Correlation of foot length and body mass index.
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
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Whizar-Lugo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6221.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"169249",title:"Prof.",name:"Víctor M.",middleName:null,surname:"Whizar-Lugo",slug:"victor-m.-whizar-lugo",fullName:"Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10354",leadTitle:null,title:"Current State of the Art in Cysticercosis and Neurocysticercosis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tCysticercosis, caused by the metacestode stage of Taenia solium, is a serious health and veterinary problem in many developing countries and is considered one of the most important neglected tropical diseases in developed countries. In humans, T. solium cysticerci cause neurocysticercosis, which affects ~50 million people worldwide, and it has been considered as an emergent disease in the United States. T. solium also infects pigs, its intermediate host, leading to major economic losses.
\r\n\r\n\tWhen humans ingest undercooked contaminated pork meat, the adult worm develops in the small intestine. After two months of asymptomatic infection, this tapeworm starts producing thousands of eggs, that, once released with the stools, can contaminate the environment, infecting pigs (rapidly differentiating into cysticerci mainly in the muscle) and humans (where most severe symptoms are observed due to the presence of cysticerci in the brain). Thus, maintenance of the parasite's life cycle depends on the adult tapeworm development. Even in communities which do not rear or consume pigs, human neurocysticercosis can be found, because of the presence of a tapeworm carrier. Furthermore, tapeworm development in turn depends on scolex evagination, the initial step through which a single cysticercus becomes an adult parasite with the capability of producing infective eggs. A great deal of scientific advances on the field has been producing in recent times, all on the most important fields of the disease: vaccination, epidemiology, current drug design, diagnostic and host-parasite interaction at all levels. However, to date, there is no actualized book dealing with the recent advances in such an important disease in the world.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book will intend to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in cysticercosis featuring an easy-to-follow, vignette-based format that focuses on the most important evidence-based developments in this critically important area.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-395-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-394-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-396-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"16dae70f4745a1873fbeb34e67007b24",bookSignature:"Prof. Jorge Morales-Montor, Dr. Abraham Landa and Dr. Luis Terrazas",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10354.jpg",keywords:"Delivering Methods, DNA Vaccines, Diagnostic of Cysticercosis, Diagnostic of Taeniosis, Epidemiology of Cysticercosis, Epidemiology of Neurocysticercosis, New Drugs Available, Drug-Design, Taenia Solium, Clinical Trials, Taenia Crassiceps, Immune Response",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 23rd 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 21st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 19th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 10th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 9th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in Neuroinmunoendocrinology of several parasite infections, including cysticercosis. He has published over 153 papers, has edited 12 books, and written around 50 book chapters. Head of the Laboratory of Neuroimmunoendocrinology, Institute of Biomedical Research in UNAM, Mèxico.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"A pioneering researcher in molecular parasitology of Taenia solium cysticerci. He was part of the team that sequenced the Taenia solium genome. He has published over 33 papers on cysticercosis. Head of the Laboratory of Molecular Parasitology in UNAM, Mèxico.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"A pioneering researcher in studying the immunology of taeniasis/cysticercosis, appointed Head of the Unit of Experimental Biomedicine. Recently appointed as Director of the Office of Development and Cultural and Scientific Relationships in the School of Superior Studies Iztacala, UNAM.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.jpg",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor studied biology at the Iztacala UNAM Faculty of Higher Studies, obtaining the title in 1992. He obtained a\ndoctor’s degree in October 1997. His doctoral thesis was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser-PUIS Award to the best graduate thesis at thenational level in theareaofparasitology,a recognition that he has also later received as a tutor, since one of his doctorate students won the same award in 2008. In November 1997, he began a postdoctoral stay at theDepartment of CellularBiology at the UniversityofGeorgia, USA, in the laboratory of Dr. Raymond T. Damia´n, one of the most recognized parasitologists in the world. Dr. Morales received a grant from the Fogarty Foundation (one of the most prestigious in Ibero-America) to carry out research on schistosomiasis in the baboon, being a Pan American Fellow for 4 years. Dr. Ray Damia´n would write years later, which assured that\nwithout a doubt, Jorge Morales-Montor had been the best postdoctoral researcher with whom he collaborated in his nearly 35-year career. He was repatriated to Mexico in 2001 by CONACYT and joined the Department of Immunology of the Institute of Biomedical\nResearch of UNAM as Associate Investigator “C”. In just 9 years, he managed to climb the entire ladder of university academic positions, to receive its tenure track positionas a Definitive C Titular Researcher at the Institute of Biomedical Research. The same is reflected in the Level of Premiums for Academic Performance, where it has reached the highest level currently: Level D, for the third\nconsecutive period. Also in the National System of Researchers, he has had the same growth, starting in 1997 as a candidate, and, to date, being promoted to Level III, the highest, for the third consecutive period. Dr.Morales-Montor has been invited to participate\nin different congresses (more than 100). In addition, he is part of the editorial committee of more than 15 indexed international\njournals, nd Editor in Chief of 3. Some of his most important contributions are partially determining the role of steroid hormones in immunological sexual dimorphism, in the polarization of the immune response, and in the antigenic presentation.He has alsomade very relevant studies in relation to how different physiological stages, how the estrous cycle, age, sex, or pregnancy affect the functioning of\nthe immune, endocrinological, and nervous system, and what molecules could be the determinants in this context of net. It has been\nshown that the central nervous system is involved in the regulation of the immune response to parasitic infections, and the effect\nof this activation on various behaviors of the infectedhost. But the centralnervous system has provided interesting data about its\nimpact in the parasitology approach. For instance, a modern concept is depicted by how the central nervous system modulates\nthe gene and proteomic regulation of the different sex steroids in parasites,which are involved in important functions of parasites\nsuch as establishment, growth, and reproduction. Finally, the practical use of the knowledge acquired by the earlier mentioned\nstudies has been applied to a theory that he calls old drugs, new uses: the use of hormones and antihormones as antiparasitic\ntherapy. He has also entered the study of environmental contamination, specifically endocrine disruptors and disease, studying\ntheir role in two very important diseases in the country: cancer and obesity, projects with which he has formed two consortiums\nof investigation. Its results are a very important contribution to the health of both Mexicans and Latin Americans in general, since\nthis is where serious health problems related to parasitic infections, cancer, and obesity are concentrated.His investigations are characterized by an exhaustive and meticulous experimental work, and his scientific production already has 153 articles in international indexed journals, and the majority as the first author or corresponding author. He hasmore than 3000 citations to his works, and an h-index of 29, one of the highest in the country’s scientific community. His articles published in high-impact international\njournals include Nature, PlosOne, Journal of Immunology, Journal of Infectious Diseases, Journal of Interferon and Cytokine Research,\nand among others. In fact, recently, his 2015 article, The Role of Cytokines in Breast Cancer Development and Progression, published in the Journal of Interferon and Cytokine Research, was the subject of a press release released by Mary Ann Liebert Publications. This is sent all over the world, to newspapers, Journals, scientists, radio, TV, popular magazines, to what is considered as a very important contribution in a certain area of science. Very few scientific articles are released as “press release.” He is also the 4th most cited author in the area of parasitology in the country. He has also edited several books and published more than 55 chapters in books, national and foreign. In this area, recently, the chapter “The Role of Sex Steroids in the Host-Parasite Interaction,” published in the international\nbook “Sex Steroids” in 2012, reached the figure of 68,000 downloads, which means the degree of attention that has after receiving\nhis work; the foregoing makes it clear that Dr. Morales-Montor’s work is highly relevant and widespread amongthenational and international academic community, and his brilliant career has earned him more than 30 awards, such as the Miguel Aleman Valdez Award in the area of Health 2006, the Distinction National University for Young Academics in the area of Research in Natural Sciences 2006, the