of a single user.
MU-MIMO stands for Multi User MIMO. The base station serves more than 2 UEs simultaneously. Since in MU-MIMO, the base station sends multiple data streams, one per UE, using the same time-frequency resources, MU-MIMO mode increases the total cell throughput, i.e., cell capacity. MU-MIMO is not a new concept. We have MU-MIMO in LTE (Transmission Mode 5 - TM5) and WLAN (802.11ad). However, in 5G NR the scale of MU-MIMO will be much larger and deployment will also be more common. 5G NR uses massive MIMO.
Massive MIMO employs a large number of transmit and receive antennas, improves spectral efficiency and increases the transmission data rate through spatial multiplexing to deliver multiple streams of data within the same resource block (time and frequency). Massive MIMO is also called Large Scale MIMO.
By now, you may ask a question:
Figure 12 shows a typical MIMO system equipped with
System and channel model for spatial multiplexing.
The relationship between the input and output of a MIMO system can be written as follows
where.
where
If the channel matrix
where
Assume the receiver knows the
where
From the Eq. (4), we can see that the base station can transmit simultaneously maximum of
If SNR is high, the number of data streams and data rate for each stream is chosen by the
Instead of transmitting a vector of symbols, we just transmit a single symbol at a time. The
Now we know how to transmit multiple data streams to a UE. We consider the way 5G NR implement MIMO modes.
Clearly, to implement SM, the network (gNB and UEs) should know the channel matrix
The first thing we have to know is the codebook. The
The requested index into a set of predefined matrices, a so-called codebook is
Together with the codebook,
It is very important to understand the physical antenna configurations, the antenna port and the relationship between them. The antenna system in 5G NR is an Active Antenna System (AAS). Typical active antennas are made up of a matrix of subarrays. Each subarray consists of individual dual-polarized elements. Each polarization is controlled by a beamforming (BF) coefficient. Therefore, the number of columns is doubled.
For example, Figure 13a shows 8T8R configuration with 4 columns, 1 row (4x1) consisting of 4 (1x8) subarrays. Figure 13b shows 64T64R configuration which is made up of 8 columns, 4 rows of (1x2) subarrays.
Physical antenna configuration.
Figure 14a shows single panel antenna. 5G NR supports both single panel and uniform (b) and non-uniform multi-panel (c). In 5G NR, logical antenna configuration is described by 3 parameters:
Single panel and multi panel antenna configurations.
In association with
We have:
Number of polarizations = 2,
Number of CSI-RS antenna ports = (2*
Number of beams in a column =
Number of beams in a row =
Number of beams = (
Each antenna port carries its own resource grid. One resource grid is transmitted on a given antenna port, subcarrier spacing configuration and transmission direction (downlink or uplink). The resource grid consists of a number of RBs (Resource Blocks) for one subframe.
Physical Channels and Signals for DL, UL and corresponding antenna port addresses are as follows (Table 5):
There is no strict mapping of antenna ports to physical antenna ports. Figure 15 indicates the mapping between antenna ports and physical antennas. One antenna port can be mapped to single or multiple physical antenna(s). Due to each antenna port representing a specific and unique channel model, the number of layers in the physical layer may reach the number of antenna ports. The number of layers may range from a minimum of one layer up to a maximum number of layers equal to the number of antenna ports. The layers are then mapped to the antenna ports.
Mapping antenna ports to physical antennas.
Legacy LTE supports 9 transmission modes (TM). To avoid sophisticated transmission mode handover for different scenarios, 5G NR uses the term
Downlink MIMO schemes.
Single User MIMO (SU-MIMO):
SRS-based (sounding reference signal)
CSI-RS-based (CSI - reference signal, codebook type I, Single / Multi panel)
Multi User MIMO (MU-MIMO):
CSI-RS without Beamforming (codebook type II Single Panel)
CSI-RS Beamformed (codebook type II Port Selection)
DL and UL channels are considered reciprocal. From a channel calculation perspective, in SRS-based Single User MIMO scheme, channel calculation obligation belongs to gNB, the remaining schemes rely on UE’s CSI report from its channel calculation. The device’s capability and channel condition decide the best MIMO mode among the above schemes.
