Typical 13C chemical shift ranges of chemical groups found in saponins. Adapted from [33].
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"},{slug:"intechopen-s-chapter-awarded-the-guenther-von-pannewitz-preis-2020-20200715",title:"IntechOpen's Chapter Awarded the Günther-von-Pannewitz-Preis 2020"},{slug:"suf-and-intechopen-announce-collaboration-20200331",title:"SUF and IntechOpen Announce Collaboration"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3478",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Sintering Applications",title:"Sintering Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Sintering is one of the final stages of ceramics fabrication and is used to increase the strength of the compacted material. In the Sintering of Ceramics section, the fabrication of electronic ceramics and glass-ceramics were presented. Especially dielectric properties were focused on. In other chapters, sintering behaviour of ceramic tiles and nano-alumina were investigated. Apart from oxides, the sintering of non-oxide ceramics was examined. Sintering the metals in a controlled atmosphere furnace aims to bond the particles together metallurgically. In the Sintering of Metals section, two sections dealt with copper containing structures. The sintering of titanium alloys is another topic focused in this section. The chapter on lead and zinc covers the sintering in the field of extractive metallurgy. Finally two more chapter focus on the basics of sintering,i.e viscous flow and spark plasma sintering.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0974-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6301-5",doi:"10.5772/56064",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"sintering-applications",numberOfPages:352,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"78b5ad7a210c4dcb3346ca452f828938",bookSignature:"Burcu Ertuğ",publishedDate:"February 6th 2013",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3478.jpg",numberOfDownloads:44705,numberOfWosCitations:136,numberOfCrossrefCitations:105,numberOfDimensionsCitations:220,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:461,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 16th 2012",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 6th 2012",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 10th 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"December 9th 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 8th 2013",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"97820",title:"Dr.",name:"Burcu",middleName:null,surname:"Ertug",slug:"burcu-ertug",fullName:"Burcu Ertug",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"...",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Nişantaşı University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"923",title:"Process Engineering",slug:"ceramics-process-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"42531",title:"Oxide Ceramic Functional Thin Layer Processing by Thermal and Laser Sintering of Green Layers",doi:"10.5772/53257",slug:"oxide-ceramic-functional-thin-layer-processing-by-thermal-and-laser-sintering-of-green-layers",totalDownloads:2829,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Guido Falk, Katrin Klein and Christoph Rivinius",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/42531",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/42531",authors:[{id:"98935",title:"Dr.",name:"Guido",surname:"Falk",slug:"guido-falk",fullName:"Guido Falk"}],corrections:null},{id:"42532",title:"Powder Preparation, Properties and Industrial Applications of Hexagonal Boron Nitride",doi:"10.5772/53325",slug:"powder-preparation-properties-and-industrial-applications-of-hexagonal-boron-nitride",totalDownloads:4902,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:27,signatures:"Burcu Ertug",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/42532",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/42532",authors:[{id:"97820",title:"Dr.",name:"Burcu",surname:"Ertug",slug:"burcu-ertug",fullName:"Burcu Ertug"}],corrections:null},{id:"42486",title:"High Pressure Sintering of Nano-Size γ-Al2O3",doi:"10.5772/53324",slug:"high-pressure-sintering-of-nano-size-al2o3",totalDownloads:2889,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Nilgun Kuskonmaz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/42486",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/42486",authors:[{id:"162047",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Nilgun",surname:"Kuskonmaz",slug:"nilgun-kuskonmaz",fullName:"Nilgun Kuskonmaz"}],corrections:null},{id:"42534",title:"Sintering Behavior of Vitrified Ceramic Tiles Incorporated with Petroleum Waste",doi:"10.5772/53256",slug:"sintering-behavior-of-vitrified-ceramic-tiles-incorporated-with-petroleum-waste",totalDownloads:2475,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"A.J. Souza, B.C.A. Pinheiro and J.N.F. Holanda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/42534",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/42534",authors:[{id:"160956",title:"Prof.",name:"José",surname:"Holanda",slug:"jose-holanda",fullName:"José Holanda"}],corrections:null},{id:"42555",title:"Structural and Dielectric Properties of Glass – Ceramic Substrate with Varied Sintering Temperatures",doi:"10.5772/54037",slug:"structural-and-dielectric-properties-of-glass-ceramic-substrate-with-varied-sintering-temperatures",totalDownloads:3499,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:13,signatures:"Rosidah Alias",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/42555",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/42555",authors:[{id:"93015",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosidah",surname:"Alias",slug:"rosidah-alias",fullName:"Rosidah Alias"}],corrections:null},{id:"42557",title:"Low Temperature Hybrid Processing Technology of Fine Electronic Ceramics",doi:"10.5772/53255",slug:"low-temperature-hybrid-processing-technology-of-fine-electronic-ceramics",totalDownloads:2201,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,signatures:"Hongfang Zhang, Chee-leung Mak, Helen Lai-Wa Chan and Xi Yao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/42557",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/42557",authors:[{id:"160500",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongfang",surname:"Zhang",slug:"hongfang-zhang",fullName:"Hongfang Zhang"},{id:"160527",title:"Prof.",name:"Chee-Leung",surname:"Mak",slug:"chee-leung-mak",fullName:"Chee-Leung Mak"},{id:"160528",title:"Prof.",name:"Helen Lai Wa",surname:"Chan",slug:"helen-lai-wa-chan",fullName:"Helen Lai Wa Chan"},{id:"160529",title:"Prof.",name:"Xi",surname:"Yao",slug:"xi-yao",fullName:"Xi Yao"}],corrections:null},{id:"42559",title:"Sintering of Ternary Copper Alloys (Powder Metalurgy) – Electrical and Mechanical Properties Effects",doi:"10.5772/53258",slug:"sintering-of-ternary-copper-alloys-powder-metalurgy-electrical-and-mechanical-properties-effects",totalDownloads:2725,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"W. A. Monteiro, J. A. G. Carrió, M. A. Carvalhal, A. K. Okazaki, C. R. da Silveira and M. V. S. Martins",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/42559",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/42559",authors:[{id:"102797",title:"Prof.",name:"Waldemar",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"waldemar-monteiro",fullName:"Waldemar Monteiro"}],corrections:null},{id:"42561",title:"Lead and Zinc Sintering",doi:"10.5772/54618",slug:"lead-and-zinc-sintering",totalDownloads:5354,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Baojun Zhao",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/42561",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/42561",authors:[{id:"161749",title:"Prof.",name:"Baojun",surname:"Zhao",slug:"baojun-zhao",fullName:"Baojun Zhao"}],corrections:null},{id:"42562",title:"Pulse Current Auxiliary Sintering",doi:"10.5772/53469",slug:"pulse-current-auxiliary-sintering",totalDownloads:1857,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Zhang Chunping and Zhang Kaifeng",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/42562",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/42562",authors:[{id:"161557",title:"Dr.",name:"Chunping",surname:"Zhang",slug:"chunping-zhang",fullName:"Chunping Zhang"}],corrections:null},{id:"42563",title:"Development of a Stress Insensitive MgCuZn-NiCuZn Composite Ferrite Useful for Microinductors Applications",doi:"10.5772/52843",slug:"development-of-a-stress-insensitive-mgcuzn-nicuzn-composite-ferrite-useful-for-microinductors-applic",totalDownloads:2311,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"N. Varalaxmi and K. Sivakumar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/42563",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/42563",authors:[{id:"160438",title:"Dr.",name:"Narla",surname:"Sharma",slug:"narla-sharma",fullName:"Narla Sharma"}],corrections:null},{id:"41297",title:"Sintering and Heat Treatment of Titanium Alloys by Pulsed Electric Current Sintering",doi:"10.5772/53705",slug:"sintering-and-heat-treatment-of-titanium-alloys-by-pulsed-electric-current-sintering",totalDownloads:2671,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"F. Zhang, Y. Quan, M. Reich, O. Kessler and E. Burkel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/41297",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/41297",authors:[{id:"13364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eberhard",surname:"Burkel",slug:"eberhard-burkel",fullName:"Eberhard Burkel"},{id:"15001",title:"Dr.",name:"Faming",surname:"Zhang",slug:"faming-zhang",fullName:"Faming Zhang"},{id:"167000",title:"MSc.",name:"Yujie",surname:"Quan",slug:"yujie-quan",fullName:"Yujie Quan"},{id:"167001",title:"MSc.",name:"Christoph",surname:"Schweigel",slug:"christoph-schweigel",fullName:"Christoph Schweigel"},{id:"167002",title:"Prof.",name:"Olaf",surname:"Kessler",slug:"olaf-kessler",fullName:"Olaf Kessler"}],corrections:null},{id:"42565",title:"Mechanisms of Momentum Transport in Viscous Flow Sintering",doi:"10.5772/53259",slug:"mechanisms-of-momentum-transport-in-viscous-flow-sintering",totalDownloads:2596,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,signatures:"Shiva Salem and Amin Salem",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/42565",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/42565",authors:[{id:"163135",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Amin",surname:"Salem",slug:"amin-salem",fullName:"Amin Salem"}],corrections:null},{id:"42566",title:"Challenges and Opportunities for Spark Plasma Sintering: A Key Technology for a New Generation of Materials",doi:"10.5772/53706",slug:"challenges-and-opportunities-for-spark-plasma-sintering-a-key-technology-for-a-new-generation-of-mat",totalDownloads:8396,totalCrossrefCites:75,totalDimensionsCites:149,signatures:"M. Suárez, A. Fernández, J.L. Menéndez, R. Torrecillas, H. U. Kessel, J. Hennicke, R. Kirchner and T. Kessel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/42566",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/42566",authors:[{id:"102383",title:"Dr.",name:"Marta",surname:"Suárez",slug:"marta-suarez",fullName:"Marta Suárez"},{id:"103822",title:"Dr.",name:"J.L",surname:"Menendez",slug:"j.l-menendez",fullName:"J.L Menendez"},{id:"103833",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramón",surname:"Torrecillas",slug:"ramon-torrecillas",fullName:"Ramón Torrecillas"},{id:"162633",title:"Dr.",name:"Adolfo",surname:"Fernández",slug:"adolfo-fernandez",fullName:"Adolfo Fernández"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"474",title:"Advances in Ceramics",subtitle:"Synthesis and Characterization, Processing and Specific Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"advances-in-ceramics-synthesis-and-characterization-processing-and-specific-applications",bookSignature:"Costas Sikalidis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/474.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"42599",title:"Prof.",name:"Costas",surname:"Sikalidis",slug:"costas-sikalidis",fullName:"Costas Sikalidis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1422",title:"Sintering of Ceramics",subtitle:"New Emerging Techniques",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"285c4e1c255669f44ed4f19f066c84cb",slug:"sintering-of-ceramics-new-emerging-techniques",bookSignature:"Arunachalam Lakshmanan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1422.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94482",title:"Dr.",name:"Arunachalam",surname:"Lakshmanan",slug:"arunachalam-lakshmanan",fullName:"Arunachalam Lakshmanan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"473",title:"Advances in Ceramics",subtitle:"Characterization, Raw Materials, Processing, Properties, Degradation and Healing",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"advances-in-ceramics-characterization-raw-materials-processing-properties-degradation-and-healing",bookSignature:"Costas Sikalidis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/473.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"42599",title:"Prof.",name:"Costas",surname:"Sikalidis",slug:"costas-sikalidis",fullName:"Costas Sikalidis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2132",title:"Sintering",subtitle:"Methods and Products",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4374d54a1172051ff65e9f3aebee8f3",slug:"sintering-methods-and-products",bookSignature:"Volodymyr Shatokha",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2132.