Yield of difference species of algae.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6804",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Carbon Capture, Utilization and Sequestration",title:"Carbon Capture, Utilization and Sequestration",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book is divided in two sections. Several chapters in the first section provide a state-of-the-art review of various carbon sinks for CO2 sequestration such as soil and oceans. Other chapters discuss the carbon sequestration achieved by storage in kerogen nanopores, CO2 miscible flooding and generation of energy efficient solvents for postcombustion CO2 capture. The chapters in the second section focus on monitoring and tracking of CO2 migration in various types of storage sites, as well as important physical parameters relevant to sequestration. Both researchers and students should find the material useful in their work.",isbn:"978-1-78923-765-8",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-764-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-716-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73109",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"carbon-capture-utilization-and-sequestration",numberOfPages:196,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"bc6cd79987121b45dfa7f4cc6ba0ca1b",bookSignature:"Ramesh K. Agarwal",publishedDate:"September 12th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6804.jpg",numberOfDownloads:16020,numberOfWosCitations:26,numberOfCrossrefCitations:29,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:53,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:108,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 15th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 5th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 6th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"June 25th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 24th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"38519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramesh K.",middleName:null,surname:"Agarwal",slug:"ramesh-k.-agarwal",fullName:"Ramesh K. Agarwal",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/38519/images/system/38519.jpg",biography:"Professor Ramesh K. Agarwal is William Palm Professor of Engineering at Washington University in St. Louis, USA. From 1994 to 2001, he was Sam Bloomfield Distinguished Professor and Executive Director of the National Institute for Aviation Research at Wichita State University in Kansas. From 1978 to 1994, he worked in various scientific and managerial positions at McDonnell Douglas Research Laboratories in St. Louis; he became the Program Director and McDonnell Douglas Fellow in 1990. Dr. Agarwal received a PhD in Aeronautical Sciences from Stanford University in 1975, an MS in Aeronautical Engineering from the University of Minnesota in 1969, and a BS in Mechanical Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, India in 1968. Dr. Agarwal has worked in computational fluid dynamics and its applications to problems in aerospace and mechanical engineering, and energy and the environment.",institutionString:"Washington University in St. Louis",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"Washington University in St. Louis",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"784",title:"Environmental Technology",slug:"engineering-environmental-engineering-environmental-technology"}],chapters:[{id:"63073",title:"Carbon Sequestration in Soils: The Opportunities and Challenges",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79347",slug:"carbon-sequestration-in-soils-the-opportunities-and-challenges",totalDownloads:3893,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Recently, the contributions of the soil in various ecosystems have become more prominent with the recognition of its role as a carbon sink and the potential of that in reducing the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO2), which is a vital greenhouse gas, from the atmosphere. Conversely, the soil capacity to increase the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere through mineralization of organic matter is also a source of concern. Mineralization of only 10% of the soil organic carbon pool globally is believed to be equivalent to about 30 years of anthropogenic emissions. This underscores the need to preventing carbon loss (emission) from the soil resource. Globally, the soil contains a large carbon pool estimated at approximately 1500Gt of organic carbon in the first one meter of the soil profile. This is much higher than the 560 Gt of carbon (C) found in the biotic pool and twice more than atmospheric CO2. By holding this huge carbon stock, the soil is preventing carbon dioxide build up in the atmosphere which will confound the problem of climate change. There are a lot of strategies used in sequestering carbon in different soils, however, many challenges are being encountered in making them cost effective and widely acceptable.",signatures:"Ahmed Chinade Abdullahi, Chamhuri Siwar, Mohamad Isma’il\nShaharudin and Isahak Anizan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63073",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63073",authors:[{id:"242472",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Abdullahi",slug:"ahmed-abdullahi",fullName:"Ahmed Abdullahi"},{id:"243316",title:"Prof.",name:"Chamhuri",surname:"Siwar",slug:"chamhuri-siwar",fullName:"Chamhuri Siwar"},{id:"243317",title:"Dr.",name:"Anizan",surname:"Isahak",slug:"anizan-isahak",fullName:"Anizan Isahak"},{id:"243318",title:"Mr.",name:"Shaharuddin",surname:"Mohamad",slug:"shaharuddin-mohamad",fullName:"Shaharuddin Mohamad"}],corrections:null},{id:"62458",title:"Enhancing Carbon Sequestration Using Organic Amendments and Agricultural Practices",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79336",slug:"enhancing-carbon-sequestration-using-organic-amendments-and-agricultural-practices",totalDownloads:1915,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Carbon sequestration (CS) is an important strategy for the mitigation of climate change (CC) as well as for improving the soil fertility of agricultural soils. Carbon sequestration in crop lands and rangelands requires a certain amount of organic matter (OM) presence in the soil called soil organic matter (SOM). Organic amendments like animal and poultry manures, the incorporation of different crop residues, different types of compost, sugarcane bagasse, peat soils, different wood chips, biochar and good agricultural practices like cover crops, nutrient management, mulching, zero and no-tillage techniques, soil biota management and mulching are effectively used for this purpose. These enhance the SOM and improve the soil’s physical and chemical properties which help to sequester more C in soil which ultimately contributes towards CS and CC mitigation.",signatures:"Zia Ur Rahman Farooqi, Muhammad Sabir, Nukshab Zeeshan,\nKhurram Naveed and Muhammad Mahroz Hussain",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62458",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62458",authors:[{id:"250964",title:"Mr.",name:"Zia Ur Rahman",surname:"Farooqi",slug:"zia-ur-rahman-farooqi",fullName:"Zia Ur Rahman