UE transmits sounding reference signals through each of its antenna ports.
gNB estimates the channel (e.g., downlink precoding weights) based on received sounding reference signals
gNB transmits PDSCH using a calculated precoder.
This scheme is illustrated in Figure 17a, and very simple but due to size and power at the UE are limited, the number of the antenna of UE is smaller than that of gNB and adding more RF chains to UE is difficult, SRS resources are transmitted on antenna ports one by one by transmit antenna switching (TAS).
Downlink single user MIMO operation.
Figure 18 shows a typical downlink transmission CSI-RS based SU/MU-MIMO scheme. First of all, UE needs to know the
CSI reporting and equivalent channel for SU-MIMO.
In the equivalent MIMO channel, we have
UE reports gNB is its preferred PMI but gNB is not obligated to apply the precoding indicated by the PMI, and the gNB does not provide the UE with explicit information regarding the precoding procedure. The UE relies upon using the Demodulation Reference Signal (DMRS) when decoding the PDSCH.
CSI-RS single user MIMO scheme uses type I codebook which is based upon a specific set of assumed antenna configurations. The antenna configurations are Single Panel and Multi Panel as described in Tables 6 and 7.
Downlink channels | Function | Antenna port starting from: | |
---|---|---|---|
PDSCH | Physical downlink shared channel | Carry user data in the downlink direction | 1000 (1000 Series) |
PDCCH | Physical Control Channel | Carry DCI (Downlink Control Information) e.g., downlink scheduling assignments and uplink scheduling grants. | 2000 (2000 Series) |
CSI-RS | Channel State Information - Reference Signal | For DL CSI acquisition. CSI-RS is configured specifically to UE. But multiple users can also share the same resource. | 3000 (3000 Series) |
SS-Block/ PBCH | Physical broadcast Channel | The combination of SS and PBCH is known as SS-Block (SSB). PBCH carries very basic 5G NR system information for Use (Downlink System BW, Timing information in the radio frame, SS burst set periodicity, System frame number). | 4000 (4000 Series) |
PUSCH/DMRS | Physical Uplink Shared Channel / Demodulation Reference Signal | It is used by a 5G NR receiver to produce channel estimates for demodulation of the associated physical channel. | 1000 (1000 Series) |
SRS, precoded PUSCH | Sounding Reference signal | It is used for UL channel sounding. In contrast to LTE, it is configured specifically to UE. | 1000 (1000 Series) |
PUCCH | Physical Uplink Control Channel | transport UCI (Uplink Control Information) e.g., HARQ feedback, SR (Scheduling Request) and CSI report (CQI, PMI, RI, Layer Indicator LI). | 2000 (2000 Series) |
PRACH | Physical Random Access | Carry random access preamble from UE towards gNB (i.e., 5G NR base station). It helps gNB to adjust the uplink timings of the UE in addition to other parameters. | 4000 (4000 Series) |
Physical channels and signals and corresponding antenna port addresses.
Number of CSI-RS antenna ports | 4 | 8 | 12 | 16 | 24 | 32 | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
( | (2,1) | (2,2) | (4,1) | (3,2) | (6,1) | (4,2) | (8,1) | (4,3) | (6,2) | (12,1) | (4,4) | (8,2) | (16,1) |
( | (4,1) | (4,4) | (4,4) | (4,4) | (4,1) | (4,4) | (4,1) | (4,4) | (4,4) | (4,1) | (4,4) | (4,4) | (4,1) |
Single panel antenna configuration.
Number of CSI-RS antenna ports | 8 | 16 | 32 | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
( | (2,2,1) | (2,4,1) | (4,2,1) | (2,2,2) | (2,8,1) | (4,4,1) | (2,4,2) | (4,2,2) |
( | (4,1) | (4,1) | (4,1) | (4,4) | (4,1) | (4,1) | (4,4) | (4,4) |
Multi panel antenna configuration.
For codebook type I single panel: MIMO ranks: 1 to 8; CSI RS Ports: 2, 4, 8, 12, 16, 24, 32.
For codebook type I multi panel: MIMO ranks: 1 to 4; CSI RS Ports: 8, 16, 32.
gNB transmits
UE estimates the channel based on the received CSI-RS resources, selects the best PMI.