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111000",title:"Dr.",name:"Volodymyr",surname:"Shatokha",slug:"volodymyr-shatokha",fullName:"Volodymyr Shatokha"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4485",title:"Sintering Techniques of Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f3b86bfd3fbf78fd259db41fedf4123f",slug:"sintering-techniques-of-materials",bookSignature:"Arunachalam Lakshmanan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4485.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94482",title:"Dr.",name:"Arunachalam",surname:"Lakshmanan",slug:"arunachalam-lakshmanan",fullName:"Arunachalam Lakshmanan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4788",title:"Advanced Ceramic Processing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"537975e8ade968caf3e16ea092b9c973",slug:"advanced-ceramic-processing",bookSignature:"Adel Mohamed",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4788.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"148964",title:"Dr.",name:"A.M.A",surname:"Mohamed",slug:"a.m.a-mohamed",fullName:"A.M.A Mohamed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2200",title:"Ceramic Materials",subtitle:"Progress in Modern Ceramics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"612da9cb87615f384b89b64be02c39be",slug:"ceramic-materials-progress-in-modern-ceramics",bookSignature:"Feng Shi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2200.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24821",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",surname:"Shi",slug:"feng-shi",fullName:"Feng Shi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7333",title:"Sintering Technology",subtitle:"Method and Application",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d0b37ebc58f468e22dd7c63f94d0761e",slug:"sintering-technology-method-and-application",bookSignature:"Malin Liu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7333.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"165407",title:"Dr.",name:"Malin",surname:"Liu",slug:"malin-liu",fullName:"Malin Liu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"66301",slug:"corrigendum-to-denim-fabrics-woven-with-dual-core-spun-yarns",title:"Corrigendum to: Denim Fabrics Woven with Dual Core-Spun Yarns",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66301.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66301",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66301",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66301",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66301",chapter:{id:"63209",slug:"denim-fabrics-woven-with-dual-core-spun-yarns",signatures:"Osman Babaarslan, Esin Sarioğlu, Halil İbrahim Çelik and Münevver\nArtek Avci",dateSubmitted:"February 5th 2018",dateReviewed:"July 12th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"February 13th 2019",book:{id:"7242",title:"Engineered Fabrics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Engineered Fabrics",slug:"engineered-fabrics",publishedDate:"February 13th 2019",bookSignature:"Mukesh Kumar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7242.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36895",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukesh Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"mukesh-kumar-singh",fullName:"Mukesh Kumar Singh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"119775",title:"Prof.",name:"Osman",middleName:null,surname:"Babaarslan",fullName:"Osman Babaarslan",slug:"osman-babaarslan",email:"teksob@cu.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Cukurova University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178353",title:"Dr.",name:"Halil",middleName:"İbrahim",surname:"Çelik",fullName:"Halil Çelik",slug:"halil-celik",email:"hcelik@gantep.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Gaziantep University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"216179",title:"Dr.",name:"Esin",middleName:null,surname:"Sarıoğlu",fullName:"Esin Sarıoğlu",slug:"esin-sarioglu",email:"sarioglu@gantep.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Gaziantep University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"245674",title:"Mrs.",name:"Münevver",middleName:null,surname:"Ertek Avci",fullName:"Münevver Ertek Avci",slug:"munevver-ertek-avci",email:"Munevver.ErtekAvci@calikdenim.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"63209",slug:"denim-fabrics-woven-with-dual-core-spun-yarns",signatures:"Osman Babaarslan, Esin Sarioğlu, Halil İbrahim Çelik and Münevver\nArtek Avci",dateSubmitted:"February 5th 2018",dateReviewed:"July 12th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"February 13th 2019",book:{id:"7242",title:"Engineered Fabrics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Engineered Fabrics",slug:"engineered-fabrics",publishedDate:"February 13th 2019",bookSignature:"Mukesh Kumar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7242.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36895",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukesh Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"mukesh-kumar-singh",fullName:"Mukesh Kumar Singh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"119775",title:"Prof.",name:"Osman",middleName:null,surname:"Babaarslan",fullName:"Osman Babaarslan",slug:"osman-babaarslan",email:"teksob@cu.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Cukurova University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178353",title:"Dr.",name:"Halil",middleName:"İbrahim",surname:"Çelik",fullName:"Halil Çelik",slug:"halil-celik",email:"hcelik@gantep.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Gaziantep University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"216179",title:"Dr.",name:"Esin",middleName:null,surname:"Sarıoğlu",fullName:"Esin Sarıoğlu",slug:"esin-sarioglu",email:"sarioglu@gantep.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Gaziantep University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"245674",title:"Mrs.",name:"Münevver",middleName:null,surname:"Ertek Avci",fullName:"Münevver Ertek Avci",slug:"munevver-ertek-avci",email:"Munevver.ErtekAvci@calikdenim.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"7242",title:"Engineered Fabrics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Engineered Fabrics",slug:"engineered-fabrics",publishedDate:"February 13th 2019",bookSignature:"Mukesh Kumar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7242.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36895",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukesh Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"mukesh-kumar-singh",fullName:"Mukesh Kumar Singh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"6679",leadTitle:null,title:"Serotonin",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"My scientific journey brought me from Lanzhou in China, Leuven in Belgium, Bethesda in the USA, all the way to San Diego. Sometimes I pick up an assortment of scattered seashells while walking along the beautiful Torrey Pines Beach in San Diego. Likewise, this book contains an assortment of discussions of different aspects of serotonin to enrich our knowledge and understanding of this neurochemical. The book contains four different chapters: 1. Introductory chapter: From Measuring Serotonin Neurotransmission to Evaluating Serotonin Post-Receptor Signaling Transduction; 2. Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors and Their Role in Chronic Pain Management; 3. Serotonin and Emotional Decision-Making; and 4. Clinical Aspects Related to Plasma Serotonin in the Horse.",isbn:"978-1-78985-236-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-235-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-026-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72010",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"serotonin",numberOfPages:74,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9c833c86546ec9d3c38fb24a1072dbd0",bookSignature:"Ying Qu",publishedDate:"February 13th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6679.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:2038,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 20th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 11th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 9th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 30th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 29th 2018",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"94028",title:"Dr.",name:"Ying",middleName:null,surname:"Qu",slug:"ying-qu",fullName:"Ying Qu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94028/images/5914_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ying Qu is a multi-disciplinary scientist, currently working in Leulan Bioscience, USA. She received her BS and MS in Chemistry from Lanzhou University, China and her PhD in Neuroscience from the Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium. Dr. Qu has spent part of her career at the National Institutes of Health, USA, studying depression mechanisms underlying serotonin post-receptor regulated signaling transduction. She is also involved in a drug discovery program at Johnson and Johnson in the USA developing novel dual-acting antidepressants with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. In 2002, she received a Sevier Young Investigator Award from the Serotonin Club at the International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology (IUPHAR) Satellite Meeting on Serotonin. She has published over 30 peer-reviewed papers, 40 abstracts and two book chapters in the fields of neuropsychopharmacology and bioanalysis.",institutionString:"Leulan Bioscience",position:"Senior Scientist",outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1115",title:"Neuropharmacology",slug:"neuropharmacology"}],chapters:[{id:"65286",title:"Introductory Chapter: From Measuring Serotonin Neurotransmission to Evaluating Serotonin Post-Receptor Signaling Transduction",slug:"introductory-chapter-from-measuring-serotonin-neurotransmission-to-evaluating-serotonin-post-recepto",totalDownloads:487,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"94028",title:"Dr.",name:"Ying",surname:"Qu",slug:"ying-qu",fullName:"Ying Qu"}]},{id:"63750",title:"Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors and Their Role in Chronic Pain Management",slug:"serotonin-reuptake-inhibitors-and-their-role-in-chronic-pain-management",totalDownloads:647,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"64092",title:"Serotonin and Emotional Decision-Making",slug:"serotonin-and-emotional-decision-making",totalDownloads:472,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"61898",title:"Clinical Aspects Related to Plasma Serotonin in the Horse",slug:"clinical-aspects-related-to-plasma-serotonin-in-the-horse",totalDownloads:433,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7256",title:"Dopamine",subtitle:"Health and Disease",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e46d08f526c35d787be15bcb17126fb8",slug:"dopamine-health-and-disease",bookSignature:"Sarat Chandra Yenisetti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7256.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181774",title:"Prof.",name:"Sarat Chandra",surname:"Yenisetti",slug:"sarat-chandra-yenisetti",fullName:"Sarat Chandra Yenisetti"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6404",title:"Drug Addiction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f432d0ab93a06628d3592b4c0fea44ae",slug:"drug-addiction",bookSignature:"Fang Zhao and Meng Li",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6404.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"207525",title:"Dr.",name:"Fang",surname:"Zhao",slug:"fang-zhao",fullName:"Fang Zhao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5894",title:"Neurotoxins",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4ed24b0789b6d0bf230c24637f2f7575",slug:"neurotoxins",bookSignature:"J. Eric McDuffie",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5894.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"161246",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Eric",surname:"McDuffie",slug:"j.-eric-mcduffie",fullName:"J. Eric McDuffie"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8166",title:"Receptors P1 and P2 as Targets for Drug Therapy in Humans",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"546c9abc8145b3a3ecf13557a03f7590",slug:"receptors-p1-and-p2-as-targets-for-drug-therapy-in-humans",bookSignature:"Robson Faria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8166.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7116",title:"Antidepressants",subtitle:"Preclinical, Clinical and Translational Aspects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1bd4340dfebb60697e12fc04a461d9ac",slug:"antidepressants-preclinical-clinical-and-translational-aspects",bookSignature:"Olivier Berend",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7116.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"44861",title:"Tandem MS and NMR: An Efficient Couple for the Characterization of Saponins",doi:"10.5772/56477",slug:"tandem-ms-and-nmr-an-efficient-couple-for-the-characterization-of-saponins",body:'
Saponins are amphipathic glycosides that constitute a class of secondary metabolites found in natural sources, in particular abundance in various plant species and more recently found in marine organisms [1]. They were named by the soap-like foaming they produce when shaken in aqueous solutions, presenting surfactant properties, explained by their chemical and structural composition.