Farooqi"},{id:"261006",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad",surname:"Sabir",slug:"muhammad-sabir",fullName:"Muhammad Sabir"},{id:"261007",title:"Mr.",name:"Nukshab",surname:"Zeeshan",slug:"nukshab-zeeshan",fullName:"Nukshab Zeeshan"}],corrections:null},{id:"61834",title:"Blue Carbon on Polar and Subpolar Seabeds",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78237",slug:"blue-carbon-on-polar-and-subpolar-seabeds",totalDownloads:1546,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"When marine organisms eat and grow they capture and store carbon, termed blue carbon. Polar seas have extreme light climates and sea temperatures. Their continental shelves have amongst the most intense phytoplankton (algal) blooms. This carbon drawdown, storage and burial by biodiversity is a quantifiable ‘ecosystem service’. Most of that carbon sinks to be recycled by microbes, but some enters a wider food web of zooplankton and their predators or diverse seabed life. How much carbon becomes stored long term or buried to become genuinely sequestered varies with a wide range of factors, e.g. geography, history, substratum etc. The Arctic and Antarctic are dynamic and in a phase of rapid but contrasting, complex physical change and marine organismal carbon capture and storage is altering in response. For example, an ice shelf calving a 5000 km2 iceberg actually results in 106 tons of additional blue carbon per year. Polar blue carbon increases have resulted from new and longer climate-forced, phytoplankton blooms driven by sea ice losses and ice shelf collapses. Polar blue carbon gains with sea ice losses are probably the largest natural negative feedback against climate change. Here the current status, variability and future of polar blue carbon is considered.",signatures:"David Keith Alan Barnes",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61834",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61834",authors:[{id:"244831",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Barnes",slug:"david-barnes",fullName:"David Barnes"}],corrections:null},{id:"62476",title:"Carbon Dioxide Utilization and Sequestration in Kerogen Nanopores",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78235",slug:"carbon-dioxide-utilization-and-sequestration-in-kerogen-nanopores",totalDownloads:1132,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Carbon dioxide (CO2) has been injected into oil reservoirs to maximize production for decades. On the other hand, emitted CO2 from industrial processes is captured and stored in geological formations to mitigate greenhouse gas effects. As such, greater attention is drawn to the potential of utilizing the captured CO2 in EOR processes. A significant portion of the injected CO2 remains trapped due to capillary forces and through dissolution in residual liquids. In organic-rich shales, the presence of isolated kerogen nanopores add to the sequestration process due to the adsorptive nature of the surface and its preference to CO2 over methane (CH4), in addition to the sealing capacities of these formations. This work summarizes the latest findings of the literature with the purpose of defining further areas of investigation to fully capitalize on the potential of CO2 sequestration and utilization in kerogen nanopores.",signatures:"Cudjoe Sherifa and Barati Reza",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62476",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62476",authors:[{id:"194161",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",surname:"Barati",slug:"reza-barati",fullName:"Reza Barati"},{id:"246162",title:"Dr.",name:"Sherifa",surname:"Cudjoe",slug:"sherifa-cudjoe",fullName:"Sherifa Cudjoe"}],corrections:null},{id:"62098",title:"CO2 Miscible Flooding for Enhanced Oil Recovery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79082",slug:"co2-miscible-flooding-for-enhanced-oil-recovery",totalDownloads:2002,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Carbon capture aims to mitigate the emission of CO2 by capturing it at the point of combustion then storing it in geological reservoirs or applied through enhanced oil recovery (EOR) in a technology known as miscible flooding, so reduce CO2 atmospheric emissions. Miscible CO2-EOR employs supercritical CO2 to displace oil from a depleted oil reservoir. CO2 improve oil recovery by dissolving in, swelling, and reducing the oil viscosity. Hydrocarbon gases (natural gas and flue gas) used for miscible oil displacement in some large reservoirs. These displacements may simply amount to “pressure maintenance” in the reservoir. In such flooding techniques, the minimum miscibility pressure determined through multiple contact experiments and swelling test to determine the optimum injection conditions.",signatures:"Abdelaziz Nasr El-hoshoudy and Saad Desouky",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62098",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62098",authors:[{id:"201556",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdelaziz",surname:"El-Hoshoudy",slug:"abdelaziz-el-hoshoudy",fullName:"Abdelaziz El-Hoshoudy"},{id:"253401",title:"Prof.",name:"Saad",surname:"Desouky",slug:"saad-desouky",fullName:"Saad Desouky"}],corrections:null},{id:"61782",title:"An Innovative Approach in Post Combustion Carbon Capture and Sequestration towards Reduction of Energy Penalty in Regeneration of Solvent",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78394",slug:"an-innovative-approach-in-post-combustion-carbon-capture-and-sequestration-towards-reduction-of-ener",totalDownloads:1124,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"India as a fast growing economy is pursuing strategic knowledge mission for focused research in the area of climate change. Our R&D in Carbon Capture & Sequestration (CCS) will be initially focused on post combustion carbon capture on coal fired power plants. India is 3rd largest emitter of world after China and US with a share of 6.9% in global emission of CO2, however, India’s per capita GHG emission is only 1.6 MT per annum (MTPA) which is well below the world average 7.5 MTPA. National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change aims to develop a better understanding of Climate Science impacts and challenges. The planning commission has announced the Government’s interest in adding a ninth mission i.e. ‘Clean Coal Technologies mission’ that would include Carbon Capture & Sequestration. As regards Carbon Capture & Sequestration (CCS) on coal fired power plants in India is concerned, an innovative concept of integrating solar thermal for steam production will pave way for reducing energy penalty in regeneration of solvents from a level of over 15% to around 05%. This chapter deals with an innovative approach of CCS in which the major issues of energy penalty reduction have been taken care of through use of Solar Steam Generation, through concentrated solar plant (CSP) with 24 × 7 thermal energy storage (TES).",signatures:"Vinod Krishna Sethi and Partha S. Dutta",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61782",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61782",authors:[{id:"242972",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinod Krishna",surname:"Sethi",slug:"vinod-krishna-sethi",fullName:"Vinod Krishna Sethi"},{id:"253427",title:"Dr.",name:"Partha Sarthi",surname:"Dutta",slug:"partha-sarthi-dutta",fullName:"Partha Sarthi Dutta"}],corrections:null},{id:"62027",title:"Chemical Absorption by Aqueous Solution of Ammonia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78545",slug:"chemical-absorption-by-aqueous-solution-of-ammonia",totalDownloads:1208,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Carbon capture is proposed as a viable way of exploiting the fossil resources for power plants and industrial processes. The post-combustion capture by chemical absorption in amine aqueous solutions has been in use in chemical and petrochemical areas for decades. As an alternative, the absorption in aqueous ammonia has received great attention recently. The carbon capture by aqueous ammonia is based on the conventional absorption-regeneration scheme applied to the ternary system CO2–NH3–H2O. It can be implemented in a chilled and a cooled process, depending upon the temperatures in the absorber and, hence, the precipitation of salts. The process simulation can be conducted in two manners: the equilibrium and the rate-based approaches. The specific heat duty is as low as 3.0, for the cooled process, and 2.2 MJ/kgCO2, for the chilled one. Moreover, the index SPECCA is as low as 2.6, for the cooled, and 2.9 MJ/kgCO2, for the chilled one. The overall energy performances from the simulations in the rate-based approach, compared against those in the equilibrium approach, result only slightly penalized. From an economic perspective, the carbon capture via chemical absorption by aqueous ammonia is a feasible retrofitting solution, yielding a cost of electricity of 82.4 €/MWhe and of avoided CO2 of 38.6 €/tCO2 for the chilled process.",signatures:"Gianluca Valenti and Davide Bonalumi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62027",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62027",authors:[{id:"214376",title:"Prof.",name:"Gianluca",surname:"Valenti",slug:"gianluca-valenti",fullName:"Gianluca Valenti"},{id:"243535",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Davide",surname:"Bonalumi",slug:"davide-bonalumi",fullName:"Davide Bonalumi"}],corrections:null},{id:"63227",title:"Geophysical Monitoring of CO2 Injection at Citronelle Field, Alabama",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78386",slug:"geophysical-monitoring-of-co2-injection-at-citronelle-field-alabama",totalDownloads:953,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Carbon dioxide (CO2) injection at the Citronelle oil field in Alabama has been deployed to determine the feasibility of carbon storage and enhanced oil recovery (EOR) in the depleted oil field. Citronelle is a small size city right above the oil field, hence, to detect geohazard risks, geophysical testing method using wireless sensor, and passive seismic technique is used: the non-intrusive measurements were made at well sites along two linear arrays. The outcomes of the geophysical monitoring at the Citronelle oil field are shear-wave velocity profiles that are correlated to the static stress distribution at different injection stages. Injection history interpretation using the stress wave monitoring indicates that CO2 injection resulted in the stressing of the strata.",signatures:"Shen-En Chen and Yangguang Liu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63227",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63227",authors:[{id:"92720",title:"Prof.",name:"Shenen",surname:"Chen",slug:"shenen-chen",fullName:"Shenen Chen"},{id:"255735",title:"Dr.",name:"Yangguang",surname:"Liu",slug:"yangguang-liu",fullName:"Yangguang Liu"}],corrections:null},{id:"62470",title:"Tracking CO2 Migration in Storage Aquifer",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79296",slug:"tracking-co2-migration-in-storage-aquifer",totalDownloads:1156,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Monitoring technologies for CO2 in geological carbon sequestration are based upon the physico-chemical and electromagnetic properties of the CO2-water/brine and rock system as well as the induced events such as micro-seismicity. As CO2 migrates in the subsurface, its interactions with elements like rock, water/brine can be used to track its presence and direction. For deep subsurface storage of CO2, methods like electrical resistivity tomography (ERT), seismicity, capillary pressure and relative permeability as well as geochemical measurements can be reliably employed in monitoring CO2. Other methods like membrane-sensor technique and gas accumulation chamber are mainly suitable for shallow geological sequestration. However, prior to the full-scale deployment, it is necessary to understand the principles of operations and limitations of the adopted technologies as well as obtain experimental and practical information from them. In the field application, pre-injection baseline assessment is necessary followed by critical assessments during the storage process and post-injection period. Accuracy in leakage quantification and identification of sinks are also important. Factors that can influence the results of these technologies include fluctuations of pressure, temperature, initial salinity level, initial pH level, porosity, fluid properties, porosity, tortuosity, pore size distribution, wettability, reservoir mineralogy and surface chemistry.",signatures:"Luqman Kolawole Abidoye and Diganta Bhusan Das",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62470",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62470",authors:[{id:"241382",title:"Dr.",name:"Luqman",surname:"Abidoye",slug:"luqman-abidoye",fullName:"Luqman Abidoye"}],corrections:null},{id:"62800",title:"Interfacial Tension and Contact Angle Data Relevant to Carbon Sequestration",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79414",slug:"interfacial-tension-and-contact-angle-data-relevant-to-carbon-sequestration",totalDownloads:1091,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Interfacial tension (IFT) between “native reservoir fluid” and “injected CO2” and the contact angle (CA) among the reservoir rock, native reservoir fluid, and injected CO2 are major factors that dictate the relative permeability and capillary pressure characteristics which in turn control the fluid flow and distribution characteristics in the reservoir and cap rocks. This chapter is a comprehensive review on the state-of-the-art of the experimentally measured and theoretically predicted IFT and CA data of water/brine-CO2-quartz/calcite/mica systems that are relevant to CO2 sequestration. Experimental techniques used to generate the IFT and CA data and details of molecular simulations used to predict the data are discussed. Respective comparisons of the IFT and CA data reported by various research groups are also made. Possible reasons for disagreements in the published literature are discussed, and suggestions are made for future research in this area to address the potential technical issues in order to obtain reproducible data.",signatures:"Prem Bikkina and Imran Shaik",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62800",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62800",authors:[{id:"244106",title:"Dr.",name:"Prem",surname:"Bikkina",slug:"prem-bikkina",fullName:"Prem Bikkina"},{id:"248257",title:"Mr.",name:"Imran",surname:"Shaik",slug:"imran-shaik",fullName:"Imran Shaik"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1992",title:"Recent Advances in Aircraft Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"67fa903d68a094013f66d01b38882107",slug:"recent-advances-in-aircraft-technology",bookSignature:"Ramesh K. Agarwal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1992.