CANIFARMA Veterinary Prize 2007 and 2009 the Heberto Castillo Martı´nez Capital City Award for Young Latin American Academics in Basic Research, and for the third consecutive congress, in 2011, one of his works was awarded the “Dr. Jose Eleuterio Gonza´lez” Award, for the best work of and research at the XXVI National Congress of Research in Medicine, to name just a few of its achievements. He has also mentored and graduated more thn 60 students at all levels (Baccularate, Masters and Doctorate) and also been awarded many distinctions, such as joining the Mexican Academy of Sciences (2005), and being one of the few Mexican scientists to be inducted to the Latin American Academy of Sciences (2008), The National Academy of Medicine, the New York Academy of Sciences, the American Association of Immunologists are deserved recognitions for his academic quality and career. His academic leadership is reflected in the trust and respect that his peers confer on him, having been President of the Mexican Society\nof Parasitology (one of the oldest and most prestigious scientific societies in the country) and currently being President, and founding member, of the Mexican Society of Neuroimmunoendocrinology, since 2011. Due to its scientific curiosity, it is in the process of founding the Mexican Society for Translational Environmental Biomedicine. He has been invited to edit special volumes\nin various magazines with international circulation and is a member of the editorial committee of magazines of\nimportance in his area of work, such as ParasiteImmunology, The OpenParasitologyJournal, among others. He has been a jury for\nthe Arturo Rosenblueth Awards for the best CINVESTAV Doctoral Thesis, a jury for the Lola and Igo Flisser-PUIS 2010 Awards, and\na jury for the Heberto Castillo Award, for the best Latin American Researcher 2012, awarded by the Federal District Government.\nIt is noteworthy that he is an outstanding scientist, who has contributed to the scientific research of Mexico with the generation of new frontier knowledge in the world and with the training of high-level human resources.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"332210",title:"Dr.",name:"Abraham",middleName:null,surname:"Landa",slug:"abraham-landa",fullName:"Abraham Landa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:'He is a Master and Doctor of Science from UNAM, he did his post-doctorate at the Harvard University School of Public Health and his sabbatical at the Tufts University in Boston. He began his career as a teacher at the Faculty of Medicine UNAM in 1992, as an assistant in the subject of Biochemistry and Molecular biology to later be the owner of it. Is currently Full Professor "C" of T.C Definitive. It is Level “D” of the PRIDE and Level III of the National Research System. Academic-administrative positions: Representative of Postgraduate Tutors in Biological Sciences (2003-2006), in Biological Sciences (2003-2006), Member of the Review Commission of Nonconformities of the Personnel Performance Bonus Program Academic (PRIDE, 2002-2005), Secretary of the Mexican Society of Parasitology (2010-2011), Member of the Technical Council of the Faculty of Medicine (2006-2013) and currently a Member of the Judging Commission Research and Postgraduate Program CAABQyS of the FES-Iztacala (2015-1017).\r\nAwards and distinctions won the Scholarship awarded by the McArthur Foundation (1988-1989), Second place in the IV Parasitology Prize "Lola and Igo Flisser" 1992, the "Gabino Barreda" medal for his Doctorate in Science studies, 1997 and the medal "Nayarit for Scientific and Technological Research in 2001". Contributions and Scientific Productivity His research has been directed to the study of the molecular biology of Cestodes, especially of Taenia solium. He pioneered cloning and characterization of cestode genes and participated in the Consortium that carried out the university megaproject of the Taenia solium genome and three genomes\r\nmore than cestodes that resulted in a 2013 publication in the journal Nature. He has obtained with collaborators from the Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and from UAM the first crystal and inhibitor for a protein in cestodes (Cu / Zn superoxide dismutase), developed a recombinant antibody that inhibits triose phosphate isomerase. Has characterized the 3 glutathione transferases (24, 25, 26 kDa) that form the main system of detoxification and has contributed knowledge about the regulation of transcription, the foregoing has allowed reasonable knowledge of the cestodes and the diseases they cause. As a result of your work\r\nscientist has 58 publications, 12 book chapters, plus 2 books. Teaching and Training of Human Resources: Has taught since 1991, 30 courses and topics at the Postgraduate level. He has also directed 30 undergraduate theses, 9 Master\'s, 1 Specialization and 9 Doctorate. Almost all of his students PhD students are active researchers in Mexico and abroad. Doctor Landa is an active participant in conferences, as a member of committees tutorials, professional degree examinations in all programs of Postgraduate of the UNAM.',institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"332215",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Terrazas",slug:"luis-terrazas",fullName:"Luis Terrazas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000031RIzxQAG/Profile_Picture_1600754945533",biography:'He is a Master and Doctor of Science from UNAM, he did his post-doctorate at the Harvard University School of Public Health and his sabbatical at the Tufts University in Boston. He began his career as a teacher at the Faculty of Medicine UNAM in 1992, as an assistant in the subject of Biochemistry and Molecular biology to later be the owner of it. Is currently Full Professor "C" of T.C Definitive. It is Level “D” of the PRIDE and Level III of the National Research System. Academic-administrative positions: Representative of Postgraduate Tutors in Biological Sciences (2003-2006), in Biological Sciences (2003-2006), Member of the Review Commission of Nonconformities of the Personnel Performance Bonus Program Academic (PRIDE, 2002-2005), Secretary of the Mexican Society of Parasitology (2010-2011), Member of the Technical Council of the Faculty of Medicine (2006-2013) and currently a Member of the Judging Commission Research and Postgraduate Program CAABQyS of the FES-Iztacala (2015-1017).\r\nAwards and distinctions won the Scholarship awarded by the McArthur Foundation (1988-1989), Second place in the IV Parasitology Prize "Lola and Igo Flisser" 1992, the "Gabino Barreda" medal for his Doctorate in Science studies, 1997 and the medal "Nayarit for Scientific and Technological Research in 2001". Contributions and Scientific Productivity His research has been directed to the study of the molecular biology of Cestodes, especially of Taenia solium. He pioneered cloning and characterization of cestode genes and participated in the Consortium that carried out the university megaproject of the Taenia solium genome and three genomes\r\nmore than cestodes that resulted in a 2013 publication in the journal Nature. He has obtained with collaborators from the Institute of Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and from UAM the first crystal and inhibitor for a protein in cestodes (Cu / Zn superoxide dismutase), developed a recombinant antibody that inhibits triose phosphate isomerase. Has characterized the 3 glutathione transferases (24, 25, 26 kDa) that form the main system of detoxification and has contributed knowledge about the regulation of transcription, the foregoing has allowed reasonable knowledge of the cestodes and the diseases they cause. As a result of your work\r\nscientist has 58 publications, 12 book chapters, plus 2 books. Teaching and Training of Human Resources: Has taught since 1991, 30 courses and topics at the Postgraduate level. He has also directed 30 undergraduate theses, 9 Master\'s, 1 Specialization and 9 Doctorate. Almost all of his students PhD students are active researchers in Mexico and abroad. Doctor Landa is an active participant in conferences, as a member of committees tutorials, professional degree examinations in all programs of Postgraduate of the UNAM.',institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"71787",title:"Effect of Foot Morphology and Anthropometry on Bipedal Postural Balance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92149",slug:"effect-of-foot-morphology-and-anthropometry-on-bipedal-postural-balance",body:'Postural balance is dynamic and demands constant amendments to adapt to external disturbances, by using vision, muscle activity, articular positioning and proprioception, and the vestibular system to prevent falls [1, 2]. Awareness of the body’s position in space is determined by the integration of the visual, vestibular and somatosensory systems [3, 4]. The study of postural control is imperative for diagnosing balance disorders, as well as for assessing the effects of both therapeutic interventions and fall prevention programs. Postural stability is determined by mechanical factors that include both individual and environmental characteristics. This chapter focuses on various factors influencing the bipedal postural stability and provides an insight into the measures to facilitate improvement in the accuracy of diagnosis and quality of treatment and rehabilitation, thereby preventing falls and incapacities.
Our ancestors would have probably become extinct if they had not developed their bipedal posture including the corresponding transitional behavioral constraints. “Bipedalism evolved more as a terrestrial feeding posture than as a walking adaptation” [5]. The adapted bipedal posture brought various disadvantages like decreased velocity, increased time for social interaction, more chances of injuries from fall, more energy consumption, etc.
Advantages of bipedal posture could be many, namely freeing of hands, the visual advantage of being able to survey the surrounding, ability to acquire the skill of throwing, ability to carry infants while running, ability to reach out for food, ability for carrying food or provisioning, etc. But the most important hypothesis is that the ability to venture into shallow water made the ancestors to adapt bipedal posture.