Saponins are constituted by one or more hydrophilic glycoside moieties combined with a lipophilic triterpene derivative. This aglycone part is termed sapogenin [2]. The number and length of oligosaccharide chains attached to the sapogenin core can vary. The chain lengths change from 1 to 11, with 2-5 residues of D-glucose, D-glucoronic acid or D-galactose being the most frequent, and with both linear and branched saccharides chain [3]. The lipophilic aglycone can be any one of a wide variety of polycyclic organic structures originating from the serial addition of 10-carbon (C10) terpene units to compose a C30 triterpene skeleton, often with subsequent alteration to produce a C27 steroidal skeleton [4].
Schematic structure of a saponin, showing the hydrophilic glycosides moieties and the lipophilic triterpene derivative
Many plants accumulate saponins in one or several organs, specifically in leaves, stems, roots, bulbs, blossom and fruit. The crushed leaves or roots of perennial herbs from the genus Saponaria were tradicionally used as soap. Particular types of saponins, like gypenosides and ginsenosides, are heavily found in jiaogulan (a herbaceous climbing vine of the family Cucurbitaceae); and in ginseng (a slow-growing plant with fleshy roots, genus Panax), respectively [5].
There are several characteristics associated to saponins extracted from plants. These compounds may serve as anti-feedants to protect the plant against microbes and fungi [2]. In addition, some plant saponins may enhance nutrient absorption and aid in animal digestion [6] and tea saponins can improve daily weight gain and feed efficiency in goats [7]. Many plant steroidal saponins have also been reported to exhibit antimicrobial activities, in particular by weakening the virulence of C. albicans and killing fungi by destroying the cell membrane [8]. Moreover, since some saponins are toxic to cold-blooded organisms, insects and fish, they were commonly used by indigenous tribes to obtain aquatic food sources [9].
Saponins were initially thought to be exclusive metabolites of plant origin but the world-wide development in the investigation of marine organisms as sources of new bioactive metabolites disclosed a wider distribution of these molecules also among marine animals [5]. Presently, saponins are recognized as the most common characteristic metabolites in two classes of the phylum Echinodermata (Holothuroidea and Asteroidea), where they occur as natural glycosidic surfactants. Furthermore, several steroid and triterpenoid oligoglycosides have been isolated from different species of marine sponges, more rarely Anthozoans, and also from fishes of the genus Pardachirus, where they have been shown to act as shark repellents [10].
Due to the surfactant properties of saponins they can be used to enhance penetration of macromolecules, e.g. proteins through cell membranes, making them useful as adjuvants in vaccines [11]. A wide range of pharmacological applications, such as antiplatelet, hypocholesterolemic, antitumoral, anti-HIV, immunoadjuvant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, insecticide, fungicide and anti-leishmanial agents have been also described for saponins [2]. Seven triterpenoid saponins from the plant Gypsophila paniculata have been shown to increase the cytotoxicity of immunotoxins and other targeted toxins directed against human cancer cells [12][13].
Holothurins, saponins isolated from sea cucumber, have displayed a wide spectrum of biological effects such as hemolytic, cytostatic, antineoplastic, anticancer and antitumor activities [14]. These glycosides are also frequently studied in the research of chemical constituents and activities of starfish, with considerable clinical interest, since they showed several physiological, pharmacological and immunological activities, such as cytotoxic, hemolytic, antifungal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory or ichthyotoxic. In particular, sulfated steroidal glycosides (asterosaponins) are one of the bioactive secondary metabolites from starfish, responsible for the toxicity of these marine organisms [15].
Concerning the commercial formulations of plant-derived saponins, these compounds are available via controlled manufacturing processes by Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, USA), which make them of use as chemical and biomedical reagents.
The echinoderms (phylum Echinodermata) are exclusively marine invertebrates and, with some exceptions, are all benthic organisms (bottom-dwellers) and are one of the closest living relatives to vertebrates (phylum Chordata), since they both belong to the superphylum Deuterostomia. Asteroidea (starfishes) is one of the five classes of echinoderms, with about 1,500 living species [16] The surface of their body is often brightly coloured and is generally spiny or warty. All starfishes possess five-part radial symmetry around a central disk. This means that each of their arms has an exact replica of all internal organs. They are also characterized by a unique water vascular system, consisting of a set of water-filled canals branching from a ring canal and leading to tube feet, involved in locomotion, respiration, sensation and feeding [17].The body cavity of echinoderms is filled with coelomic fluid, which bathes the internal organs and forms the fluid medium, where the coelomocytes (the echinoderm immune cells) are suspended. The composition of coelomic fluid is similar to sea water in dissolved salts and other minerals [18]. Since the coelomic fluid bathes all the internal organs, it is extremely rich in secreted molecules, like growth factors, hormones, neuropeptides and glycosides, which are involved in cell signaling and immunity processes.
According to their most relevant structural features, glycosides from starfish were subdivided into three main groups: glycosides of polyhydroxy steroids, cyclic steroidal glycosides and asterosaponins.
The glycosides of polyhydroxy steroids consist of a polyhydroxylated steroidal aglycone and a carbohydrate portion that is usually composed of several monosaccharide units. The most common glycosylation position is C(24), but sometimes glycosides carry the sugar moiety at C(3) and C(26). In starfish they occur as sulfonylated and free hydroxy forms, with few examples of phosphorylated ones. The OH groups are usually found in positions 3β,6α (or β), 8β,15α (or β), 16α (or β).
Main groups of glycosides of the polyhydroxy steroids from starfish. The first group (B1) are 3β-OH steroids with glycosylation on the side chain. The second group (B2) contains 3β-O-glycosylated steroids. The third group (B3) contains 3β-Oglycosylated steroids with additional glycosylation on the side chain. The fourth group (B4) are 6β-O-glycosylated steroids. G represents a glycosylation component. Adapted from [15].
The cyclic steroidal glycosides occur in few starfish. An anionic charge is due to the presence of a glucuronic acid unit. The 7,8-dehydro-3b,6b-dihydroxy steroidal nucleus is unprecedented, and the most remarkable feature is the trisaccharide chain, which is cyclized between C(3) and C(6) of the aglycone giving rise to a macrocyclic ring reminiscent of a crown ether.
Asterosaponins are constituted by an aglycone with 9,11-didehydro- 3β,6α-dihydroxy steroidal nucleus; a sulfate group at C(3); and generally a side chain with the 20β-OH and 23-oxo functions. The oligosaccharide chain, commonly made up of five or six sugar units with β-oriented structure, and sometimes containing also three or four sugar units, is always glycosidically linked at C(6). The sugar units can be xyloses, galactoses, fucoses or quinovoses. Most of the structural diversity is confined to the substitution pattern of the side chain [15].
Four asterosaponins from M. glacialis have been scrutinized to date [15]. Their structures are illustrated in Figure 5 and Figure 6.
Structure of cyclic steroidal glycoside sepositoside A, found in two starfish species, Echinaster sepositus and E. luzonicus. Adapted from [15].
A sulfated steroidal glycoside (asterosaponin) typical structure. Adapted from [19].
Marthasterosides A1 and A2 (see Figure 5) differ only in the identity of one sugar residue, while marthasterosides B and C (see Figure 6) differed only in the steroidal side chain.
Asterosaponins marthasterosides A1 (A1) and A2 (A2) structures. Adapted from [15].
Asterosaponins marthasterosides B (B) and C (C) structures [15]. Adapted from [15].
So far, studies performed with asterosaponins from starfish indicated that they possess several bioactive properties such as: cytotoxic to tumor cells and viruses; hemolytic activity toward erythrocytes of various origins; and anti-inflammatory and antifungal activities [20]. Additionally, cytotoxic asterosaponins from the starfish Culcita novaeguineae were reported to promote polymerization of tubulin [21]. Agents that promote tubulin polymerization exhibit anticancer activity by disrupting normal mitotic spindle assembly and cell division as well as inducing apoptosis (programmed cell death) [22].
Usually, the purification/isolation of steroidal glycosides from a sample mixture, extracted from starfish, is not an easy task [23]. The extraction of the crude sample material with organic solvents often takes several hours and is frequently followed by a series of preparation steps such as gel chromatography, counter current chromatography or preparative column chromatography [24].
Currently, it is common to collect steroidal glycosides from n-BuOH extracts of entire animals or arms and central disks of starfish [25]. The animals are chopped in small pieces, homogenized in EtOH, filtered and then the extraction is performed with n-BuOH. Each n-BuOH extract is chromatographed and the enriched fraction separated by HPLC on RP-C18 columns typically with MeOH:H2O (2:1) and eluted to give fractions containing mixtures of sulfated saponins [21], [26]. These fractions are analyzed by ESI-MS/MS to infer about the molecular masses and structures of these compounds, as will be discussed in the next section.