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"38519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramesh K.",surname:"Agarwal",slug:"ramesh-k.-agarwal",fullName:"Ramesh K. Agarwal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5136",title:"Recent Progress in Some Aircraft Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6855bfb94011b56313a07020fa05ead6",slug:"recent-progress-in-some-aircraft-technologies",bookSignature:"Ramesh K. Agarwal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5136.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"38519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramesh K.",surname:"Agarwal",slug:"ramesh-k.-agarwal",fullName:"Ramesh K. Agarwal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6101",title:"Advances in Some Hypersonic Vehicles Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5ecc3136420d6f6cc0de2da29f9d749c",slug:"advances-in-some-hypersonic-vehicles-technologies",bookSignature:"Ramesh K. Agarwal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6101.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"38519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramesh K.",surname:"Agarwal",slug:"ramesh-k.-agarwal",fullName:"Ramesh K. Agarwal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7403",title:"Environmental Impact of Aviation and Sustainable Solutions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1702df68cc7756c9e6c3d414adfc370c",slug:"environmental-impact-of-aviation-and-sustainable-solutions",bookSignature:"Ramesh K. Agarwal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7403.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"38519",title:"Prof.",name:"Ramesh K.",surname:"Agarwal",slug:"ramesh-k.-agarwal",fullName:"Ramesh K. Agarwal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3597",title:"Environmental Technologies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"environmental_technologies",bookSignature:"E. Burcu Ozkaraova Gungor",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3597.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"74046",title:"Dr.",name:"Burcu E.",surname:"Ozkaraova Gungor",slug:"burcu-e.-ozkaraova-gungor",fullName:"Burcu E. Ozkaraova Gungor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8261",title:"Green Technologies to Improve the Environment on Earth",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3883bfaee890d55196f4635db2f20397",slug:"green-technologies-to-improve-the-environment-on-earth",bookSignature:"Marquidia Pacheco",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8261.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"176742",title:"Dr.",name:"Marquidia",surname:"Pacheco",slug:"marquidia-pacheco",fullName:"Marquidia Pacheco"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10455",title:"Green Computing Technologies and Computing Industry in 2021",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd39f34aef8389cc77903b8faae8c7c0",slug:"green-computing-technologies-and-computing-industry-in-2021",bookSignature:"Albert Sabban",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10455.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16889",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",surname:"Sabban",slug:"albert-sabban",fullName:"Albert Sabban"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9271",title:"Innovation in Global Green Technologies 2020",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2b283802db94fab806ba5ffc1d48bb5b",slug:"innovation-in-global-green-technologies-2020",bookSignature:"Albert Sabban",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9271.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16889",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",surname:"Sabban",slug:"albert-sabban",fullName:"Albert Sabban"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"76505",slug:"corrigendum-the-ghanaian-flora-as-a-potential-source-of-anthelmintic-and-anti-schistosomal-agents",title:"Corrigendum: The Ghanaian Flora as a Potential Source of Anthelmintic and Anti-Schistosomal Agents",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/76505.pdf\r\n",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/76505",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/76505",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/76505",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/76505",chapter:{id:"76353",slug:"the-ghanaian-flora-as-a-potential-source-of-anthelmintic-and-anti-schistosomal-agents",signatures:"Evelyn Asante-Kwatia, Abraham Yeboah Mensah, Lord Gyimah and Arnold Donkor Forkuo",dateSubmitted:"February 24th 2021",dateReviewed:"March 25th 2021",datePrePublished:"April 20th 2021",datePublished:"May 11th 2022",book:{id:"10356",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Natural Medicinal Plants",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10356.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"217045",title:"Dr.",name:"Arnold Forkuo",middleName:null,surname:"Donkor",fullName:"Arnold Forkuo Donkor",slug:"arnold-forkuo-donkor",email:"forkuo3@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"303360",title:"Dr.",name:"Evelyn",middleName:null,surname:"Asante-Kwatia",fullName:"Evelyn Asante-Kwatia",slug:"evelyn-asante-kwatia",email:"emireku@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"309974",title:"Prof.",name:"Abraham Yeboah",middleName:null,surname:"Mensah",fullName:"Abraham Yeboah Mensah",slug:"abraham-yeboah-mensah",email:"aymensah@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"347910",title:"Mr.",name:"Lord",middleName:null,surname:"Gyimah",fullName:"Lord Gyimah",slug:"lord-gyimah",email:"lordgyimah36@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ghana"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"76353",slug:"the-ghanaian-flora-as-a-potential-source-of-anthelmintic-and-anti-schistosomal-agents",signatures:"Evelyn Asante-Kwatia, Abraham Yeboah Mensah, Lord Gyimah and Arnold Donkor Forkuo",dateSubmitted:"February 24th 2021",dateReviewed:"March 25th 2021",datePrePublished:"April 20th 2021",datePublished:"May 11th 2022",book:{id:"10356",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Natural Medicinal Plants",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10356.