Upright postural balance describes the dynamics of body posture to prevent falling over a relatively small base of support under gravitational field. As for postural balance without stepping, the stable balancing condition can be analyzed using the following equation under assumption that a one link inverted pendulum describes human sway motions.
where Fy is vertical reaction force, Mg is human total weight, xcop is the center of pressure (COP), xcom is the horizontal component of the center of mass (COM) (e.g., the center of gravity (COG)), I is the moment of inertia of the total body about the ankle joint, and θa is the ankle joint angle [6].
Two basic models for biped locomotion are walking and running. A gait of walking consists of stance and swing phases and a gait of running consists of stance and flight phases. Stance phase describes the period when a foot remains on the ground, and either swing or flight describes the period when a foot does not touch the ground. At midstance, the COM is at its highest point and gravitational potential energy is at maximal and kinetic energy at minimal. The exchange between kinetic and gravitational potential energies is cyclical over gaits. On the other hand, a running leg acts as a spring; therefore, a simple running model is a mass-spring system. At the braking phase during stance, the spring gets compressed and energies are stored as elastic energy. At midstance, the COM reaches its lowest point. The stored elastic energy recoils the spring at propulsive phase during stance to produce kinetic and gravitational potential energies. Both models principally exchange and store energies repeatedly to produce forward thrust and stability [6].
Numerous determinants like age, gender and body characteristics like body mass, height and body mass index affect postural stability. Anthropometric parameters of ankle joint and foot also affect bipedal and unipedal postural stability.
Vijada Raiva et al. [6] stated that females have more postural stability than males. Hageman et al. [7] stated that compared to younger population, older generation showed more tendency to sway. Older adults performed the timed movement task much slower than the younger adults. Longer response times by the elderly have been attributed to slower event detection and impaired sensorimotor integration. Greve et al. [8] stated that women showed less movement on Biodex Balance System than men did, and these findings were similar to those of Rozzi et al. [9] who evaluated basketball and American football players using the same equipment. Lee and Lin [10] studied children and observed that girls presented better postural balance than boys. This could be due to anthropometric factors (greater in men), but other factors such as neuromuscular (flexibility) and neurophysiologic (processing of inferences), as well as the habit of using higher heels, may also account for the differences.
Ledin and Odkvist [11] demonstrated that a 20% increase in body mass reduced the ability to make adjustments in response to external perturbations in the orthostatic position, with a consequent increase in postural instability. Chiari et al. [12] and Molikova et al. [13] in their respective studies conducted on individuals with normal or slightly higher than normal BMI have shown low correlations between body mass and balance. Majority of studies indicate that there was a direct relationship between obesity and increased postural instability, as evaluated by means of various tools and methods. Greve et al. [14] showed that in young adult males, the higher the BMI, the worst the postural balance, needing more postural adjustments to maintain balance in single leg stance. Greve et al. [8] proposed that the male group demonstrated stronger correlations for overall, anteroposterior and mediolateral stability index with body mass index (BMI) compared to women. They stated that there was a need for greater movements to maintain postural balance. Hue et al. [15] found that body mass was responsible for more than 50% of balance at speed and Chiari et al. [12] demonstrated a strong correlation between body mass, anteroposterior movements and the area of detachment. McGraw et al. [16] reported that greater postural adjustments are necessary to maintain an erect posture when there is a build-up of adipose tissue, thus causing a reduction in balance and an increase in injuries and falls. Due to the high degree of correlation between balance and body mass, we can safely infer that the mechanical factor of body mass inertia requires greater musculoskeletal force to balance it against the force of gravity, and therefore, to maintain balance, obese individuals require greater movement from the center of gravity to remain in the orthostatic position.
There is a consensus that the greater the height, the worse the balance. Berger et al. [17] and Alonso et al. [3] stated that ankle displacements and the response of the gastrocnemius increased with increasing height. Allard et al. [18] and Lee and Lin [10] reported that tall individuals present greater postural sway than do short individuals, and they attributed this to the higher position of the center of mass. Kejonen et al. [19] and Hue et al. [15] have found that body stability is inversely related to the height of the center of gravity and that, for this reason, posturography measurements are affected by individuals’ anthropometric characteristics.
The architecture of the vertebral column, upper and lower appendages, and organs and tissues that attach to or are suspended from the spinal column affects postural stability. Very few studies are available on correlation of foot parameters with unipedal and bipedal postural balance [18].
As the age advances particularly after forties, the muscle mass goes on decreasing so does the muscle strength. Muscle fatigue, which is a common condition affecting the elderly population, can result in mobility, postural and gait deficiencies. The state of mind can influence the activity of the muscular system, that is, the muscular tonus. The muscular activation or, in the contrary case, the muscular relaxation influences postures adopted by people. The body height and the lower limb length constitute partly to weight transfer strategy. The trunk-cephalic length does not correlate to the postural sway. Body mass is located above the hips, so it is not the main factor for the mediolateral sway. The weight transfer strategy for men depends on the size of the basis of support and their lean mass, while, for women, only the lengths (whole body and lower limbs) are important. Lower basis of supports leads to higher postural sway in the ML direction (Chiari et al. [11]; Chou et al., [20]), and to control the increase in body sway, it is necessary to increase the lean mass, probably and mainly the muscle mass to be able to generate more muscle force. The increase in body height affects the body mass and soft tissue mass (lean and fat masses) increases the postural sway. The increase in body mass indeed enlarges the postural sway.
A study was conducted in central population of northern Karnataka on 1000 young adult population in which foot anthropometry was measured and correlated with stature, weight, body mass index and bipedal posture stability [21].
Study design: Descriptive cross-sectional study.
Setting: Anthropometric section of department of Anatomy, ESIC Medical College and Hospital, Gulbarga, Karnataka.
Duration of study: 14 months; from 31 October 2017 to 31 December 2018.
Sample size: 1000 participants included medical, dental and nursing students aged between 18 and 21 years of age.
Inclusion criteria: Medical, dental and nursing students aged between 18 and 21 years of age in ESIC Medical College, Gulbarga.
Exclusion criteria: Students of NRI quota and students with poorly defined wrist creases, deformities of vertebral column and limbs, contractures, missing limbs, history of trauma to hand and foot, with features suggestive of dysmorphic syndromes, chronic illness and hormonal therapy were excluded from the study.
Sample selection: Simple random sampling method [13] as we selected 1000 participants out of total 3000 medical, dental and nursing students in our institute satisfying the inclusion criteria. As subjects belonging to the first to third year, they were easily accessible and also represented the young adult age group.
Foot length: Each subject will stand on a calibrated foot board with his/her back against the wall in such a manner that the posterior most point of the heel will gently touch the wall. A vertical stop was placed against the anterior most point of the foot. The distance between the posterior most point of the heel and the anterior most point of the foot was measured as the foot length [22] (Figure 1).
Measurement of foot length.
Foot breadth: It will be measured as distance between metatarsal tibiale (point projecting most medially on the head of the 1st metatarsal bone) and metatarsal fibulare (point projecting most laterally on the head of the 5th metatarsal bone) [23].
Height: Standing height will be measured to the nearest centimeters (cm) using a stadiometer with the subject standing erect on a horizontal resting plane bare footed having the palms of the hands turned inward and the fingers pointing downwards. The height will be measured from the sole of the feet to the vertex of the head as recommended by International Biological Program [23].
Body weight: It will be taken using the Mechanical Weighing Balance to the nearest kg according to the standard procedures A. Ibegbu, David et al. [24].
Body mass index: It will be calculated by dividing weight by height squared [weight/height squared (kg/m2)] David et al. [24].
Vernier slide calipers, calibrated foot board, stadiometer, regular weight machine, questionnaire for collection of personal details, academic scores, lead pencils, stationary, etc. Data collected were tabulated, graphically represented and statistically analyzed.
In our study, mean foot length was observed as 24.34 cm on the right side and 24.32 cm on the left side. Mean body mass index was calculated as 20.97. Correlation between foot length and body mass index was done. No statistically significant correlation between BMI and foot length of the right and left sides (P > 0.05) was observed. For further details, refer to Table 1.
Variables | Minimum | Maximum | Range | Mean | SD | N | Correlation r | P value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Body mass index (kg/m2) | 12.22 | 40.61 | 28.39 | 20.97 | 4.66 | 1000 | — | — |
Foot length right (cm) | 21.0 | 28.9 | 7.9 | 24.34 | 1.54 | 1000 | r = 0.073 | P > 0.05 NS |
Foot length left (cm) | 21.5 | 29.0 | 7.5 | 24.32 | 1.50 | 1000 | r = 0.024 | P > 0.05 NS |
Correlation of foot length and body mass index.