UE reports PMI, RI, CQI to gNB.
gNB decides a precoder to transmit PDSCH.
In Multi User MIMO schemes, gNB tries to communicate simultaneously with a set of UE through the same time/frequency resources. MU-MIMO schemes uses Type II codebook to provide more details about Channel State Information. MU-MIMO schemes support to a maximum of 2 layers per UE. This is smaller than that of SU-MIMO (up to 8 layers for type I single panel) but the maximum number of layers per cell is higher to allow multiple UE to use 2 × 2 MIMO simultaneously.
DL MU-MO Type II codebook allocates a set of beams to each UE. Each set of the beam is the weighted combination of beams with relative amplitudes and co-phasing phase shifts.
Beamformed CSI-RS relies upon the gNB having some advanced information to allow beamforming of the CSI Reference Signal transmissions.
Procedure for beamformed CSI-RS as follows: gNB transmits one or more CSI-RS, each in different “directions”. UE computes and reports CRI/PMI/CQI to gNB.
5G NR supports uplink PUSCH precoding up to 4 layers. However, in the case of DFT-based transform precoding, only single-layer transmission is supported. The transmitted symbols are layer mapped and then precoded at the UEs.
If gNB instructs UE on PDCCH regarding the choice of precoding matrix selected from a codebook: codebook based (Figure 19a). Otherwise, UE measure DL CS-RS signal to determine precoding weights (not constrained to a codebook): Non-codebook based (Figure 19b).
Uplink MIMO operation.
UE measures DL SCI-RS signal to design suitable precoders for the SRS transmission.
UE transmits up to four SRS resources where each resource has one antenna port.
gNB determines one or multiple SRIs based on the received SRSs, number of layers for PUSCH. In this example, SRS1 and SRS3 are selected. TRI is equal to the number of SRIs.
UE uses selected resources to transmit PUSCH.
UE transmits SRS from each of its antenna ports.
gNB estimates UL channel based on the received SRSs to select the best SRS for antenna port, appropriate rank and precoding matrix. gNB transmits SRI (SRS resource indicator), RI and TPMI to UE.
UE uses selected resources to transmit PUSCH from the indicated antenna port, the number of layers and precoding matrix.
5G networks are designed for a wide variety of use cases including urban mobile broadband, massive machine-type communications, ultra-reliable low latency communications, applications such as remote surgery, autonomous driving, a massive number of sensors communicating with the network, 3D video streaming.
The problem is that the physical infrastructure resources are limited. The need for data, services and operators working on the same network increase. The solution is network slicing (NS). NS will create virtual network segments for the different services within the same 5G network. NS will divide the physical network into independent logical subnets for different kinds of services, each of which has a size and structure suitable for dedicated service [29].
NS is one of the key features of 5G NR. NS allows operators to support efficiently different use cases and enterprise customers on a dedicated 5G network. NS leverages the running of multiple logical subnets on top of physical network, multiplexes data services over physical infrastructure.
The concept of network slicing is illustrated in Figure 20 showing two slices. One slice supports smartphones with 3D streaming, virtual reality (VR) connections with guaranteed throughput slice, the other supports automotive connectivity, IIoT for smart factory with low latency slice on the same network infrastructure [30].
Service multiplexing by network slicing.
An End-to-End (E2E) Network Slice consists of RU, RAN and Core Transport subnets. Basically, we have to designed Slice Profiles (for RAN, Core and Transport subnets) including the slice characteristics and requirements needed to support the service requested by the UE. Procedure for slicing is as follows:
Create slice profile:
The customer will provide their service requirements they want to run on a network slice including bandwidth, capacity, and latency. The operator creates a service level agreement, and allocates the necessary capacity and bandwidth for the slice by NSSAI (Network Slice Selection Assistance Information). NSSAI consists of up to 8 S-NSSAI (Single –NSSAI). The S-NSSAI contains two components: the SST (Slice/Service Type) and an optional SD (Slice Differentiator).
UE gathers information for slices when registering for the network:
The UE gathers information for the available slices when registering for the network via NAS signaling. A single UE may be assigned up to eight difference slices [31].