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"217045",title:"Dr.",name:"Arnold Forkuo",middleName:null,surname:"Donkor",fullName:"Arnold Forkuo Donkor",slug:"arnold-forkuo-donkor",email:"forkuo3@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"303360",title:"Dr.",name:"Evelyn",middleName:null,surname:"Asante-Kwatia",fullName:"Evelyn Asante-Kwatia",slug:"evelyn-asante-kwatia",email:"emireku@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"309974",title:"Prof.",name:"Abraham Yeboah",middleName:null,surname:"Mensah",fullName:"Abraham Yeboah Mensah",slug:"abraham-yeboah-mensah",email:"aymensah@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"347910",title:"Mr.",name:"Lord",middleName:null,surname:"Gyimah",fullName:"Lord Gyimah",slug:"lord-gyimah",email:"lordgyimah36@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ghana"}}}]},book:{id:"10356",title:"Natural Medicinal Plants",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Natural Medicinal Plants",slug:"natural-medicinal-plants",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",bookSignature:"Hany A. El-Shemy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10356.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"54719",title:"Prof.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"El-Shemy",slug:"hany-el-shemy",fullName:"Hany El-Shemy"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"11805",leadTitle:null,title:"Genome-Wide Association Studies - Trends and Perspectives",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tGenome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) are analyzes of specific genetic variations throughout a genome to identify whether any variant is associated with a particular trait. in the post-genomic era, there is an immense amount of data regarding the genome of countless organisms. This enormous availability of genomic information, in addition to its data availability, enables analysis of the complete genome of the species and imposes a growing demand for the understanding of several complex biological phenomena. Initially, the GWAS approach was applied in human genome studies involving entire sets of DNA from numerous individuals to find gene variations related to diseases such as asthma, diabetes, cancers, heart disease, and mental disorders. Nowadays the impact of GWS studies is not restricted only to the human genome to advances in the understanding of diseases. With the genome sequencing of several species and the availability of their complete genomes in large databases, other complex aspects can be investigated today by GWAS, such as evolutionary and phylogenetic relationships, characteristics of relevance for biodiversity conservation, and genetic improvement of plants and animals. Included in this book there are original and relevant works involving GWAS studies, carefully selected for the academic public. This book has been carefully designed to provide current and quality information to students and researchers of all levels who have an interest in Genome-Wide Association Studies and its applications.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"006916e730c66d3b84d3ec036f769e00",bookSignature:"Prof. Rafael Trindade Trindade Maia, Dr. Magnólia De Araújo Campos and Dr. Marco Antônio Alves Schetino",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11805.jpg",keywords:"Disorders, Deleterious Mutations, Association Mapping, Complex Diseases, Mega-Scale Genome Sequencing, Adaptative Fitness, Disease Resistance, Adaptative Alleles, Patterns of Inbreeding, Genome Phylogeny, Population Genetics, Population Structure",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 15th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 13th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 12th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 30th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"November 29th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor honoured as an academic reviewer with an interest in the areas of genetics, evolution, bioinformatics, and biotechnology. Academic editor of books and journals and author of 3 patents and 1 software registration. Dr. Rafael Trindade Maia received a master´s degree in Genetics, Conservation, and Evolutionary Biology from the National Institute of Amazonian Research, Brazil, in 2008, and a Ph.D. in Animal Biology from the Federal University of Pernambuco, Brazil, in 2013.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Magnólia A. Campos is a researcher with experience in the Genetics and Plant genomics and the author of books and patents. She has a master's in Agronomy / Plant Breeding from the Federal University of Pelotas and a Ph.D. in Biological Sciences / Molecular Biology from the University of Brasília. Since 2008, she has been a Professor at the Federal University of Campina Grande (UFCG).",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Dr. Marco Antônio Alves Schetino studied biological sciences at the Federal University of Viçosa (UFV), Brazil, he received a master´s degree in Genetics, Conservation, and Evolutionary Biology from the National Institute of Amazonian Research (INPA), Brazil, and a Ph.D. in Genetics from the Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Brazil. He is a researcher with experience in Genetics (with emphasis on Animal Genetics, Evolution, and major health areas) and philosophy of science areas.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"212393",title:"Prof.",name:"Rafael",middleName:"Trindade",surname:"Trindade Maia",slug:"rafael-trindade-maia",fullName:"Rafael Trindade Maia",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212393/images/system/212393.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rafael Trindade Maia studied biological sciences at the Federal Rural University of Pernambuco, Brazil (2005). He received a master´s degree in Genetics, Conservation, and Evolutionary Biology from the National Institute of Amazonian Research, Brazil, in 2008, and a Ph.D. in Animal Biology from the Federal University of Pernambuco, Brazil, in 2013. He is currently an adjunct professor at the Center for the Sustainable Development for Semiarid (CDSA) at Federal University of Campina Grande (UFCG), Brazil. He has experience with population genetics, bioinformatics, molecular docking, and modeling and molecular dynamics of proteins. He works in science and biology education. Dr. Maia also leads the research groups Computational and Theoretical Biology (CTB) and Education in Sciences and Biology (ESB).",institutionString:"Federal University of Campina Grande",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Federal University of Campina Grande",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"265397",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnólia De Araújo",middleName:null,surname:"Campos",slug:"magnolia-de-araujo-campos",fullName:"Magnólia De Araújo Campos",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265397/images/system/265397.png",biography:"Magnólia A. Campos is a biologist, has a Masters in Agronomy / Plant Breeding from the Federal University of Pelotas and a PhD in Biological Sciences / Molecular Biology from the University of Brasília (2002). She had a total five years of experience in genomic sciences as a postdoctoral researcher at the Federal University of Lavras / Agronomic Institute (IAC). Since 2008, she has been a Professor at the Federal University of Campina Grande (UFCG). She has experience in the area of plant biotechnology, working mainly on the following topics: genomics, bioinformatics, tissue culture and plant cells, genetic transformation of plants, study of gene expression during plant-microbe interactions and expression of heterologous proteins in bacteria.",institutionString:"Federal