In the present study, mean foot breadth was observed as 8.95 cm on the right side and 8.96 cm on the left side. Mean body mass index was calculated as 20.97. Correlation between foot length and body mass index was done. There was a statistically significant correlation between BMI and foot breadth of the right and left sides (P < 0.01). The observations in the study stated that foot breadth of both sides was considerably more in participants who had higher body mass index. Linear regression coefficient was derived. For further details, refer to Table 2, Figure 2.
Variables | Minimum | Maximum | Range | Mean | SD | N | Correlation r | P value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Body mass index (kg/m2) | 12.22 | 40.61 | 28.39 | 20.97 | 4.66 | 1000 | — | — |
Foot breadth right (cm) | 7.5 | 10.9 | 3.4 | 8.95 | 0.78 | 1000 | r = 0.124 | P < 0.05 S |
Foot breadth left (cm) | 7.7 | 11.5 | 3.8 | 8.96 | 0.68 | 1000 | r = 0.115 | P < 0.05 S |
Linear regression equation | BMI = 19.306 + 0.168 (foot breadth right) | |||||||
Linear regression equation | BMI = 17.214 + 0382 (foot breadth left) |
Correlation of foot breadth and body mass index.
Correlation between foot length and body mass index.
We also observed foot length on both sides. Mean foot length on the right side was observed as 24.34 cm, and on the left side, it was 24.32 cm. Correlation of foot length was conducted with human stature. Linear regression equation was derived for both sides. Statistically highly significant positive correlation was observed between height and foot length of both sides (P < 0.01). Table 3 reveals that foot length of both sides was also significantly more among those having more height (Figures 3 and 4).
Variables | Minimum | Maximum | Range | Mean | SD | N | Correlation r | P value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Height (cm) | 135.2 | 195.2 | 60.0 | 161.88 | 13.45 | 1000 | — | — |
Foot length right (cm) | 21.0 | 28.9 | 7.9 | 24.34 | 1.54 | 1000 | r = 0.428 | P < 0.01 HS |
Foot length left (cm) | 21.5 | 29.0 | 7.5 | 24.32 | 1.50 | 1000 | r = 0.516 | P < 0.01 HS |
Linear regression equation | Height = 71.391 + 4.782 (foot length right) | |||||||
Linear regression equation | Height = 49.706 + 4.786 (foot length left) |
Correlation of foot length and human stature.
Measurement of foot breadth.
Correlation between foot breadth and body mass index.
Foot breadth was observed on both sides. Mean foot breadth on the right side was observed as 8.95 cm, and on the left side, it was 8.96 cm. Correlation of foot breadth was conducted with human stature. Linear regression equation was derived for both sides. Statistically highly significant positive correlation was observed between height and foot breadth of both sides (P < 0.01). Table 4 reveals that foot breadth of the right or left side was significantly more in those participants whose height was more (Figures 5 and 6).
Variables | Minimum | Maximum | Range | Mean | SD | N | Correlation r | P value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Height (cm) | 135.2 | 195.2 | 60.0 | 161.88 | 13.45 | 1000 | — | — |
Foot breadth right (cm) | 7.5 | 10.9 | 3.4 | 8.95 | 0.78 | 1000 | r = 0.364 | P < 0.01 HS |
Foot breadth left (cm) | 7.7 | 11.5 | 3.8 | 8.96 | 0.68 | 1000 | r = 0.367 | P < 0.01 HS |
Linear regression equation | Height = 106.01 + 6.240 (foot breadth right) | |||||||
Linear regression equation | Height = 96.843 + 7.253 (foot breadth left) |
Correlation of foot breadth and human stature.
Measurement of human stature.
Correlation between foot length and stature.
Gender-wise comparison of observations was done. We observed very highly significant difference in foot length, foot breadth, height and weight among males and females. The foot length, foot breadth, height and weight were significantly more in males compared to females, whereas body mass index was significantly more in females as compared to males. The observations have been tabulated in Table 5,Figures 7 and 8.
Variables | Male (N = 500) Mean ± SD | Female (N = 500) Mean ± SD | Z-test value | P value and significance |
---|---|---|---|---|
Foot length right (cm) | 25.18 ± 1.32 | 23.39 ± 1.19 | Z = 30.07 | P < 0.001, VHS |
Foot length left (cm) | 25.31 ± 1.16 | 23.19 ± 0.96 | Z = 31.19 | P < 0.001, VHS |
Foot breadth right (cm) | 9.39 ± 0.71 | 8.45 ± 0.52 | Z = 22.97 | P < 0.001, VHS |
Foot breadth left (cm) | 9.35 ± 0.59 | 8.52 ± 0.47 | Z = 23.21 | P < 0.001, VHS |
Height (cm) | 169.28 ± 11.75 | 153.42 ± 9.75 | Z = 22.26 | P < 0.001, VHS |
Weight (kg) | 58.21 ± 11.91 | 50.14 ± 9.85 | Z = 11.21 | P < 0.001, VHS |
BMI (kg/m2) | 20.58 ± 4.94 | 21.41 ± 4.27 | Z = 2.53 | P < 0.05, S |
Gender-wise comparison of parameters.
NS, not significant; S, significant; HS, highly significant; VHS, very highly significant.
Correlation between foot breadth and stature.
Multiple bar diagram represents gender-wise comparison of variables.
Postural sway was measured in the participants both male and female in anteroposterior and mediolateral direction (Figure 9). Correlation of postural sway with foot length and foot breadth was conducted. Mediolateral postural sway amplitude was the same, that is, −0.3 cm in both males and females. Anteroposterior sway amplitude was −.95 cm in females and − .10 cm in males. It was observed that men exhibited more postural sway compared to females in anteroposterior direction. The findings were statistically significant. Refer to Table 6 for details.
Gender-wise comparison of parameters.
Variables | Foot length (cm) r(p) | Foot breadth (cm) | Angle (°) |
---|---|---|---|
Female | |||
Mediolateral sway (cm) | 0.01 (0.88) | 0.01 (0.80) | −0.01 (0.89) |
Mediolateral ampl sway (cm) | 0.05 (0.54) | 0.01 (0.82) | −0.03 (0.70) |
Anteroposterior sway (cm) | 0.07 (0.43) | 0.05 (0.53) | −0.12 (0.21) |
Anteroposterior ampl sway (cm) | 0.09 (0.35) | −0.11 (0.25) | −0.95 (0.35) |
Sway velocity (cm/s) | 0.05 (0.56) | −0.12 (0.22) | 0.11 (0.25) |
Sway area (cm2) | 0.67 (0.50) | −0.24 (0.80) | −0.12 (0.22) |
Male | |||
Mediolateral sway (cm) | 0.32 (0.00) | 0.02 (0.84) | −0.04 (0.68) |
Mediolateral ampl sway (cm) | 0.27 (0.00) | 0.02 (0.83) | −0.03 (0.69) |
Anteroposterior sway (cm) | 0.29 (0.00) | 0.00 (0.94) | −0.11 (0.24) |
Anteroposterior ampl sway (cm) | 0.27 (0.00) | −0.06 (0.52) | −0.10 (0.31) |
Sway velocity (cm/s) | 0.15 (0.13) | −0.08 (0.42) | −0.09 (0.37) |
Sway area (cm2) | 0.36 (0.00) | 0.02 (0.78) | −0.10 (0.32) |
Correlation between foot anthropometric measurements and postural balance.
Spearman’s correlation, *ρ ≤ 0.05. ampl, amplitude.
Few studies have worked on the relationship of foot anthropometry with balance. Clarke [25] analyzed the angle of foot. Swanenburg et al., [26] examined static posturography using the center of pressure (COP) oscillation on a force platform. Our study suggested association between greater foot length and higher stabilometric parameters only in the male group. Our study observations matched with those of Alonso et al. [27], Kejonen et al., [19] and Molikova et al., [13]. Previous studies by Alonso et al., [3] and Chou et al., [20] also demonstrated that an increase in the size of the support base can improve the balance.