The investigation conducted in our group with Martasterias glacialis showed that asterosaponins can be found in the coelomic fluid as well (unpublished results). The used method includes a first step of ultrafiltration, to obtain a low molecular mass fraction; and then a step of desalination/concentration in Solid Phase Extraction (SPE) cartridges, where the compounds can be eluted in an increasing order of acetonitrile with 5% (v/v) formic acid (unpublished results). Each SPE elution fraction was analyzed by direct infusion in ESI-MS/MS.
Mass spectrometry has been playing an important role in the structural analysis of complex natural products mainly due to its high sensitivity, rapid analysis time and selectivity [27]. It has the potential ability to rapidly detect the bioactive compounds in mixtures and give information on their structures as well as their molecular masses [28]. Over the last decade, the development of the so-called soft ionization techniques such as electrospray ionization (ESI) allowed the transfer of the analyte into the gas phase without extensive degradation. This led to a rapid and direct analysis of polar, non-volatile and thermally labile classes of compounds [29], e.g., polypeptides, carbohydrates and natural glycosides.
Initially, previous studies of saponins were performed using electron impact (EI) MS but this technique requires derivatization. The development of desorption chemical ionization (DCI) MS allowed analysis of saponins without derivatization, but only for saponins with ether glycosidic linkages [30]. Field desorption was also employed to analyze native saponins. However, due to the instability of ion currents dependent on the temperature of the emitter, the mass spectra were not reproducible [31]. Fast atom bombardment (FAB) ionization combined with tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) was employed to analyze native saponins as well, and some useful structural information was obtained. Unfortunately, the sensitivity of FAB was not satisfactory due to the chemical noise from the matrix background [23]. As a consequence, the ESI technique replaced FAB by the end of the 1990s. Moreover, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is generally used to provide detailed structural information for saponins (as described in Chapter 8), but milligram quantities of high-purity samples are usually needed [27].
There is a lack of information concerning the fragmentation pattern of asterosaponins in MALDI-TOF/TOF. In our experience, using α-cyano-4-hydroxycinnamic acid as a MALDI matrix (unpublished results), this fact is related with some ionization difficulties of these compounds by MALDI.
Recent studies have reported the use of ESI-MS for determination of saponins with higher sensitivity and better reproducibility than the other types of ionization [30]. Moreover, the possibility of using electrospray tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS) presents great advantages for the characterization of these compounds, by providing more information of their structure. Based on each fragmentation spectra obtained from MSn experiments, the molecular structures of the compounds can be estimated by the identification of the mass losses between successive fragmentation peaks.
In fact, ESI-MS/MS has been shown to provide high sensitivity for steroidal glycoside analysis. In particular, this technique seems to be a fast and suitable screening method for the structural information of sulfated steroidal glycosides extracted from starfish. It can provide information about their molecular mass and oligossacharide sequence by cleavage of glycosidic bonds [31].
Asterosaponins can be detected in the ESI-MS spectra in the form of [M+Na]+ (due to the presence of sodium ions during the process of sample preparation and the strong affinity of sugar to sodium ions in the gas phase) and [M-Na]- ions, in positive and negative ion modes, respectively (see an example of a full MS spectrum in Figure 7).
Full scan MS spectra in negative ion mode, usually show characteristic peak series with two or more peaks located in a higher mass range (m/z 1000-1400), increasing their value of the same mass difference, typically 14 Da. The mass difference of 14 Da can be attributed to the presence of a methoxy group in one of their sugar residues. This structural feature is very common in asterosaponins isolated from starfishes [19]. More structural information of these compounds can be easily achieved by ESI-MS/MS, as previously mentioned.
Example of a full ESI-MS spectrum, in negative mode, of the SPE fraction eluted with 75% acetonitrile extracted from coelomic fluid of the starfish Marthasterias glacialis, showing some major precursor ions. The precursor ion m/z 1389.6 [M-Na]- is asterosaponin masthasterosides A1 (C62H101NaO32S).
There are several typical mass losses between the precursor and the fragment ions, detected in the MSn spectra, which are characteristic for asterosaponins. Specifically, the typical mass losses detected in the ESI-MSn spectra are related to the aglycone, the sulphate group or the oligosaccharide chain losses, which are structural features of asterosaponins. The most common sugars found in asterosaponins are xyloses, fucoses, quinovoses, galactoses and glucoses.
In the ESI-MS/MS spectra, it is common to detect a mass loss of 100 Da between the precursor and the more intense fragment ion (see an example in Figure 8). This corresponds to the loss of a C6H12O molecule arising from C(20)-C(22) bond cleavage and 1H transfer (known as a retro aldol cleavage), characteristic for asterosaponins containing an aglycone with a 20-hydroxy-23-oxo side chain [19]. Additionally, it is possible to detect a fragment ion of m/z 97, which indicates the dissociation of the HSO4- group.
Example of a ESI-MS2 spectrum, in negative mode, obtained for precursor ion m/z 1389.6. In this figure it is possible to detect a mass difference of 100 Da between the precursor and the fragment ion m/z 1289.6.
As mentioned before, it is possible to perform MSn experiments to infer about the structure of compounds. As long as the signal intensity of the precursor ion is strong enough, the fragmentation process can be repeated. As so, in the ESI-MSn spectra, ions arising from the cleavages of the glycosidic bonds from the terminal sugar moieties of the oligosaccharide chain of asterosaponins can be detected (see an example in Figure 9). In particular, the mass difference of 146 Da between two fragment ions indicates a loss of a terminal deoxyhexose residue (attributable to isomeric fucose or quinovose). In addition, the mass differences between two fragment ions of 132 and 162 Da are attributable to the losses of a pentose and of a hexose residue, respectively [25].
Example of a ESI-MS3 spectrum, in negative mode, obtained for the precursor ion m/z 1289.6 generated from the molecular ion m/z 1389.6. In this figure it is possible to detect ions arising from the cleavages of glycosidic bonds. It can be detected a mass difference of 146 Da between precursor and fragment ion m/z 1143.5, attributable to the loss of isomeric fucose (Fuc) or quinovose (Qui). The same mass difference of 146 Da can be detected between fragment ions m/z 1143.5 and m/z 997.4. Also, a mass difference of 162 Da can be detected between fragment ions m/z 997.4 and m/z 835.3, which is consistent with a loss of one unit of galactose (Gal).
Figure 8 and Figure 9 show the fragmentation spectra of precursor ion m/z 1390, illustrating the typical asterosaponin mass losses of 100 (loss of a C6H12O molecule), 146 and 162 Da. This precursor ion ([M-Na]-) corresponds to masthasterosides A1 (C62H101NaO32S), an asterosaponin that has been described for the starfish Marthasterias glacialis. Furthermore, the losses of three units of 146 Da (fucose or quinovose) and one unit of 162 Da (galactose) are consistent with the molecular structure of this asterosaponin (see Figure 10). An illustration of the fragmentation of masthasterosides A1 (precursor ion m/z 1390) can be seen in Figure 11, where the typical asterosaponin mass losses are represented.
Structure of asterosaponin masthasterosides A1 (C62H101NaO32S), indicating the fucose (Fuc), quinovoses (Qui), galactoses (Gal), xyloses (Xyl) units. [32].
ESI-MS and ESI-MSn seem to be essential techniques to study saponin mixtures. The isolation of pure saponins is a time and/or material consuming tasks, and for this reason, these techniques are important tools to obtain information on the complexity of a saponin mixture, with the objective of finding new structures. However, only a partial characterization of asterosaponins is possible using ESI-MSn approach since the information obtained is limited on the presence of sugar residues, the sulfate groups and the aglycone. As so, NMR spectroscopy and chemical reactions are required in order to complete characterize these molecules [19].
Scheme of the fragmentation of precursor ion m/z 1390, showing typical asterosaponin mass losses: C6H12O, fucose, quinovose and galactose.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) is a very powerful tool in the study of natural compounds in general, insofar as this technique provides a wealth of structural information in the form of chemical shifts, coupling constants and coupling patterns. While the chemical shift values inform us of the nature of the chemical group in which a particular nucleus is involved, the coupling constants inform us about the structural relationship between pairs of atoms, their magnitude and splitting patterns depending on the shape and density of the electronic clouds surrounding them. To this information, two-dimensional correlation techniques, allow us to follow the resonating spins along the molecular structure, assigning them to confirm the identity of a known compound or establish the molecular structure of a new molecule. These general features of the NMR technique are perfectly applicable to the study of saponins and in particular to asterosaponins, and especially suited to determine the molecular structure of a newfound saponin or asterosaponin.
The general procedure is based on 1H and 13C NMR and consists in acquiring a one-dimensional 1H spectrum and a series of five 2D spectra: COSY, TOCSY, NOESY, HSQC and HMBC.
The COSY (or COrrelation SpectroscopY), is a proton-proton spectrum, which relies on the existence of coupling constants between pairs of nuclei, and so, correlates signals belonging to geminal or vicinal hydrogen nuclei, i.e. two or three bonds apart in the molecule. This is a very important tool, since it allows the sequential assignment of the signals within the molecule.
The TOCSY (or TOtal Correlated SpectroscopY), is a proton-proton spectrum that allows to detect the signals belonging to the same spin system, i.e. with sequential coupling constants between them. This spectrum can be of vital importance in overcoming signal overlap, its use being, not restricted, but most obvious, in the assignment of the sugar resonances (see below).
The NOESY (or Nuclear Overhauser Effect SpectroscopY), is a proton-proton spectrum that allows to establish proximity in space. This spectrum allows to overcome regions in the structure for which there is no proton-proton coupling (quaternary carbons, ester or ether bonds, glycosidic bonds, etc), and thus, among other features, establish acetilation or glycosilation sites.
The HSQC (or Heteronuclear Single Quantum Coherence spectrum), is a proton-carbon spectrum that correlates carbon signals with directly bond protons. It is a very robust experiment that relies on the existence of relatively large one bond J coupling (1JCH~145 Hz) between 13C nuclei and directly bound 1H. As the signal acquisition in this spectrum is done on the 1H frequency, it is much more sensitive than the experiments that observe carbon directly, and allows obtaining 13C information with 1H sensitivity. One drawback of this experiment is that quaternary carbons are not detected.