University of Campina Grande",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Federal University of Campina Grande",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"468502",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antônio",middleName:null,surname:"Alves Schetino",slug:"marco-antonio-alves-schetino",fullName:"Marco Antônio Alves Schetino",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antônio Alves Schetino studied biological sciences at the Federal University of Viçosa (UFV), Brazil (2005), received a master´s degree in Genetics, Conservation, and Evolutionary Biology from the National Institute of Amazonian Research (INPA), Brazil, in 2008, and a Ph.D. in Genetics from the Federal University of Minas Gerais (UFMG), Brazil, in 2017. He is currently a Postdoc at the Federal University of Vales do Jequitinhonha e do Mucuri (UFVJM), Brazil. He has experience with Phylogenetic systematics, phylogeography, population genetics, evolution and conservation. Former professor at UNI-BH of the Biological Sciences and Ecology Course. Former substitute professor of the Bachelor of Science and Technology, BCT, at UFVJM.",institutionString:"Federal University of Vales do Jequitinhonha",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"347259",firstName:"Karmen",lastName:"Daleta",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"karmen@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6694",title:"New Trends in Ion Exchange Studies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3de8c8b090fd8faa7c11ec5b387c486a",slug:"new-trends-in-ion-exchange-studies",bookSignature:"Selcan Karakuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6694.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",surname:"Karakuş",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakuş"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3828",title:"Application of Nanotechnology in Drug Delivery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51a27e7adbfafcfedb6e9683f209cba4",slug:"application-of-nanotechnology-in-drug-delivery",bookSignature:"Ali Demir Sezer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3828.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"74319",title:"Bioethanol Production: An Overview",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94895",slug:"bioethanol-production-an-overview",body:'The depletion of the fossil fuel and global warming caused by the emission of greenhouse gases from the combustion of fossil is currently driving researchers in the direction of finding alternative and environmentally friendly fuel. Biofuels are one of the numerous options being considered. Bioethanol is considered as the most promising biofuel to replace gasoline, especially due to its properties. This biofuel is a liquid oxygenated fuel containing 35% oxygen produced from the microbial fermentation of monomeric sugar obtained from carbohydrate sources such as corn, soybeans and sugar cane. The bioethanol produced globally in 2018 was 110 billion liters and is expected to increase to 140 billion liters in 2022 with compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 7.6% due to anticipated economic feasibility of the process [1]. The US, Brazil, European Union, China and Canada respectively are the global powerhouses in bioethanol production. The US uses corn as the feedstock to produce bioethanol and obtained a production capacity of ~57.7 billion liters while Brazil produces bioethanol from sugar cane and had a total production capacity of ~27.6 billion liters in 2016 respectively [2].
Bioethanol is considered a potential substitute for the conventional gasoline and can be used directly in vehicles or blended with the gasoline, thereby reducing greenhouse gas emissions and consumption of gasoline [3]. For direct application (E100), the timing (and electronic control system if in use) of the gasoline engine is adjusted, and larger gasoline tank is used. However, the use of bioethanol (E100) is usually characterized with difficulty in starting the engine at a low temperature or during the cold weather due to higher heat of vaporization. Required. The blending of bioethanol with gasoline might not require modifying the engine, rather it will help to enhance ignition or engine performance. The most commonly used blends are E85 and E10. Advantages of bioethanol include high-octane rating resulting to increased engine efficiency and performance, low boiling point, broad flammability, higher compression ratio and heat of vaporization, comparable energy content, reduced burning time and lean burn engine [4]. The disadvantages include high production cost resulting from high cost of feedstock, enzymes, detoxification and ethanol recovery, respectively. Bioethanol possesses a low volumetric energy density, meaning that more volume of bioethanol/km (up 50%) will be consume compared to the conventional gasoline [3]. The use of bioethanol in engines might require frequent replacing the engine parts as the bioethanol has the capacity to degrade some elastomers and cause corrosion of metals [5]. However, in attempt to reduce the cost of production, lignocellulosic biomass is being considered as feedstocks because of availability and low cost of acquisition. Unfortunately, the processing cost is still high, thereby, making the process unattractive economically [6].
When bioethanol is produced from edible feedstocks such as corn and sugar cane, it is called first generation (1G) bioethanol and 2G second-generation (2G) bioethanol if the feedstock is a lignocellulose. Examples of these lignocellulose biomass is switch grass, cornstalks, wood, herbaceous crops, waste paper and paper products, agricultural and forestry residues, pulp and paper mill waste, municipal solid waste and food industry waste. Lignocellulosic biomass is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, protein, ash, and minor extractives [7]. Lignocellulosic biomass is being considered as feedstocks for bioethanol production due to relatively low cost of acquisition, availability and sustainability of supply. This biomass has the capacity to increase the current production rate of bioethanol and is being speculated to produce approximately 442 billion liters per year of bioethanol globally. The 2G-bioethanol has a greater potential to reduce the greenhouse gases emission compared to 1G -bioethanol. The third generation (3G) bioethanol is obtained when algae are used as the feedstock. Algae bioethanol is gaining traction possibly due to high carbohydrate content and absence of lignin in most available algae. With this kind of feedstock, the cost of pretreatment is expected to reduce as the complex lignin removal process is eliminated [8]. Numerous researchers have investigated the use of algae as feedstock for bioethanol production. Based on the results obtained, the species of algae with high productivity are presented in Table 1.
Algae | Bioethanol yield (%) | Ref. |
---|---|---|
Nannochloropsis Oculata | 3.68 | [9] |
Tetraselmis suecica | 7.26 | [9] |
Scenedesmus dimorphus | 49.7 | [10] |
Porphyridium cruemtum (seawater) | 65.4 | [11] |
Porphyridium cruemtum (fresh water) | 70.3 | [12] |
Padina Tetrastromatica | 16.1 | [12] |
Yield of difference species of algae.