Determines the candidate AMF(s) or AMF Set to be used to serve the UE:
Once a PDU session is set up, the UE is then signaled to the NSSAI, assuming this has been provided earlier to the UE.
Selects which slices the UE can connect:
Based on required NSSAI and registered information, the network will select the appropriate slice instance and related resources, with the AMF coordinating the actions in the 5G core network. There is one AMF that is common for all the slices a single UE has.
This chapter presented multiplexing techniques utilized in 5G systems. Duplexing is one of the key factors affecting the performance of 5G NR in terms of their wide-area coverage. The Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) and Time Division Duplex (TDD) schemes utilized in 5G NR are inherited from FDM and TDM, providing flexibility for designing UL/DL patterns.
Spatial multiplexing supports multi layer transmission. Multiple beamforming will transmit data through targeted beams and advanced signal processing that could speed up data rates and boost bandwidth and reduce interference for nearby users. 5G NR permits to use different waveforms on subbands with scalable subcarrier spacing and transmission time interval operating on one frequency band. Network slicing creates independent logical subnets for different kinds of services.
With these multiplexing techniques, 5G systems could provide data rate up to 20 Gbps and capacity increase by 1000 times and flexible platform for the services like massive Industrial Internet of Things (IIoT), connected society, smart factories. It is expected that 5G combined with artificial intelligence can improve social life, make life better, more productivity, and safety.
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\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. 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Extreme weather conditions and changes in humidity rates significantly affect the concrete compressive strength development. Concrete as one of the substantial material used in residential buildings and infrastructures is subjected to a massive strength change under extreme weather conditions. For understanding, the different concrete’s behavioral aspects, various commercial cement types under different temperatures, and humidity rates are investigated in this chapter. The experiments are aimed to investigate the concrete strength development over time when the material is cast at lower to mild temperatures and different humidity index rates. Results show that reducing the curing temperature more than 15° could result in 20% reduction in total compressive strength, while decreasing humidity rates by 50% leads to less than 10% drop in ultimate strength. To understand the strength developing process, maturity tests are conducted. 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In addition to ordinary Portland cement, the essential components of the base of concrete are aggregates and water. For practical requirements, additives and admixtures can be added to these raw materials to improve some desirable characteristics. The following requirements should be considered in producing high performance concrete (HPC): (i) low water/cement (w/c) ratio; (ii) fine aggregate; (iii) large quantity of mineral additives, silica fume, and fly ash; (iv) high dosage of superplasticizer; and (v) high-pressure steam curing. The microstructure of high performance concrete (HPC) is more homogenous than that of normal concrete (NC) due to the physical and chemical contribution of the additives (silica fume and fly ash) as well as it is less porous due to reduced w/c ratio with the addition of a superplasticizer. Inclusion of additives (individually or in combination) helped in improving the strength and durability of concrete mixes due to the additional reduction in porosity of cement paste and an improved interface between it and the aggregate.",book:{id:"5214",slug:"high-performance-concrete-technology-and-applications",title:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications",fullTitle:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications"},signatures:"Ameer A. Hilal",authors:[{id:"180518",title:"Dr.",name:"Ameer",middleName:null,surname:"Hilal",slug:"ameer-hilal",fullName:"Ameer Hilal"}]},{id:"51861",doi:"10.5772/64779",title:"Concretes with Photocatalytic Activity",slug:"concretes-with-photocatalytic-activity",totalDownloads:2832,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"This chapter is a short review about the modified concretes with photocatalytic activity. In the beginning, the photocatalysis process is explained; the authors are focused on the mechanism of organic contamination and nitrogen oxide decomposition. Next the three main methods for concretes modification are presented: the first group is when the concrete is covered by thin layer of TiO2 materials, e.g., paints or TiO2 suspensions. The second group is the concretes with thick layer of photoactive concrete on the top. The third group constitutes concretes modified in mass with TiO2. The two main methods for photocatalytic activity of the modified concrete determination were shown: an air purification by a nitrogen oxide decomposition and the self-cleaning properties by dyes decomposition. Also in this chapter the mechanical