Our study states that neither the foot length nor the foot width influences postural balance. These observations matched with Alonso et al., [28], but they had conducted the study using unipedal standing balance task. Our findings contradicted with those of Chiari et al.[12] in which foot width showed positive correlation with postural balance. They conducted the study by bipedal standing balance task. They stated that the increase in lean mass correlates to the decrease of the amplitude of the postural sway. They added that the percentage of fat mass explains part of the anteroposterior postural sway in men, but not in women.
Mainenti et al. [29] showed that elderly women with more fat mass had larger balance sway and Winters and Snow [30] reported that 31% of postural sway variability in premenopausal women was caused by the fat mass. Hence, it can be concluded that the effect of fat mass on the postural control is age dependent.
The increase in body height indeed increases the postural sway. Hence, in our study, the greater height in the male group may have been the reason for the greater influence of this parameter on COP in comparison to the female participants.
In our study, conducted among young adults, without major health diseases or other abnormalities, the anthropometric measurements showed gender-related differences.
Bipedal postural sway shows sexual dimorphism.
Significance of body composition in maintenance of postural sway also shows sexual dimorphism.
Lean muscle mass is inversely proportional to the degree of postural sway.
Soft tissue mass is directly proportional to the degree of postural sway.
Human height is directly proportional to the degree of postural sway.
Foot length and foot width do not influence postural balance.
Overweight individuals require greater movement from the center of gravity to remain in the orthostatic position.
Gender-related variations in factors maintaining postural balance should be considered during ankle and weight transfer strategies.
Foot anthropometric parameters should be taken into consideration while facilitating diagnosis, treatment and rehabilitation of patients with postural instability.
Eighty-five percent of the energy consumed globally is provided by fossil fuels, namely coal, oil, and natural gas [1]. Fossil fuels come from finite resources which will eventually become scarce and difficult to explore. Thus, fossil fuels are considered nonrenewable energy sources [2]. Furthermore, consuming fossil fuels produces greenhouse gases and other byproducts, causing climate change and air pollution. The growing demand for energy requires a rapid shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources, such as wind, solar, biomass, hydropower, and geothermal energy [3]. In this context, hydrogen was proposed as a promising candidate for a secondary source of energy as early as 1973 [4]. Being a potential energy carrier in the future, hydrogen plays an important role in the path toward a low-carbon energy structure that is environmentally friendly [5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10].
\nCurrently, the steam reforming process is the most economical way of producing hydrogen. In fact, as much as 96% of hydrogen is made from hydrocarbon fuels [5], which neither address the dependence on finite resources nor reduce the amount of carbon from the energy structure. An alternative way of producing hydrogen is the power-to-gas strategy where intermittent energy resources are transferred and stored as hydrogen (Figure 1). Here, hydrogen is mainly produced from water electrolysis where water is split into hydrogen and oxygen by supplying electrical energy:
\nSchematic diagram of power-to-gas strategy.
In an electrolyzer, the above reaction is separated by an electrolyte (either in liquid or solid form) into two half reactions. The hydrogen evolution reaction (HER) occurs at the cathode:
\nWhile the oxygen evolution reaction (OER) occurs at the anode:
\nWater electrolysis technologies are classified into three categories based on the applied electrolyte: alkaline water electrolysis, proton exchange membrane (PEM) water electrolysis, and solid oxide water electrolysis [11]. PEM water electrolysis systems provide several advantages over the other two electrolysis technologies, such as higher rate of hydrogen production, more compact design, and greater energy efficiency [12, 13, 14, 15]. Compared to alkaline electrolysis, the solid electrolyte membrane in PEM electrolysis reduces the hydrogen crossover significantly and thus allows for high-pressure operation. In addition, as required by the role of electrolytic hydrogen production in renewable energy storage, dynamic response of PEM water electrolysis is superior to alkaline electrolysis or solid oxide electrolysis. The large quantity of liquid electrolyte in alkaline electrolysis requires the proper temperature to be maintained and could raise issues for a cold start. On the other hand, solid oxide electrolysis operated in a temperature range of 500–700°C is more suitable for constant operation than a dynamic response where the heat-up step could be slow.
\nThe produced hydrogen can have several pathways to different applications (Figure 1). It can be utilized for hydrogen fueling stations to power fuel cell vehicles or feed the combined heat and power (CHP) units for household uses. Moreover, the electrolytic hydrogen can be used as chemical feedstock in methanation after combining with CO2 stream from biogas or flue gas to produce renewable natural gas. Further, the generated hydrogen can also be consumed as a raw material by hydrogen users such as oil refining and semiconductor industry. Finally, the hydrogen can be transferred to electricity when the grid demand is high.
\nHydrogen can also be produced from biomass via pyrolysis or gasification. Wood, agricultural crops and its byproducts, organic waste, animal waste, waste from food processing, and so on are all sources of biomass. Biomass pyrolysis is basically [9]:
\nEmploying catalysts, such as Ni-based catalysts, can enhance the yield of hydrogen from biomass pyrolysis. Moreover, hydrogen production can be improved by introducing steam reforming and water-gas shift reaction to the pyrolysis [9]. For the gasification process, biomass is pyrolyzed at higher temperatures producing mostly gaseous products [9]:
\nIt is beneficial that biomass pyrolysis and gasification can be operated in small scale and at remote locations, which reduces the cost of hydrogen transportation and storage and improves the availability of hydrogen to end consumers [16]. In addition, pyrolysis and gasification can consume a wide range of biomass feedstocks [16]. Therefore, biomass is recognized as a major renewable and sustainable energy source to replace fossil fuel.
\nCurrently, hydrogen storage in high-pressure vessel is the most widely used method [7]. However, hydrogen is pressurized up to 700 bar for practical purposes such as the refueling time at a hydrogen station or the driving range for a fuel cell vehicle [17]. Hydrogen compression to 700 bar consumes a lot of energy that makes the volumetric energy density decrease from 10 to 5.6 MJ/L, much lower than gasoline (34 MJ/L) [6, 17]. Therefore, solid-state storage is usually coupled with high-pressure hydrogen vessels. For example, hydrogen can be stored in the interstitial sites of metal hydride crystals [17]. This method achieves higher volumetric energy density at room temperature than liquid hydrogen and consumes less operating energy for storage. Thus, metal hydride cartridge is suitable for portable application due to the convenience of refill/replace [7, 18]. In addition, with appropriate hydrogen refill and release properties at room temperature, metallic hydrides are good for stationary energy storage [17]. One drawback of solid-state storage is that metallic hydrides contain heavy transition metals, which reduce the gravimetric energy density of the device [19].
\nIn summary, hydrogen offers several advantages as an energy carrier: its combustion produces energy and only water that is carbon-free as a byproduct; it can be produced from renewable and sustainable sources; its energy can be distributed quite easily, in accordance with the end user’s requests and with the development of new technologies for transportation and storage; it may be used in both centralized or distributed energy production [7]. In spite of these advantages, hydrogen has failed to be widely used in energy systems due to numerous barriers, including costs of production and storage and the availability of infrastructure [10]. This chapter focuses on the technological challenges of PEM water electrolyzers for hydrogen production.
\nFigure 2 shows the schematic diagram of PEM water electrolysis. The electrolysis process is an endothermic process and electricity is applied as the energy source. The water electrolysis reaction is thermodynamically possible at potentials higher than 1.23 V vs. RHE (reversible hydrogen electrode). The thermoneutral potential at which the cell can operate adiabatically is 1.48 V vs. RHE. Typical PEM water electrolysis devices operate at potential well over 1.48 V vs. RHE and heat is generated by the reaction [15]. The PEM water electrolysis system, similar to proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC), anode and cathode is separated by a solid polymer electrolyte (Nafion) of thickness below 0.2 mm. At the anode, water is oxidized to produce oxygen, electrons, and protons. The protons are transported across the electrolyte membrane to be reduced to hydrogen. The catalyst for water oxidation or oxygen evolution is typically iridium, which can withstand the corrosive environment due to high overpotential on the anode. Water is channeled to the anode by a titanium flow field, and a piece of porous titanium mesh is placed between the anode catalyst layer and the water channel serving as the diffusion layer. The cathode configuration is similar to the PEMFC with Pt-based catalyst and a graphite flow field to transport hydrogen. A piece of carbon paper is used as the gas diffusion layer (GDL) placed between the cathode catalyst and the flow field.
\nSchematic diagram of PEM water electrolysis and the fundamental thermodynamic properties.