The HMBC (Heteronuclear Multiple Bond Correlation spectrum), is a proton-carbon spectrum in which the 1JCH correlations (one bond) are suppressed and the sequence is optimized for long range smaller couplings, two, three and sometimes four bonds apart. Like the HSQC, the HMBC also provides 13C information with 1H sensitivity, but because it is optimized for smaller values of J coupling (one order of magnitude smaller) it is a much more time consuming and less sensitive experiment. The HMBC and the HSQC experiments work as a pair in the sense that the HSQC carries very little structural information (each carbon is only correlated with its own hydrogen), while the HMBC can carry a large amount of information regarding neighboring chemical groups but it is very difficult to interpret without the HSQC information. Taken together, these experiments allow, in most cases, to follow the molecular structure through its carbon backbone.
The main drawback of NMR is its relative insensitivity, in fact, in order to record a 1H spectrum the compound of interest must be present in the milimolar concentration range. Using state of the art equipment, like high field spectrometers equipped with cryogenically cooled probes this value can be reduced to 0.1 mM or less, but in general a 1 mM (or higher) concentration sample is required to acquire all the necessary information. When available, the highest field machine is always the better choice. This is not only because of the increase in sensitivity provided by the higher field but also, and most importantly, because of the higher resolution between signals that can be obtained. In fact, the main difficulty in analyzing NMR spectra is signal overlap. Because of the structural similarities between different saponins, this also means that when characterizing a new saponin, the sample has to be purified prior to analysis.
As previously described, asterosaponins, like saponins in general, are composed of an aglycone polycyclic structure and one or more sacharide or polisacharides with possible several modifications. The aglycone structures contain, in most of the cases, several chemical groups resonating in very different chemical shift ranges (see Table 1). This dispersion facilitates spectral interpretation and assignment. However, the carbon and hydrogen nuclei of the sacharide structures have chemical shifts in relatively narrow regions of the spectrum (65-75 ppm in 13C and 3.0-4.5 ppm in 1H, with the exception of position one of hexoses (the anomeric position), which resonate between 90 and 105 ppm in 13C and 4.0 to 5.5 ppm in 1H).
\n\t\t\t\tType of chemical group\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t13C chemical shift range (ppm)\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Primary alkane carbons | \n\t\t\t12-24 | \n\t\t
Secondary alkane carbons | \n\t\t\t20-41 | \n\t\t
Tertiary alkane carbons | \n\t\t\t35-57 | \n\t\t
Quaternary alkane carbons | \n\t\t\t27-43 | \n\t\t
Alcohol carbons | \n\t\t\t65-91 | \n\t\t
Olefinic carbons | \n\t\t\t119-172 | \n\t\t
Carbonyl carbons | \n\t\t\t177-220 | \n\t\t
Carbons bearing fluoride atoms | \n\t\t\t88-102 | \n\t\t
Typical 13C chemical shift ranges of chemical groups found in saponins. Adapted from [33].
Since all sacharides have one anomeric position with characteristic carbon and proton resonances, these can be used as “handles” to discover the type of sacharide and its glycosidic linkage to the rest of the molecule. Starting on the anomeric position and using the COSY information one could follow the sequential assignment of each of the sugar signals, but because the rest of the sugar moiety is chemically very similar, this task becomes difficult due to signal overlap. If more than one sugar unit is present, the task becomes daunting. This problem, however, can be solved with the assistance of the TOCSY spectrum. Since all the hydrogen signals in the sugar ring are linked via J couplings to their vicinal partners, they constitute a spin-system, which will appear as a correlating unit in a TOCSY spectrum (see Figure 12)
COSY (on the left-hand side) and TOCSY (on the right) spectra of a trisacharide (α-glucopyranosyl-(1-3)-β-glucopyranosyl-(1-1)-α-glucopyranose) acquired at 500 MHz. In the TOCSY, the spin systems of all the resonances belonging to each sacharide unit are clearly visible at the anomeric frequencies
With the sugar signals identified, their chemical shifts and J coupling patterns allow their identification. The value of the 3JH1,2 (the coupling constant between protons at positions 1 and 2) of an hexose can be indicative of its configuration. In hexoses where the hydroxyl at position 2 is in the equatorial configuration (like glucose or galactose), values of 3JH1,2 around 3 or 7 Hz are indicative of the α or β configuration, respectively. In the case of hexoses where the hydroxyl at position 2 is in the axial configuration (like mannose or talose), both anomers produce couplings at position 1 of around 1.5 Hz, and the distinction can only be made by measuring the 1JC,H1 (the one bond coupling constant between the carbon at position 1 and its directly attached proton); α anomers displaying values around 170 Hz, while β anomers display values around 160 Hz [34]. Since the anomeric position is involved in the glycosidic linkage, these signals can also be used to establish the glycosylation sites using NOESY (that detects proximity in space and therefore can correlate signals across the glycosidic bond) or using a combination of HSQC/HMBC to follow the carbon backbone resonances and the correlation of the anomeric carbon of the sugar and a proton resonance of the aglycone structure.
NMR cannot distinguish between optical isomers, but it can detect differences between diastereoisomers. These differences are not apparent in the 2D correlation maps, since the distance in terms of bonds between the several atoms of diastereoisomeric structures is always the same, but are manifested in different chemical shift and J coupling values. The most obvious example of how NMR can be used to solve diastereoisomeric structures is the identification of sugars and their configuration (see above) but, in certain cases, it can also be used to solve other chiral centers by comparison of the acquired data and the published literature.
Also, in the case of other modifications, like phosphorylation or sulforilation, NMR can provide the site of those modifications. In the case of phosphorylation, the answer can be readily obtained by recording a 31P/1H HSQC spectrum that will correlate the phosphorus resonances with the 1H signals closest in the molecule (3 or 4 bonds apart). In the case of sulfate groups, as sulfur is not very amenable to NMR studies, a different approach is taken that requires chemical modification. A desulfation procedure, like the one described in Tang et al. (2009), is applied to produce the desulfated saponin. A direct comparison of HSQC spectra before and after desulfation will detect a large chemical shift perturbation (usually a 10 ppm decrease in the 13C chemical shift values) in some signals providing the modification sites.
Saponins are glycosides isolated from plant and marine organisms with several promising biomedical and pharmacological applications. Due to their structural complexity and diversity their characterization requires combination of results from different methodologies, namely of mass spectrometry and NMR. ESI-MS/MS analysis appears to be more suitable mass spectrometry approach to study these compounds, since it allows some structural elucidation using MSn experiments. Although, there are several structural features like sugar identity, sugar linkage pattern or site of attachment of sulfate groups, that mass spectrometry cannot address readily and that NMR spectroscopy can solve unambiguously. So, in the full structural characterization of a new saponin or asterosaponin, studies on the pure compounds using several NMR techniques (eventually in combination with specific chemical modifications) are of fundamental importance.
Increase in global temperature had major impact on crop productivity especially in tropical and sub tropical regimes. Based on climate model predictions, around 1.8–4.0°C rise in air temperature was expected in 21st century [1]. The increase in temperature beyond a certain threshold level tends to induce detrimental effects in plant growth and development. In general, the elevation in temperature of 10–15°C above ambient triggers heat shock in crop plants. The extent of induced heat stress depends on the duration, intensity and rate of increase in global air temperature [2]. Indian lowlands share 15 per cent of global wheat production. The change in global climate would shift these fertile lowlands into heat stressed unproductive environment [3]. Similarly, the cultivation of cereals in Southern Africa and South East Asia was predicted to be heat stressed zone in near future [4]. Around 4–14% yield decline in rice was encountered due to elevated temperature of 1°C in South-East Asia [5]. The declined productivity due to elevated temperature imposes the urgent need for development of climate resilience genotypes. Evolving heat tolerant cultivars would highly benefit the livelihood of developing countries as around 70–80% of population relies on agriculture. Understanding the effect of heat stress on crop plants and its adaptation mechanisms would help in framing out the breeding strategies for high temperature tolerance.
\nHeat tolerance in crop plants is a complex mechanism involving adaptations through altered physiological process, morpho-anatomical features and induction of several biochemical pathways. On exposure to high temperature, several signal transduction pathways were triggered leading to changes in gene expression. As a result, varied stress related proteins were synthesized contributing heat tolerance in plants [6]. The tolerance mechanism to high temperature stress varies within genotypes of a plant species. The existing variation between and within species provide scope for evolving heat tolerant lines through conventional breeding approaches [7]. Dissecting out genetic information through molecular tools would hasten the development of climate resilient cultivars contributing to food security in near future. A brief review on plant response, adaptation mechanisms and genetic approaches to combat heat stress were presented in this chapter.
\nHeat stress had varying impact on different phenological stages viz., germination, seedling, vegetative, flowering and reproductive of crop plants [8]. The plant response to heat stress depends on the duration, degree of rise in temperature and plant type. Under tropical regimes, high temperature with intense solar radiation poses a major limiting factor for yield by inducing leaf abscission, leaf senescence, scorching of leaves, branches and stems, growth inhibition, pollen infertility and poor seed formation [9, 10]. A significant decline in relative growth rate, shoot dry weight and net assimilation rate was recorded in sugarcane, maize and pearl millet on exposure to high temperature stress [11]. High reduction in grain quality was recorded in most of the cereal crops grown under heat stress environments [12]. Several physiological processes such as partitioning of assimilates, plant-water relations and shoot growth was affected due to heat stress in common bean [13]. In general, the susceptibility to heat stress was found higher at reproductive stage of plant development. An excessive yield loss is recorded in legumes on exposure to high temperature (30–35°C) during anthesis stage [14]. Drastic reduction in grain number and weight was observed in wheat at high temperature regimes [15]. Heat stress affects several metabolic pathways leading to accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which is a major component for oxidative stress in crop plants [16]. The photosystem centres (PS I and PS II) of chloroplast, mitochondria and peroxisomes are the major sites for generation of ROS in plants [17]. High temperature stress disrupts the stability of cell membrane through protein denaturation [18]. The induction of ROS due to high temperature stress was correlated with premature leaf senescence in Gossypium sp. [19]. Accumulation of ROS in root cells was evidenced in wheat on exposure to high temperature for two days [20].