The fourth-generation (4G) bioethanol is obtained from the modification of
The processes involved in the production of bioethanol from different feedstocks include pretreatment, hydrolysis, fermentation and ethanol recovery. These processes are explained below:
Pretreatment is one of the costliest steps in the production of bioethanol from lignocellulose biomass accounting to approximately $0.30/gallon of ethanol produced. There exist different pretreatment methods aimed at increasing the reactivity of cellulose and the potential yield of the fermentable sugars. These may be either traditional or advanced pretreatments. Traditional pretreatments are classified into four categories which include chemical, physical, physicochemical, and biological methods while advanced pretreatment method may be either acid-based fractionation or ionic liquid-based fractionation (ILF) [14]. Amongst the traditional pretreatment methods, chemical categories are the most efficient and hence predominantly used [15].
The pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass through various methods helps to release cellulose usually embedded in a matrix of polymers consisting of lignin and hemicellulose by disrupting the original structure (Figure 1). With this, cellulose is separated from the polymer matrix and is more accessible for enzymatic hydrolysis, thereby resulting to increased sugar yields greater than 90% (theoretical yield) using feedstocks such as grasses, corn and wood [16]. This means that cellulose is more susceptible to enzymatic hydrolysis when its crystalline structure is disrupted. Without the disruption, enzymes bind on the surface of the lignin and not the cellulose chains impeding enzymatic hydrolysis.
Effect of pretreatment on the lignocellulosic biomass [
Other advantages of pretreatment include helping to prevent the degradation of sugars (pentoses); ensuring viability of the bioethanol production processes by using moderate size reactors and minimizing heat and power requirements, and minimizing the formation of inhibitors which reduces the yield of the hydrolysis and hence the fermentation of sugar to ethanol [16].
These pretreatments method have been discussed extensively in the literature. As mentioned earlier, the method is categorized as: (1) physical pretreatment- this involves the breaking down of the size of the lignocellulosic biomass and crystallinity by methods such as milling, grinding, irradiation and extrusion. The resultant effect of which are increased surfaced area and pore size of the biomass enabling increase in the enzymatic hydrolysis efficiency. Physical pretreatment may need combining with chemical pretreatment to enhance the efficiency of deconstruction of the lignocellulose [17]. (2) Chemical pretreatment: these include acid, alkali, oxidative delignification, and organic acid (organosolvation) methods. They are highly selective for specific type of feedstocks, and are used to deconstruct and remove lignin and/or hemicellulose from the polymer matrix. Chemical pretreatments are undoubtedly effective but require harsh operating conditions which may have adverse effect on the downstream processing and the by-products may need special disposal procedures [17]. (3) Physicochemical: this combines the features of both physical and chemical pretreatments. Examples are steam explosion, liquid hot water, microwave irradiation and CO2 explosion [18]. (4) Biological pretreatment: This involves the use of microorganisms to breakdown lignocellulosic biomass for further enzymatic hydrolysis. These organisms include white-rot, brown-rot and soft-rot fungi, and bacteria [19].
These methods are also called lignocellulose fractionation pretreatment and are targeted at reducing the cost of cellulosic ethanol production by fractionating the lignocellulose in such a way to generate value-added co-products under a mild operating condition like 50oC and atmospheric pressure [20]. This gain is achieved by using cellulose solvents which enhances the cellulose accessibility and separation of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin to produce value-added co-products [21]. The method is also known as Cellulose solvent-based lignocellulose fractionation (CSLF). The operation helps to reduce the quantities of enzymes required for the subsequent enzymatic hydrolysis and could be used for varieties of feedstocks [21].
There are two general techniques used in CSLF which include (1) acid-mediated fractionation and (2). Ionic liquid-based fractionation (ILF). These are discussed below:
The cellulose solvents such as phospholic acid and organic solvents like acetone or ethanol are usually used at mild operating conditions of 1 atm and 50oC to separate lignocellulosic biomass. The effectiveness of the separation is dependent on the solubility properties of the cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin in the cellulose solvent, organic solvent and water, respectively [20]. Separating lignin and hemicellulose from the cellulose fraction helps to reduce substrate recalcitrant and competitive binding sites, unwanted sugar degradation, cost and production of the inhibitors [20]. This method has been used efficiently to pretreat varieties of lignocellulose such as bamboo, corn stover, sugarcane, switchgrass and elephant grass [22].
Ionic liquids (ILs) are salt solutions consisting of significant quantity of organic cations and small/inorganic anions that exists as liquid at relatively low temperatures like room temperature. They are used to fractionate lignocellulose to obtain specific, purified and polymeric raw materials which are intact and are easily separated and used as value-added co-products. In comparison of the conventional lignocellulosic biomass, ILs pretreatment methods show some advantages such as less energy intensive, simplicity of operation and capacity to separate specific components [20]. The properties such as low vapor pressure and high thermal stability suggest that ILs are environmentally friendly and as such are considered as green solvents. ILs are also considered to be tunable due to such properties as hydrophobicity, polarity, and solvent power which can be adjusted to achieve specific desirable results. These properties of ILs with those of antisolvent and lignocellulose (type, moisture content, partial size, and load) with temperature, pretreatment time can be used to determine the overall efficiency of the ionic liquid pretreatment method [23].
However, the most frequently used pretreatment method is steam explosion. This patronage could be due to its low capital investment, high energy efficiency, less environmental impact, less hazardous process chemicals and conditions, and complete sugar recovery [24].
Following the pretreatment of the lignocellulosic biomass is the hydrolysis of polymeric carbohydrate (cellulose and hemicellulose) to produce sugar monomers. This stage is required since enzymes needed in the succeeding stage (fermentation) can only digest sugar monomers. The process can be catalyzed either by acid or enzymes. Acid-catalyzed hydrolysis is the most commonly used method and it involves either the use of concentrated or dilute acid (see Eq. (1)). Example of such acids are H2SO4 and HCl. The concentrated acid-catalyzed hydrolysis is used at lower temperature and high acid concentration, resulting to 90% sugar recovery at a short period of time [25]. The disadvantage of this method is the high cost of production due to difficulty in acid recovery, disposal, concentration control and recycling [26]. Another problem with the concentrated acid-catalyzed hydrolysis treatment is its capability to degrade sugar monomers due to the prevailing acidic environment. The dilute acid-catalyzed hydrolysis requires high temperature and low acid concentration. The most predominantly used acid is dilute acid. The problem with this method of hydrolysis is that the process results to the formation of inhibitors compared to the acid-catalyzed hydrolysis.