The hydrogen production rate of ideal electrolysis is proportional to the charge transferred, according to Faraday’s law. It can be expressed as [20]:
\nwhere Ncell is the total number of cells in the system and Icell is the electric current. ηF is the Faraday efficiency, or current efficiency, and is defined as the ratio of ideal electric charge and the practical charge consumed by the device when a certain amount of hydrogen is generated. ηF is usually about 0.95 [20]. The specific energy consumption E (kWh/Nm3) for a given time interval Δt is:
\nAnother important parameter for PEM water electrolysis is the efficiency:
\nwhere HHV is the higher heating value of hydrogen (39.4 kWh/kg at STP). Since PEM water electrolysis is usually supplied by liquid water, the HHV assumes that all the heat from the water is recovered by restoring the water temperature to the initial ambient state [20].
\nSignificant advances are needed in catalyst and membrane materials as well as the labor-intensive manufacturing process for PEM water electrolysis to be cost-effective for wide-spread application in renewable energy systems [21]. The state-of-the-art anode catalyst in conventional PEMWEs is iridium oxide (IrOx) or mixed oxide with ruthenium [22, 23]. Typical catalysts for commercial electrodes have IrOx loading from 1 to 3 mg cm−2 [24]. This level of catalyst loading is too high to meet the long-term cost targets for energy markets [23, 25, 26]. Furthermore, while using current electrolysis technology, the translation of catalyst development from lab scale to the megawatt scale remains challenging in terms of catalyst cost and stability [25].
\nFor Ir- and Ru-based OER catalyst, a balance between activity and stability has been reported [27, 28], which strongly depends on the chemical structure and surface properties of the oxide [23]. The oxide properties, however, are highly sensitive to synthesis conditions. For Ir-based OER catalyst, most synthesis methods involve a calcination step to improve the catalyst stability [29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35]; however, for this approach, a sacrifice of the OER activity is usually inevitable. Indeed, thermally prepared IrOx shows higher stability but lower activity compared to electrochemically prepared oxide, or hydrous IrOx [30, 31, 35]. The latter is also frequently referred to as amorphous IrOx due to the presence of lower valence Ir (III) oxide [36, 37, 38]. According to reference [39], Ir (III) is the major intermediate species for iridium dissolution. Combining both activity and stability remains a challenge for Ir-based catalysts, and it is the major hurdle that limits the reduction of the anode iridium loading in PEM water electrolysis.
\nThe enhancement of catalyst stability is of equal importance as the reduction of catalyst loading. Long-term operation at high current density up to thousands of hours is particularly challenging with an Ir loading less than 1 mg cm−2. Recent literature has seen a growing number of studies on longer-term electrolysis operation ranging from hundreds to several thousand hours [40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47] (Table 1). In particular, the best reported stability was on a nanostructured thin film (NSTF) cell, which achieved 5000 hours with a constant current load of 2 A cm−2 and 0.25 mg cm−2 Ir loading [45]. IrOx supported on Ti catalyst with 50 wt% Ir and a low catalyst loading of 0.12 mg cm−2 achieved more than 1000 hours operation at a lower current load of 1 A cm−2 [41]. No supported catalyst, other than titanium supported catalyst has been able to achieve such high catalyst stability. [48]
\nReferences | \nAnode catalyst | \nIr loading, mg cm−2 | \nCathode catalyst | \nPt loading, mg cm−2 | \nElectrode fabrication process | \nActive area | \nTest period, hours | \nOperating temperature, °C | \nOperating current, A cm−2 | \nTest period, hours | \nDegradation rate, μV h−1 | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Grigoriev et al. [40] | \nIr black | \n1.5 | \nPt/Vulcan XC-72 | \n1.0 | \nSpraying | \n25 | \n4000 | \n60 | \n0.5 | \n4000 | \n35.5 | \n
Rozain et al. [41] | \nIrO2/Ti | \n0.12 | \nPt/C, TKK | \n0.25 | \nSpraying | \n25 | \n1000 | \n80 | \n1 | \n1000 | \n27 | \n
Rozain et al. [41] | \nIrO2 | \n0.32/0.1 | \nPt/C, TKK | \n0.25 | \nSpraying | \n25 | \n1000 | \n80 | \n1 | \n1000 | \n110/180* | \n
Siracusano et al. [42] | \nIrO2 | \n0.4 | \nPt/Vulcan XC-72 | \n0.1 | \nSpray-coating | \n5 | \n1000 | \n80 | \n1.0 | \n1000 | \n12 | \n
Rakousky et al. [43] | \nIrO2 and TiO2 | \n2.25 | \nPt/C | \n0.8 | \nCommercial | \n17.64 | \n1150 | \n80 | \n2.0 | \n1150 | \n194 | \n
Lettenmeier et al. [44] | \nIr black | \n1 | \nPt black | \n0.9 | \nCommercial | \n120 | \n400 | \n55–60 | \n2.0 | \n400 | \nNot significant | \n
Lewinski et al. [45] | \nIr-NSTF | \n0.25 | \nPt-NSTF | \n0.25 | \n3 M | \n50 | \n5000 | \n80 | \n2 | \n5000 | \nAverage 6.8 | \n
RSDT Cell-4 | \nIrOx and Nafion | \n0.08 | \nPt/Vulcan XC-72R | \n0.3 | \nRSDT | \n86 | \n4543 | \n80 | \n1.8 | \n4543 | \n36.5–48.7, 11.5 | \n
Wang et al. [46] | \nIr0.7Ru0.3Ox | \n1** | \nPt/C | \n0.4 | \nAir-brush spraying | \n25 | \n400 | \n80 | \n1 | \n400 | \nNot significant | \n
Siracusano et al. [47] | \nIr0.7Ru0.3Ox | \n0.34** | \nPt/Vulcan XC-72 | \n0.1 | \nElectrode fabrication process | \nActive area | \n1.0/3.0 | \n80 | \n1.0/ 3.0 | \n1000 | \n15/23*** | \n
Reported degradation rates for iridium-based catalysts in long-term electrolyzer tests.
Degradation rate at 0.32 and 0.1 mg cm−2 Ir loading, respectively.
Loading of Ir and Ru combined.
Degradation rate at 1.0 and 3.0 A cm−2, respectively.
The OER performance of IrOx strongly depends on the chemical structure and surface properties of the oxide [23]. Before discussing the influence of oxide structure on the electrolyzer performance, a thorough understanding of the OER mechanism is needed. The OER on IrOx consists of three steps forming a closed circle (Figure 3) [39, 49, 50]:
\nCircle of oxygen evolution: Eqs. (9)–(11).
Reaction (9) is fast and in pre-equilibrium. Reaction (10) is the rate-determining step (RDS), and the theoretical Tafel slope of this mechanism is 2RT/3F = 40 mV/dec. Since it is noted that Eq. (11) involves two iridium sites, a binuclear mechanism of OER on IrOx is proposed for Eq. (11) [51]. With the aid of density functional theory (DFT) calculations, Steesgra et al. [52] show that the first step of the binuclear mechanism is the oxidation of Ir (IV) – Ir (IV) to Ir (IV) – Ir (V), which is Eq. (10). Therefore, IrO2∙H2O is considered to be the precursor for the binuclear mechanism. The coverage of Ir (V) increases with the anodic potential until the conditions for the binuclear mechanism are satisfied [39] at the onset of OER.
\nIn a series of studies of iridium dissolution [31, 32, 39, 53], it is proposed that the precursor for dissolution are the oxygenated Ir (III) species (Figure 3). The formation and reduction of higher valence Ir (IV) species pass through an Ir (III) intermediate, which is shared in both OER and iridium dissolution. It is concluded in [39] that iridium dissolution has no direct link with OER activity and that they are two pathways sharing an intermediate species, Ir (III). Thus, it is possible to suppress one without alternating the other [39]. Therefore, the ratio of Ir (IV) to Ir (III) on the IrOx surface is a crucial parameter that controls the iridium dissolution and the OER.