\nPlants tend to adapt several complex mechanisms through phenological and morphological changes to combat high temperature stress (Figure 1). On heat stress regimes, plants exhibit varied short term escape/avoidance mechanisms viz., altered leaf orientation, transpirational cooling, altered membrane lipid properties, early maturation and so on for its survival. Plants show varied degree of leaf rolling upon intensity of solar radiation. A significant tolerance to high temperature was observed in wheat by maintenance of water potential in flag leaf through adoption of leaf rolling under heat shock conditions [21]. Increase in trichomatous and stomatal densities, waxy layer on leaves, and larger xylem vessels are the common features induced during heat stress [22]. On contrary, plants also evolve long term tolerance mechanisms for its effective survival and productivity under high temperature. Induction of osmoprotectants, antioxidants, late embryogenesis abundant proteins, dehydrins, and heat shock proteins are the major factors involved in counteracting the heat shocks. Accumulation of osmolytes such as proline, trehalose, and glycine betaine plays a vital role in imparting tolerance via cellular osmotic adjustment, detoxification of ROS, stabilization of enzymes and membrane proteins [23]. Several enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant defense components are also involved in protection against oxidative stress induced by free radicals [24]. The activities of ROS scavenging enzymes are temperature specific. In general, most of the antioxidant enzymes show increased activity with elevation in temperatures. It is also influenced by genotype, growing season and phenological stages of plant [25]. Under high temperature conditions, several signaling molecules such as nitrous oxide, Ca-dependent protein kinases, Mitogen mediated protein kinase, sugars, and phytohormones play a role in stimulation of stress responsive genes via transduction pathways [26]. Evolving adaptation mechanisms (either tolerance or avoidance) to high temperature and drought would be more rewarding at arid conditions as it is often correlated.
\nAdaptation mechanisms for high temperature tolerance in crop plants.
Breeding for high temperature tolerance requires an essential knowledge on plant adaptation response to heat shocks. In general, the genotypes exhibiting less detrimental effect on photosynthesis and reproductive development tend to survive well under heat prone areas [27]. Involvement of these two components in selection criteria would be beneficial in evolving thermo tolerant cultivars. Tolerant genotypes evolve several morphological, physiological and biochemical alterations in response to heat shocks. Knowledge on sensitivity of several phenological stages to high temperature will pave way for trait specific improvement. High temperature is often correlated with other environmental factors which poses a major limitation for selection under field conditions. At present, varied selection criteria has been developed by scientists, which favors delineation of superior variety at prevailing environment [28]. Heat tolerant index has been evolved for sorghum which depicts the proportion of growth recovery after exposure to high temperature stress. It is the ratio of increase in coleoptile growth in a heat stress environment [50°C] to the enhancement in coleoptile length under normal environment (non-stress) [29]. It proves cost effective and rapid method to screen a large population size within shorter period. A proper validation of such technique would facilitate the development of tolerant lines in other crop species. Pollen viability and fruit set was considered as major selection criteria to predict yield under high temperature stress in tomato [30]. Physiological based trait selection such as harvest index, photosynthetic efficiency, respiration rate, delayed senescence and canopy architecture will also contribute towards increased tolerance to heat stress [31, 32].
\nInter-mating among closely related individuals for improvement of economic traits resulted in decline of genetic variability in a crop species [33]. Characterization of gene pool including land races and wild relatives would offer several tolerant genes for abiotic tolerance. Extensive efforts were made in screening of heat tolerant genotypes which can be directly introduced as a cultivar or utilized to introgress gene into new genetic background [34]. Thermo-tolerant lines were successfully isolated from wild gene pool in wheat [35]. High magnitude of variation was observed in wild progenitor “Aegilops tauschii” of wheat for cell viability and membrane stability [36]. Similarly, a heat tolerant source for reproductive stage was identified in A. geniculata and A. speltoides Tausch which would pave way in development of thermo-tolerant hexaploid wheat cultivars in near future [37]. A higher growth rate and improved photosynthetic efficiency was observed in wild relative “Oryza meridionalis” of rice at high temperature [38]. Indirect selection on pollen viability led to identification of thermo-tolerant accessions in soybean (DG 5630RR) [39], chickpea (ICC15614 & ICC1205) [40], maize (AZ100) [41], and several other crop species. Direct selection based on yield under target environment (heat stress) resulted in development of tolerant lines in many tropical grain legumes. Four tolerant genotypes/accessions viz., SRC-1-12-1-48, SRC-1-12-1-182, 98012-3-1-2-1 and 98020-3-1-7-2 were isolated in common bean by employing stress tolerant indices [42]. Nine thermo-tolerant wild accessions were delineated in USDA upland cotton germplasm by employing chlorophyll fluorescence technique [43].
\nEvolving thermo-tolerance through conventional breeding approach proves promising in many crop species. Breeding for early maturing genotype in broccoli had improved head quality by avoiding heat stress at flowering stage [44]. In general, breeding programmes are carried out in hotter regions which promote selection of thermo-tolerant traits. Physiological based trait breeding was practiced at International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) for development of heat tolerant cultivars in wheat. The parental genotypes were characterized through various crossing schemes and appropriate breeding programme was framed for improvement of thermo related traits [45]. A wild ancestor “T. tauschii” was utilized as a gene donor for achieving increased grain size and filling percent under high temperature through recurrent selection [46]. Similarly, three cycles of recurrent selection had led to improved yield under heat stress regimes in potato [47]. Thermo tolerant alleles were introgressed into heat sensitive cultivar “Paymaster 404” from a donor accession “7456” of G. barbadense through backcross breeding [48]. A significant improvement in yield was realized under heat stress environment by adoption of gametic selection in maize [41]. A deep rooted cultivar “Nagina 22 (N22)” of aus rice exhibited high pollen viability and spikelet fertility (64–86%) under heat stress [49]. The thermo-tolerance of N22 was successfully introgressed into Xieqingzao B line through backcross method [50]. Dissecting out the genetic and physiological basis of thermo-tolerance will hasten up the development of resilient cultivars suited to hotter regions.
\nThe genetic basis of thermo-tolerance is not clearly understood because of complex trait inheritance. Advances in molecular approaches such as DNA marker identification and genotyping assay had paved way in determination of several QTL’s associated with high temperature tolerance [51]. In wheat, QTL’s were identified for canopy temperature, and chlorophyll fluorescence imparting tolerance to heat stress [52]. A major QTL “Htg 6.1” in lettuce was involved in enhancement of seed germination capacity at high temperature [53]. A recessive QTL for increased spikelet fertility under high temperature was dissected out in rice at chromosome 4. The identified QTL were found in several populations of heat tolerant rice cultivars [54]. Six QTL’s were involved to enhance fruit set at high temperature in tomato [55]. Five thermo tolerant QTL’s were identified in Brassica campestris by employing random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers [56]. In maize, eleven major QTL’s for increased pollen germination and pollen tube growth under high temperature was mapped using restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) markers [57]. Identification of candidate QTL’s would pave way in precise introgression of heat tolerant genes into superior cultivars through marker assisted breeding approach.
\nThe closely associated markers with targeted QTL will hasten the recovery of superior genotypes with heat tolerant traits in a population. A marker assisted breeding approach was employed in rice to derive heat tolerant line with superior grain quality. Two flanking markers viz., ktIndel001 and RFT1 enclosing 1.5 Mb chromosomal region was transferred from tolerant cultivar “Kokoromachi” to Tohoku 168. Significant improvement in grain quality under high temperature was observed in the derived NIL’s compared to susceptible cultivar “Tohoku 168” [58]. Fourteen SSR markers linked to heat susceptibility index of grain filling per cent and single kernel weight was identified in bread wheat which was employed in marker assisted selection (MAS) to screen genotypes for thermo tolerance [59]. Utilization of MAS approach for heat tolerance remains less efficient because of high gene x environment and epistatic interactions. The low breeding efficiency can be resolved by genomic selection (GS) approach which involves wide number of molecular markers exhibiting high genome coverage. High genetic gain is realized in GS approach due to close association between predicted and true breeding value over generations [60].
\nAt present, transgenic approach also proves to be desirable tool for designing thermo tolerant lines via introgression of genes from diverse gene pools [61]. The genetic transformation was focused primarily on transcription factors, induction of heat shock proteins, molecular chaperones, osmolytes, antioxidant components and growth regulators [62]. Heat shock proteins play a primary role in imparting thermo tolerance in crop species. It is functionally associated with diverse group of molecular chaperones that is involved in restoration of degraded proteins to their native structure under high temperature. Induction of heat shock proteins through genetic manipulation was achieved in arabidopsis [63], maize [64], rice [65], soybean [66], and pepper [67]. The DREB gene family was also reported to impart heat tolerant response in many crop species. Over expression of ZmDREB2A in maize [68] and GmDREB2A in soybean [69] was associated with increased survival and adaptation under high temperature. Transgenic techniques were employed to alter membrane lipid properties for thermo-tolerance in crop species. High proportion of saturated fatty acid in membrane had increased tolerance under heat stress. Suppression of omega-3 fatty acid desaturase gene in chloroplast had reduced the accumulation of trieonic fatty acid in transgenic tobacco [70] and tomato [71] leading to thermo-tolerance. A significant accumulation of glycine betaine (osmolyte) was achieved in arabidopsis through transfer of “cod gene” from Arthrobacter globiformis [72]. High proportion of glycine betaine protects the PSII component by inhibiting the ROS activities under heat stress. Implementation of transgenic approaches in other crop species will accelerate the development of resilient genotypes suited to high temperature regimes.