properties of the modified concrete are presented. In the end, the examples of the buildings made of photocatalytic concretes are shown.",book:{id:"5214",slug:"high-performance-concrete-technology-and-applications",title:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications",fullTitle:"High Performance Concrete Technology and Applications"},signatures:"Magdalena Janus and Kamila Zając",authors:[{id:"180824",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Magdalena",middleName:null,surname:"Janus",slug:"magdalena-janus",fullName:"Magdalena Janus"}]},{id:"64801",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82489",title:"Bitumen and Its Modifier for Use in Pavement Engineering",slug:"bitumen-and-its-modifier-for-use-in-pavement-engineering",totalDownloads:1547,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"This chapter focuses on bitumen specifically. This chapter consists of several parts that can be mentioned, including the history of the appearance of bitumen and the types of constituent elements, as well as its mechanical properties and chemical structure and its thermal sensitivity. In all parts, the effects of bitumen on asphalt are discussed. In the following sections, the bitumen modification mechanism, polymer modifiers, and their behavior on the bitumen resistance to asphalt failures are also discussed. This chapter is very suitable for students and researchers interested in improving polymerization asphalt and bitumen and will help them to carry out research and concepts.",book:{id:"8412",slug:"sustainable-construction-and-building-materials",title:"Sustainable Construction and Building Materials",fullTitle:"Sustainable Construction and Building Materials"},signatures:"Mehrdad Honarmand, Javad Tanzadeh and Mohamad Beiranvand",authors:[{id:"268734",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Mehrdad",middleName:null,surname:"Honarmand",slug:"mehrdad-honarmand",fullName:"Mehrdad Honarmand"},{id:"271251",title:"Prof.",name:"Javad",middleName:null,surname:"Tanzadeh",slug:"javad-tanzadeh",fullName:"Javad Tanzadeh"}]},{id:"64787",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82525",title:"A Decade of Research on Self-Healing Concrete",slug:"a-decade-of-research-on-self-healing-concrete",totalDownloads:1453,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"The main findings of a decade of research on the design and development of the first self-healing concrete are summarized in this chapter. The autonomous healing concept is introduced, and plethora of design campaigns is enlisted. Healing agent encapsulation and agent tubes vascular networks are reported as the most efficient healing configurations for laboratory-scale and real-size applications, respectively. Crack formation, closure after healing and further damage are phenomena tracked by using advanced experimental monitoring methods and their performance is critically revised. The effect of self-healing technology on concrete mechanical response, durability and long-term response to damage are critically discussed. The study contributes to the open discussion in the scientific research community regarding self-healing concrete upscaling feasibility and finally it aims to contribute as a base for the future studies dealing with concrete design optimization.",book:{id:"8412",slug:"sustainable-construction-and-building-materials",title:"Sustainable Construction and Building Materials",fullTitle:"Sustainable Construction and Building Materials"},signatures:"Eleni Tsangouri",authors:[{id:"263163",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eleni",middleName:null,surname:"Tsangouri",slug:"eleni-tsangouri",fullName:"Eleni Tsangouri"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"70605",title:"Designing a Tunnel",slug:"designing-a-tunnel",totalDownloads:2725,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Designing a tunnel is always a challenge. 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Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"423519",title:"Dr.",name:"Sizakele",middleName:null,surname:"Ngwenya",slug:"sizakele-ngwenya",fullName:"Sizakele Ngwenya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419270",title:"Dr.",name:"Ann",middleName:null,surname:"Chianchitlert",slug:"ann-chianchitlert",fullName:"Ann Chianchitlert",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419271",title:"Dr.",name:"Diane",middleName:null,surname:"Selvido",slug:"diane-selvido",fullName:"Diane Selvido",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"419272",title:"Dr.",name:"Irin",middleName:null,surname:"Sirisoontorn",slug:"irin-sirisoontorn",fullName:"Irin Sirisoontorn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Walailak University",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"355660",title:"Dr.",name:"Anitha",middleName:null,surname:"Mani",slug:"anitha-mani",fullName:"Anitha Mani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"355612",title:"Dr.",name:"Janani",middleName:null,surname:"Karthikeyan",slug:"janani-karthikeyan",fullName:"Janani Karthikeyan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334400",title:"Dr.",name:"Suvetha",middleName:null,surname:"Siva",slug:"suvetha-siva",fullName:"Suvetha Siva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. 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