\nAmorphous and nano-sized IrOxs have received much attention as promising OER catalysts due to the co-existence of Ir (III) and Ir (IV) oxidation state [35, 36, 37, 38, 54, 55, 56], forming an oxide termed “iridium oxohydroxide.” For example, using X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and X-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy (XANES), Minguzzi et al. [37, 38] confirms the co-existence of Ir (III) and Ir (IV) at anodic potentials where OER occurs. However, this does not imply that a mixed IrOx state fundamentally leads to high OER activity. In fact, the OER mechanism (Eqs. (9)–(11)) predicts that Ir (III) and Ir (IV) would certainly co-exist as Eqs. (9)–(11) form a loop. The higher OER activity of mixed Ir (III) and Ir (IV) oxides have been attributed to the presence of electrophilic OI− species [57, 58, 59, 60, 61]. Electrophilic OI− is the precursor for the O-O bond formation according to the binuclear mechanism [52]. The oxygen 2p state probed with near-edge X-ray absorption fine structure (NEXAFS) suggests that electrophilic OI− has a lower energy state compared to the OII− species [61]. The weakly bonded OI− is susceptible to nucleophilic attack from the pre-adsorbed water or hydroxyl groups, promoting the formation of O-O bond [58, 59]. Calcination at a high temperature of “dry” IrOx (OII− species) where electrophilic OI− becomes strongly bonded OII− species and thus the OER activity is reduced [36], in agreement with other studies [30, 31, 35, 62]. However, the “dry” IrOx is more stable against dissolution as the Ir (III) species on the surface is reduced [32, 60].
\nIn addition, the IrOx structure can be modified when a metal oxide support is incorporated with IrOx nanoparticles via the metal/metal oxide support interaction. For example [63], when IrO2 nanoparticles are supported on antimony-doped tin oxide (ATO), the d band vacancy and iridium oxidation decreased due to the interfacial electron charge donation from ATO to iridium, evidenced by the shift of X-ray absorption white line toward lower energy. This is corroborated with the increased Ir-O bonding distances for ATO-supported IrOx from extended X-ray fine structure (EXAFS) analysis, which is consistent with a lower average iridium oxidation state. Such interaction between IrOx and ATO suppressed the growth of higher valent IrOx layer that leads to iridium dissolution, thereby improved catalyst stability [63]. Similar interaction between metal/metal oxide supports was also found for IrO2 supported on TiO2 catalyst where the catalyst stability was enhanced as well [64].
\nMixed bimetallic oxides of iridium and a non-noble metal have been used to optimize the anode catalyst for PEM electrolyzer application [65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73]. The most apparent benefit of bimetallic oxide is to reduce the iridium loading in the catalyst if the catalyst activity remains comparable or higher compared to pure IrOx. For example, at >10 mol% iridium content in IrO2 + SnO2 mixed oxide the Tafel slope for OER is identical with pure IrO2, suggesting that the surface properties of IrO2 + SnO2 mixed oxide is dominated by IrO2 and behave as pure IrO2 [65]. In particular, iridium content in the 30–90 mol% range shows higher OER performance than pure IrO2 [65].
\nMore importantly, mixed bimetallic oxides modify the electronic or crystal structures of IrOx, which can significantly enhance the OER activity. The bond forming or breaking during OER is governed by the interaction between the O-2p orbital of intermediates with the d orbitals of surface sites of the transition metals [66, 67, 68, 70, 71, 72, 73]. Thus, the OER activity depends on the d-orbital electronic structure of the transitional metals. For example, Sun et al. [73] doped IrOx with copper and obtained enhanced OER activity in acid media at 30–50 mol% concentration. The Cu doping led to an IrO2 lattice distortion due to the CuO6 octahedron’s Jahn-Teller effect and also generated oxygen defects (Figure 4a), which significantly affected the energy distribution of the d-orbitals of Ir sites. The induced partial oxygen defects and the lifted degeneracy of t2g and eg orbitals reduced the energy required for the O-O bond formation, thereby enhanced the OER activity. In another case, Reier et al. [69] prepared Ir-Ni mixed oxide thin film and found a 20-fold enhancement of OER activity compared to pure IrOx thin film. As shown in Figure 4b, the surface Ni elements are leached out during OER and weakened the binding energy of the Ni-depleted oxygen with the lattice, forming oxygen with lower binding energy, and similar to the electrophilic oxygen. This promotes the formation of weakly bonded surface hydroxyls, which govern the overall OER reaction rate and suppress the formation of unreactive divalent = O species on the surface. Furthermore, Tae et al. [70] reported Ir-Co mixed oxide with 5% iridium loading that exhibits excellent OER activity and stability. At anodic potentials, the oxygen vacancy in Co (III) is transferred to Ir (IV) O6 center, leading to the formation of coordinatively unsaturated Ir (VI) O5 structure (Figure 4c), which is highly active for OER.
\n(a) Schematic lattice diagram in the ab plane of IrO2 (left) and substituted by Cu (right). The top row shows Ir-5d orbitals degeneracy of IrO2 (left) and the lift degeneracy and electron redistribution by doping with Cu [73]—Published by The Royal Society of Chemistry. (b) Model of Ni-leaching during OER for Ir-Ni mixed oxide surface, reproduced with permission [69]. Copyright (2015) American Chemical Society. (c) Transfer of oxygen vacancy from Co (III) to Ir (VI), reproduced with permission [70]. Copyright (2015) American Chemical Society.
Small particles are usually favorable for higher mass activity due to the high surface area to bulk ratio, which facilitates the reduction of catalyst loading. More importantly, the change of electronic structure is unavoidably accompanied with the change of particle size, as evidenced in the early work on X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) [74, 75, 76]. As particle size decreases, the binding energy is shifted to higher levels due to the increase of lattice strain and the coordination reduction [77, 78]. Richter et al. [78] shows that two mechanisms contribute to such an energy shift. The first is the initial state effect caused by the increase of lattice strain as particle size decreases, a result of d-hybridization; the second is the final state relaxation that increases with the decrease of particle size, which results in the stronger screening of the core hole leading to higher binding energy. Small particles show enhanced d-hybridization, which shift the d-band center to lower levels, decreasing the bond strength of the adsorbates during an electrochemical reaction [79].
\nAbbot et al. [34] systematically studied the particle size effect for IrOx in the range of 2 –30 nm. EXAFS analysis reveals that, as the IrOx particle size decreases, the coordination number decreases and the Ir-O bond length increases. The core-level binding energy was thus shifted to higher levels as the particle size decreases, which is in agreement with previous literature [74, 75, 76]. As a result, the iridium-oxygen bonding is weakened as the particle size decreases, leading to higher content of hydroxide, and lower average oxidation state of iridium from Ir (IV) to a combination of Ir (IV) and Ir (III). Based on previous discussions in Section 3.1, surface hydroxide and mixed Ir (IV) and Ir (III) state are favorable for OER. Indeed, Abbot et al. [34] show that the IrOx particles of 2 nm have 10 fold higher OER mass activity and three fold higher turnover frequency compared to the IrOx particles of 30 nm.
\nPerfluorosulfonic acid ionomer provides proton conductivity in the catalyst layer, extends the reaction zone, and improves the catalyst utilization [80, 81]. Ma et al. [82] focused on the effect of ionomer content on the ohmic resistance of PEM electrolyzers with iridium supported on titanium carbide (TiC) as an anode catalyst. Ma et al. [82] showed that increasing the ionomer content from 10 to 40 wt% causes a decrease in PEMWE performance. Using a simple non-linear fit:
\nThe authors derived the ohmic loss contribution in the performance and concluded that higher ohmic resistance is associated with high ionomer content. It is noted that with this non-linear fit method, the obtained ohmic resistance includes contributions from all sources of the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) components, including the ionic resistance. Xu et al. [83] investigated the effect of ionomer content from the voltammetric charge and interfacial resistance perspective. The amount of voltammetric charges in cyclic voltammetry is proportional to the surface active sites [84]. A wider range of ionomer contents, from 5 to 40 wt%, were studied. The highest total charge was achieved at 25 wt% ionomer content, which is in agreement with the optimum PEMWE performance. Based on Butler-Volmer equation, the authors constructed a model to describe the I-V curves and concluded that the optimum ionomer content minimizes the interfacial resistance between the membrane and the electrode.