\nDevelopment of thermo-tolerant lines has to be prioritized to meet out the future climatic change coupled with food demands. Knowledge on plant response and adaptation mechanisms to heat stress is required for framing out breeding strategies. It remains a challenging task in evolving resilient genotypes suited to high temperature because of less efficient screening protocols at field conditions. The existence of low genetic variation for heat response related traits limited the progress of conventional breeding approach in many crop species. Use of molecular breeding strategies had opened up several heat tolerant related QTL’s in crop species. However, still precise research work involving huge marker data is needed for attaining high breeding efficiency for thermo tolerance. Recently, the involvement of transgenic approach paved way for utilization of tolerant source from diverse gene pools. Study on induction of heat shock proteins led to increased thermo tolerance in many crop species. Similarly, other heat response related traits such as induction of antioxidant components, osmolytes, and chaperones were also included in transgenic approach for inducing heat stress tolerance. Thus, high economic yield could be realized at elevated temperature regimes with the involvement of combined breeding approaches.
\nThe authors are highly thankful to Dr. V. Geethalakshmi, Director, Directorate of Crop Management, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University (TNAU) for her valuable suggestions towards this chapter. We also acknowledge Dr. P. Jayamani, Professor and Head, Department of Pulses, TNAU; Dr. M. Raveendran, Professor and Head, Department of Biotechnology, TNAU; and Dr. K. Ganesamurthy, Professor and Head, Department of Rice, TNAU for rendering supportive documents on high temperature tolerance.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest towards this chapter.
The authors express their gratitude to the Directorate of Crop Management for providing scientific support on high temperature tolerance.
\nGeneral requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed.
',metaTitle:"Horizon 2020 Compliance",metaDescription:"General requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed. ",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Publishing with IntechOpen means that your scientific publications already meet these basic requirements. It also means that through our utilization of open licensing, our publications are also able to be copied, shared, searched, linked, crawled, and mined for text and data, optimizing our authors' compliance as suggested by the European Commission.
\\n\\nMetadata for all publications is also automatically deposited in IntechOpen's OAI repository, making them available through the Open Access Infrastructure for Research in Europe's (OpenAIRE) search interface further establishing our compliance.
\\n\\nIn other words, publishing with IntechOpen guarantees compliance.
\\n\\nRead more about Open Access in Horizon 2020 here.
\\n\\nWhich scientific publication to choose?
\\n\\nWhen choosing a publication, Horizon 2020 grant recipients are encouraged to provide open access to various types of scientific publications including monographs, edited books and conference proceedings.
\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes all of the aforementioned formats in compliance with the requirements and criteria established by the European Commission for the Horizon 2020 Program.
\\n\\nAuthors requiring additional information are welcome to send their inquiries to funders@intechopen.com
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Publishing with IntechOpen means that your scientific publications already meet these basic requirements. It also means that through our utilization of open licensing, our publications are also able to be copied, shared, searched, linked, crawled, and mined for text and data, optimizing our authors' compliance as suggested by the European Commission.
\n\nMetadata for all publications is also automatically deposited in IntechOpen's OAI repository, making them available through the Open Access Infrastructure for Research in Europe's (OpenAIRE) search interface further establishing our compliance.
\n\nIn other words, publishing with IntechOpen guarantees compliance.
\n\nRead more about Open Access in Horizon 2020 here.
\n\nWhich scientific publication to choose?
\n\nWhen choosing a publication, Horizon 2020 grant recipients are encouraged to provide open access to various types of scientific publications including monographs, edited books and conference proceedings.
\n\nIntechOpen publishes all of the aforementioned formats in compliance with the requirements and criteria established by the European Commission for the Horizon 2020 Program.
\n\nAuthors requiring additional information are welcome to send their inquiries to funders@intechopen.com
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5681},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5161},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1683},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10200},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:886},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15610}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117095},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"25"},books:[{type:"book",id:"8737",title:"Rabies Virus",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"49cce3f548da548c718c865feb343509",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8737.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b6091426454b1c484f4d38efc722d6dd",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10496",title:"Feed Additives in Animal Nutrition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8ffe43a82ac48b309abc3632bbf3efd0",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. László Babinszky",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10496.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:60},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:3},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7796",title:"Human 4.0",subtitle:"From Biology to Cybernetic",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5ac5c052d3a593d5c4f4df66d005e5af",slug:"human-4-0-from-biology-to-cybernetic",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7796.jpg",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9711",title:"Pests, Weeds and Diseases in Agricultural Crop and Animal Husbandry Production",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12cf675f1e433135dd5bf5df7cec124f",slug:"pests-weeds-and-diseases-in-agricultural-crop-and-animal-husbandry-production",bookSignature:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos, Anna Kourti and Kassio Ferreira Mendes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9711.jpg",editors:[{id:"196691",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Kontogiannatos",slug:"dimitrios-kontogiannatos",fullName:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10178",title:"Environmental Emissions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"febf21ec717bfe20ae25a9dab9b5d438",slug:"environmental-emissions",bookSignature:"Richard Viskup",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10178.jpg",editors:[{id:"103742",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Viskup",slug:"richard-viskup",fullName:"Richard Viskup"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8511",title:"Cyberspace",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c1cdeb133dbe6cc1151367061c1bba6",slug:"cyberspace",bookSignature:"Evon Abu-Taieh, Abdelkrim El Mouatasim and Issam H. Al Hadid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8511.jpg",editors:[{id:"223522",title:"Dr.",name:"Evon",middleName:"M.O.",surname:"Abu-Taieh",slug:"evon-abu-taieh",fullName:"Evon Abu-Taieh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9534",title:"Banking and Finance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"af14229738af402c3b595d7e124dce82",slug:"banking-and-finance",bookSignature:"Razali Haron, Maizaitulaidawati Md Husin and Michael Murg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9534.jpg",editors:[{id:"206517",title:"Prof.",name:"Razali",middleName:null,surname:"Haron",slug:"razali-haron",fullName:"Razali Haron"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5126},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7796",title:"Human 4.0",subtitle:"From Biology to Cybernetic",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5ac5c052d3a593d5c4f4df66d005e5af",slug:"human-4-0-from-biology-to-cybernetic",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7796.jpg",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9711",title:"Pests, Weeds and Diseases in Agricultural Crop and Animal Husbandry Production",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12cf675f1e433135dd5bf5df7cec124f",slug:"pests-weeds-and-diseases-in-agricultural-crop-and-animal-husbandry-production",bookSignature:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos, Anna Kourti and Kassio Ferreira Mendes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9711.jpg",editors:[{id:"196691",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Kontogiannatos",slug:"dimitrios-kontogiannatos",fullName:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10178",title:"Environmental Emissions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"febf21ec717bfe20ae25a9dab9b5d438",slug:"environmental-emissions",bookSignature:"Richard Viskup",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10178.jpg",editors:[{id:"103742",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Viskup",slug:"richard-viskup",fullName:"Richard Viskup"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8511",title:"Cyberspace",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c1cdeb133dbe6cc1151367061c1bba6",slug:"cyberspace",bookSignature:"Evon Abu-Taieh, Abdelkrim El Mouatasim and Issam H. Al Hadid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8511.jpg",editors:[{id:"223522",title:"Dr.",name:"Evon",middleName:"M.O.",surname:"Abu-Taieh",slug:"evon-abu-taieh",fullName:"Evon Abu-Taieh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9523",title:"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5eb6ec2db961a6c8965d11180a58d5c1",slug:"oral-and-maxillofacial-surgery",bookSignature:"Gokul Sridharan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9523.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",middleName:null,surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9018",title:"Some RNA Viruses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5cae846dbe3692495fc4add2f60fd84",slug:"some-rna-viruses",bookSignature:"Yogendra Shah and Eltayb Abuelzein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9018.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9585",title:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef64f11e211621ecfe69c46e60e7ca3d",slug:"advances-in-complex-valvular-disease",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg and Imran Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9585.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10150",title:"Smart Manufacturing",subtitle:"When Artificial Intelligence Meets the Internet of Things",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"87004a19de13702d042f8ff96d454698",slug:"smart-manufacturing-when-artificial-intelligence-meets-the-internet-of-things",bookSignature:"Tan Yen Kheng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10150.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78857",title:"Dr.",name:"Tan Yen",middleName:null,surname:"Kheng",slug:"tan-yen-kheng",fullName:"Tan Yen Kheng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9386",title:"Direct Numerical Simulations",subtitle:"An Introduction and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"158a3a0fdba295d21ff23326f5a072d5",slug:"direct-numerical-simulations-an-introduction-and-applications",bookSignature:"Srinivasa Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9386.