\nIn a recent study, Bernt and Gasteiger [85] investigated the effect of anode ionomer content by analyzing the voltage loss contribution to the PEMWE performance. The ohmic resistance was found to increase abruptly when the ionomer content is above 20 wt%. This suggests that an electronically insulating film of residual ionomer forms at the electrode/GDL interface when the ionomer volume exceeds the void volume of the catalyst layer, which results in higher contact resistances. Further, such electronic insulation caused higher OER overpotential with >20 wt% ionomer content and thereby decreased the catalyst utilization. After subtracting the voltage losses due to ohmic and kinetic losses, Bernt and Gasteiger [85] attributed to the remaining losses (red diamond) to mass transport (Figure 5). The main path for oxygen removal from the electrode is not permeation but convective transport through the void volume of the anode. Thus, higher ionomer content imposes higher transport resistance for oxygen removal.
\nOverpotentials of PEM electrolyzer MEAs with different anode ionomer content after subtraction of ohmic and kinetics losses. Overpotentials from different sources are represented as different colors. Blue: anode proton conduction resistance; Green: cathode proton conduction resistance; Red: remaining overpotentials due to mass transport loss. Reproduced with permission [85]. Copyright (2016) The Electrochemical Society.
In sum, similar to PEM fuel cell electrodes, the ionomer content is an important parameter for the optimization of PEM electrolyzers. While low ionomer content provides insufficient proton conduction and less accessible surface active sites, high ionomer content induces high interfacial resistance and mass transport loss due to insufficient void volume for oxygen diffusion. PEM electrolyzers are economically beneficial for a large-scale application operating at high current densities (>2 A cm−2) and high pressures (30–45 bar). Thus, optimization of the ionomer content becomes crucial to minimize the cell potential loss at high current and pressure and improve cell efficiency.
\nPower generated from renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind, requires energy storage devices to balance its fluctuation and intermittence because of variable weather conditions [86]. Hydrogen production by water electrolysis has been developed as an alternative technology for energy conversion and storage that can be fitted to renewable energy systems [87, 88]. This section will briefly introduce the role of PEM electrolyzers in power-to-gas, solar, and wind energy systems.
\nPower-to-gas is emerging as a novel energy storage method that uses the surplus electricity from the grid during off-peak periods and converts it to hydrogen through a water electrolysis process [89]. The key technology for this strategy is the electrolyzer, which bridges the power to utilization by producing hydrogen. Electrolyzers must meet the following requirements in order for power-to-gas to become efficient and economically viable [90]: (1) high efficiency of hydrogen production; (2) fast response to power fluctuation; (3) very low minimal load for stand-by; (4) high-pressure operation to reduce the cost of hydrogen compression; and (5) long durability and lifetime. The major drawback of power-to-gas is the low efficiency and high cost of electrolyzers. While PEM electrolyzers offer fast response, high pressure, and the production of pure hydrogen, scaling up to MW scale has been the major technical challenge. As mentioned previously, the major hurdle of this challenge is the cost of catalysts and other MEA components (e.g., the Ti-based bipolar plates).
\nSolar energy conversion into hydrogen by water splitting has been long studied by various research groups due to its easy scale-up nature. The state-of-the-art photocatalytic and photo-electrochemical system has an efficiency of 10 and 5%, respectively, in the direct conversion of solar to hydrogen (STH) [91]. To reduce the price of hydrogen and boost up the efficiency of STH, an electrolyzer cell (EC) can be coupled with a photovoltaic cell (PV), called photovoltaic−water electrolysis system (PV-EC) [92]. The STH efficiency can be increased up to 30%. Further, a direct current to direct current (DC-DC) converter can be implemented between PV and EC (Figure 6). The main role of the converter is maximum power point tracking of the sun light to the EC system. Thus, coupling electrolyzers with highly efficient PVs and with converter assistance, high STH efficiency PV-Conv-EC systems can achieve 20.6% STH efficiency and 78% PV electricity to hydrogen conversion efficiency [92].
\nDesign principle of the PV-Conv-EC system based on an independent PV, the EC performance, and the existence of a converter. (a) Hydrogen power per square centimeter (pH2) and kinetic loss per square centimeter (pkin) at a given current density–voltage (j − V) curve of the PV and EC. The intersection between the PV and EC j − V curve has a lower voltage and a higher current density than the pPV, max point. (b) pH2 and pkin after the DC-DC converter assistance on (a). Reproduced with permission [92]. Copyright (2015) American Chemical Society.
Wind power is heavily influenced by meteorological variances and requires balancing power for the load fluctuation. Wind to hydrogen (WTH) strategies by water electrolysis could offer a solution to this problem [9]. Synergy between wind farms and water electrolyzers makes hydrogen a buffer solution to balance the grid power as well as produce hydrogen from surplus wind power [9]. Thus, the wind power can be utilized at its maximum capacity.
\nTable 2 summarizes the commercially available PEM electrolysis systems from 12 major manufacturers worldwide. Note that only the highest capacity from each manufacturer is listed here. Six of the manufacturers are able to achieve a system capacity around 1 MW or higher. The largest system so far is from Hydrogenics, a 15 MW plant with 10 cell stacks capable of producing 3000 Nm3 hydrogen per hour. Giner currently offers a more powerful cell stack, Kennebec stacks, even though its current systems have not yet incorporated this brand of the cell stack. The Kennebec stacks have the largest capacity among all the stacks available from these manufacturers. It has a capacity of 5 MW and is capable of producing 2200 kg of hydrogen per day (that is, 1020 Nm3 per hour). Most of the systems offer high-purity hydrogen with the high delivery pressure that is suitable for on-site storage and fueling. The system consumption of electricity is very close among all the manufacturers, averaged around 5.5 ± 0.5 kWh per Nm3 of hydrogen.
\nManufacturers | \nSystem model | \nH2 production rate, Nm3/hr | \nH2 purity (after purification) | \nInstalled power, MW | \nSystem consumption, kWh/Nm3 of H2 | \nDelivery pressure, bar | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Hydrogenics | \nHyLYZER-3000 | \n3000 | \n99.998% | \n15 | \n5.0–5.4 | \n30 | \n[93] | \n
Proton Onsite | \nM400 | \n400 | \n>99.9995% | \n2 | \n5 | \n30 | \n[94] | \n
Siemens | \nSilyzer 200 | \n225 | \n99.9% | \n1.25 | \n5.1–5.4 | \n35 | \n[95] | \n
ITM power | \nHGas1000 | \n215 | \n99.999% | \n1.03 | \n5.5 | \n20–80 | \n[96] | \n
Giner | \n200S | \n200 | \n99.999% | \n1 | \n5 | \n40 | \n[97] | \n
AREVA H2Gen | \nE120 | \n120 | \n99.999% | \n0.96 | \n4.8 | \n30 | \n[98] | \n
H-TEC | \nME100/350 | \n66 | \n99.999% | \n0.225 | \n4.9 | \n20 | \n[99] | \n
Kobelco-eco solutions | \nSH60D | \n60 | \n99.9999% | \n0.2 | \n5.5–6.5 | \n8.2 | \n[100] | \n
Treadwell Corp. | \nNA | \n10.2 | \nNA | \nNA | \nNA | \n75.8 | \n[101] | \n
Angstrom Advanced | \nHGH170000 | \n10 | \n99.9999% | \n0.058 | \n5.5 | \n4 | \n[102] | \n
SylaTech | \nHE32 | \n2 | \n99.999% | \n0.01 | \n4.9 | \n30 | \n[103] | \n
GreenHydrogen | \nHyProvide P1 | \n1 | \n99.995% | \n0.01 | \n5.5 | \n50 | \n[104] | \n
Summary of commercial PEM electrolysis systems.
The growing demand for energy and the accompanied environmental issues call for a rapid transition to low-carbon/carbon-free energy structure. In this context, hydrogen serves as an ideal secondary energy source for energy storage and transport. The key technology for hydrogen energy is water electrolysis. In particular, PEM electrolysis has been driven strongly by flexible energy storage in recent years as it offers several advantages compared to alkaline and solid oxide electrolysis. Nowadays, more mega-Watt scale PEM electrolysis systems are available on the market and in the field. However, further technological advancement is still demanded in the field of electrocatalysis and material science to obtain a deeper understanding of catalytic reactions and design new catalysts such that PEM electrolysis is more durable and cost-effective. Furthermore, as PEM electrolysis is but one building block for the future hydrogen economy, efforts in R&D should emphasize the compatibility with other technologies and optimize the synergic effects.
\nThe authors have no conflict of interest to declare.
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