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6897",title:"Dr.",name:"Srinivasa",middleName:"P",surname:"Rao",slug:"srinivasa-rao",fullName:"Srinivasa Rao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1182",title:"Clinical Pharmacology",slug:"clinical-pharmacology",parent:{title:"Drug Discovery",slug:"drug-discovery"},numberOfBooks:3,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:123,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:48,numberOfDimensionsCitations:100,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"clinical-pharmacology",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8008",title:"Antioxidants",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"76361b4061e830906267933c1c670027",slug:"antioxidants",bookSignature:"Emad Shalaby",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8008.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"63600",title:"Prof.",name:"Emad",middleName:null,surname:"Shalaby",slug:"emad-shalaby",fullName:"Emad Shalaby"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7258",title:"Resveratrol",subtitle:"Adding Life to Years, Not Adding Years to Life",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b02655d4c4df83b50688fa1a22661d49",slug:"resveratrol-adding-life-to-years-not-adding-years-to-life",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7258.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"716",title:"Clinical Use of Local Anesthetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8e4b699b914aa5fa2cf49f0ce8c42b9",slug:"clinical-use-of-local-anesthetics",bookSignature:"Asadolah Saadatniaki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/716.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88079",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Asadoliah",middleName:null,surname:"Saadatniaki",slug:"asadoliah-saadatniaki",fullName:"Asadoliah Saadatniaki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:3,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"66259",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85270",title:"Antioxidant Compounds and Their Antioxidant Mechanism",slug:"antioxidant-compounds-and-their-antioxidant-mechanism",totalDownloads:4740,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:39,book:{slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez, Raúl Salas-Coronado, Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo and Beatriz Hernández-Carlos",authors:[{id:"143354",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Salas-Coronado",slug:"raul-salas-coronado",fullName:"Raúl Salas-Coronado"},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez"},{id:"193718",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Carlos",slug:"beatriz-hernandez-carlos",fullName:"Beatriz Hernández-Carlos"},{id:"278133",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Villanueva-Cañongo",slug:"claudia-villanueva-canongo",fullName:"Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo"}]},{id:"65331",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83731",title:"Flavonoids and Phenolic Acids as Potential Natural Antioxidants",slug:"flavonoids-and-phenolic-acids-as-potential-natural-antioxidants",totalDownloads:1743,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:25,book:{slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Biljana Kaurinovic and Djendji Vastag",authors:[{id:"142369",title:"Prof.",name:"Biljana",middleName:null,surname:"Kaurinovic",slug:"biljana-kaurinovic",fullName:"Biljana Kaurinovic"},{id:"286918",title:"Prof.",name:"Djendji",middleName:null,surname:"Vastag",slug:"djendji-vastag",fullName:"Djendji Vastag"}]},{id:"62084",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78977",title:"Resveratrol and SIRT1 Activators for the Treatment of Aging and Age-Related Diseases",slug:"resveratrol-and-sirt1-activators-for-the-treatment-of-aging-and-age-related-diseases",totalDownloads:1569,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"resveratrol-adding-life-to-years-not-adding-years-to-life",title:"Resveratrol",fullTitle:"Resveratrol - Adding Life to Years, Not Adding Years to Life"},signatures:"Alessandra Stacchiotti, Gaia Favero and Rita Rezzani",authors:[{id:"175171",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Rezzani",slug:"rita-rezzani",fullName:"Rita Rezzani"},{id:"238047",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaia",middleName:null,surname:"Favero",slug:"gaia-favero",fullName:"Gaia Favero"},{id:"245898",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandra",middleName:null,surname:"Stacchiotti",slug:"alessandra-stacchiotti",fullName:"Alessandra Stacchiotti"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66259",title:"Antioxidant Compounds and Their Antioxidant Mechanism",slug:"antioxidant-compounds-and-their-antioxidant-mechanism",totalDownloads:4740,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:39,book:{slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez, Raúl Salas-Coronado, Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo and Beatriz Hernández-Carlos",authors:[{id:"143354",title:"Dr.",name:"Raúl",middleName:null,surname:"Salas-Coronado",slug:"raul-salas-coronado",fullName:"Raúl Salas-Coronado"},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez"},{id:"193718",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatriz",middleName:null,surname:"Hernández-Carlos",slug:"beatriz-hernandez-carlos",fullName:"Beatriz Hernández-Carlos"},{id:"278133",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",middleName:null,surname:"Villanueva-Cañongo",slug:"claudia-villanueva-canongo",fullName:"Claudia Villanueva-Cañongo"}]},{id:"65067",title:"Diseases Related to Types of Free Radicals",slug:"diseases-related-to-types-of-free-radicals",totalDownloads:872,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Narendra Maddu",authors:[{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu"}]},{id:"62579",title:"Where and How in the mTOR Pathway Inhibitors Fight Aging: Rapamycin, Resveratrol, and Metformin",slug:"where-and-how-in-the-mtor-pathway-inhibitors-fight-aging-rapamycin-resveratrol-and-metformin",totalDownloads:1603,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"resveratrol-adding-life-to-years-not-adding-years-to-life",title:"Resveratrol",fullTitle:"Resveratrol - Adding Life to Years, Not Adding Years to Life"},signatures:"Sage Arbor",authors:[{id:"245319",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sage",middleName:null,surname:"Arbor",slug:"sage-arbor",fullName:"Sage Arbor"}]},{id:"62084",title:"Resveratrol and SIRT1 Activators for the Treatment of Aging and Age-Related Diseases",slug:"resveratrol-and-sirt1-activators-for-the-treatment-of-aging-and-age-related-diseases",totalDownloads:1569,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"resveratrol-adding-life-to-years-not-adding-years-to-life",title:"Resveratrol",fullTitle:"Resveratrol - Adding Life to Years, Not Adding Years to Life"},signatures:"Alessandra Stacchiotti, Gaia Favero and Rita Rezzani",authors:[{id:"175171",title:"Prof.",name:"Rita",middleName:null,surname:"Rezzani",slug:"rita-rezzani",fullName:"Rita Rezzani"},{id:"238047",title:"Dr.",name:"Gaia",middleName:null,surname:"Favero",slug:"gaia-favero",fullName:"Gaia Favero"},{id:"245898",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandra",middleName:null,surname:"Stacchiotti",slug:"alessandra-stacchiotti",fullName:"Alessandra Stacchiotti"}]},{id:"66504",title:"Antioxidants as a Double-Edged Sword in the Treatment of Cancer",slug:"antioxidants-as-a-double-edged-sword-in-the-treatment-of-cancer",totalDownloads:873,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Majid Asadi-Samani, Najmeh Kaffash Farkhad, Mohammad Reza Mahmoudian-Sani and Hedayatollah Shirzad",authors:[{id:"237542",title:"Dr.",name:"Majid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadi-Samani",slug:"majid-asadi-samani",fullName:"Majid Asadi-Samani"},{id:"275475",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Reza Mahmoudian-Sani",slug:"mohammad-reza-mahmoudian-sani",fullName:"Mohammad Reza Mahmoudian-Sani"},{id:"295230",title:"Dr.",name:"Najmeh",middleName:null,surname:"Kafash Farkhad",slug:"najmeh-kafash-farkhad",fullName:"Najmeh Kafash Farkhad"},{id:"295231",title:"Dr.",name:"Hedayatollah",middleName:null,surname:"Shirzad",slug:"hedayatollah-shirzad",fullName:"Hedayatollah Shirzad"}]},{id:"65331",title:"Flavonoids and Phenolic Acids as Potential Natural Antioxidants",slug:"flavonoids-and-phenolic-acids-as-potential-natural-antioxidants",totalDownloads:1743,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:25,book:{slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Biljana Kaurinovic and Djendji Vastag",authors:[{id:"142369",title:"Prof.",name:"Biljana",middleName:null,surname:"Kaurinovic",slug:"biljana-kaurinovic",fullName:"Biljana Kaurinovic"},{id:"286918",title:"Prof.",name:"Djendji",middleName:null,surname:"Vastag",slug:"djendji-vastag",fullName:"Djendji Vastag"}]},{id:"65225",title:"Antioxidant Categories and Mode of Action",slug:"antioxidant-categories-and-mode-of-action",totalDownloads:967,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Manal Azat Aziz, Abdulkareem Shehab Diab and Abeer Abdulrazak Mohammed",authors:[{id:"276717",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Manal",middleName:null,surname:"Azat Aziz",slug:"manal-azat-aziz",fullName:"Manal Azat Aziz"},{id:"286369",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulkareem",middleName:null,surname:"Shehab Diab",slug:"abdulkareem-shehab-diab",fullName:"Abdulkareem Shehab Diab"},{id:"312155",title:"Dr.",name:"Abeer Abdulrazak",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammed",slug:"abeer-abdulrazak-mohammed",fullName:"Abeer Abdulrazak Mohammed"}]},{id:"62439",title:"Protective Activity of Resveratrol in Cardio- and Cerebrovascular Diseases",slug:"protective-activity-of-resveratrol-in-cardio-and-cerebrovascular-diseases",totalDownloads:689,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"resveratrol-adding-life-to-years-not-adding-years-to-life",title:"Resveratrol",fullTitle:"Resveratrol - Adding Life to Years, Not Adding Years to Life"},signatures:"Albino Carrizzo, Carmine Izzo and Carmine Vecchione",authors:[{id:"209420",title:"Prof.",name:"Carmine",middleName:null,surname:"Vecchione",slug:"carmine-vecchione",fullName:"Carmine Vecchione"},{id:"210626",title:"MSc.",name:"Albino",middleName:null,surname:"Carrizzo",slug:"albino-carrizzo",fullName:"Albino Carrizzo"},{id:"219305",title:"Mr.",name:"Carmine",middleName:null,surname:"Izzo",slug:"carmine-izzo",fullName:"Carmine Izzo"}]},{id:"66809",title:"Dietary Antioxidants in the Chemoprevention of Prostate Cancer",slug:"dietary-antioxidants-in-the-chemoprevention-of-prostate-cancer",totalDownloads:465,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Dwayne Tucker, Melisa Anderson, Fabian Miller, Kurt Vaz, Lennox Anderson-Jackson and Donovan McGrowder",authors:[{id:"155804",title:"Dr.",name:"Donovan",middleName:null,surname:"McGrowder",slug:"donovan-mcgrowder",fullName:"Donovan McGrowder"},{id:"158092",title:"Mr.",name:"Lennox",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson-Jackson",slug:"lennox-anderson-jackson",fullName:"Lennox Anderson-Jackson"},{id:"280661",title:"Mr.",name:"Dwayne",middleName:null,surname:"Tucker",slug:"dwayne-tucker",fullName:"Dwayne Tucker"},{id:"280662",title:"Ms.",name:"Melisa",middleName:null,surname:"Anderson",slug:"melisa-anderson",fullName:"Melisa Anderson"},{id:"280664",title:"Mr.",name:"Fabian",middleName:null,surname:"Miller",slug:"fabian-miller",fullName:"Fabian Miller"},{id:"291987",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Kurt",middleName:null,surname:"Vaz",slug:"kurt-vaz",fullName:"Kurt Vaz"}]},{id:"65762",title:"Antioxidants in Date Fruits and the Extent of the Variability of the Total Phenolic Content: Review and Analysis",slug:"antioxidants-in-date-fruits-and-the-extent-of-the-variability-of-the-total-phenolic-content-review-a",totalDownloads:627,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"antioxidants",title:"Antioxidants",fullTitle:"Antioxidants"},signatures:"Abdulameer Allaith",authors:[{id:"277441",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abdulameer",middleName:null,surname:"Allaith",slug:"abdulameer-allaith",fullName:"Abdulameer Allaith"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"clinical-pharmacology",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/100440/catherine-macdonald",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"100440",slug:"catherine-macdonald"},fullPath:"/profiles/100440/catherine-macdonald",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()