Acid hydrolysis of the lignocellulose is carried out in two stages. Stage one is where the hemicellulose is hydrolyzed with the help of dilute acid and in the second stage, cellulose is hydrolyzed using concentrated acid [25].
Enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis uses enzymes to hydrolyze polymeric carbohydrate to sugar monomers under mild operating conditions of temperature 45–50oC and pH 4.8–5.0. This method is efficient and results to high sugar recovery without inhibitor formation and tendency to cause corrosion. The efficacy of the enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis is affected by factors such as pH, enzyme loading, time, temperature and substrate concentration. The hydrolytic process can be catalyzed by three kinds of cellulase enzymes, name endo-1,4-β-glucanases, cellobiohydrolases and β-glucosidases. These enzymes are usually very expensive due to high demand from various industries such as paper, textile and food processing industries [1]. The high cost of these enzymes also impacts on the overall cost of production especially as large quantities of enzymes are required. Based on the cost, microorganisms with the potential of secreting cellulolytic enzymes are broadly used in the contemporary times. These include
The mechanism of the hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass to glucose occurs in three steps and are presented in Figures 2–6. The first step is the linking of the β-1,4 bond of the cellulose with water molecule catalyzed by endoglucanase (1,4-β-D-glucanohydrolase) resulting to the formation of cellodextrin with a shorter chain, and free-chains ends (reducing and non-reducing ends) (Figure 2) [28]. The second step is the degrading of cellodextrin to a two-unit glucoses (cellobioses) with the help of exoglucanase (1,4- β-D-glucan cellobiohydrolase) by adjusting the reducing and non-reducing chains (Figure 3) [29]. The third step is the formation of glucose obtained when the β-glucosidases strikes the cellobioses (Figure 3) [30]. The production of glucose is necessary because, the subsequent process which is fermentation requires the use of the simplest monomer as feedstock.
Hydrolysis of long chain cellulose to a shorter chain cellulose (cellodextrin) [
Hydrolysis of cellodextrin to cellobiose catalyzed by exoglucanase (1,4- β-D-glucan cellobiohydrolase) [
Hydrolysis of cellobiose to 2 D-glucose catalyzed by β-glucosidase [
Hydrolysis of long chain xylan to a shorter chain xylan oligosaccharides by endo-β-1,4-xylanase [
Hydrolysis of xylan oligosaccharide to xylopyranose by β-xylosidase [
The hydrolysis of hemicellulose is easier compared to cellulose due to its possession of more amorphous property. The hemicellulose contains 10–15% and 10–35% of xylan in soft and hard woods, respectively. Xylan has both main and outer chains. The former can be degraded using endo-β-1,4-xylanase (EC 3.2.1.8) and β-xylosidase (EC 3.2.1.37). The main chain of xylan is hydrolyzed to a short chain xylan oligosaccharide through the help of endo-β-1,4-xylanase (Figure 5). The oligosaccharide is further degraded to a pyranose form of xylan known as xyropyranose by β -xylosidase (Figure 6) [32]. On the contrary, the outer chains of the xylan can be degraded by enzymes known as accessory xylanolytic enzymes such as feruloyl esterase (EC 3.1.1.73), α-L-arabinofuranosidase (EC 3.2.1.55), α-glucuronidase (EC 3.2.1.139), and acetylxylan esterase (EC 3.1.1.72).
This is a biological process that involves the conversion of the monomeric units of sugars obtained from the hydrolysis step into ethanol, acids and gases using microorganisms such as yeast, fungi or bacteria (see Eq. (2)) [1, 33]. The most commonly used microorganism is yeast especially
Microorganism | Temperature (oC) | pH | Fermentation time (h) | Sugar concentration (g/L) | Ethanol yield (g/L) | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yeasts | 30 | 5.5 | 65 | 280 | 130.12 | [35] | |
35 | 5.0 | 96 | 80 | 39 | [36] | ||
Bacteria | 30 | 6.5 | 18 | 117 | 30.4 | [37] | |
30 | 4.0 | 44 | 200 | 99.78 | [38] | ||
Fungi | First aerobic step (30) | 5.0 | 24 | 50 | 24.4 | [39] | |
Second anaerobic step (30) | 5.0 | 144 | |||||
First aerobic step (30) | 5.0 | 24 | 100 | 33 | [39] | ||
Second anaerobic step (30) | 5.0 | 72 |
Effects of microorganisms on the yield of ethanol under varying operating conditions [33].
The technologies used for the fermentation of monomeric units of sugar to ethanol include separate hydrolysis and fermentation, simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF), simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF), non-isothermal simultaneous saccharification and fermentation, simultaneous saccharification, filtration and fermentation, consolidated bioprocessing (CBP). The first three are commonly used [26]. Other types of fermentation include batch, fed-batch, continuous and solid-state fermentation. Some of these fermentation methods are discussed below.
This is the simplest of the fermentation processes as it is flexible for a range of products, easy to control and has multi-vessel. The process involves adding the substrates, microorganism, culture medium and nutrients at the beginning of the operation in a closed system under favourable conditions at a predetermined time. The products are only withdrawn at the end of the fermentation time. The problems with this type of fermentation process are low yield, long fermentation time, and high labour cost making batch process unattractive for commercial production of bioethanol [26, 40]. Also, due to high sugar concentration in the fermentation medium, there could be substrate inhibition leading to inhibition of cell growth and ethanol production [41].
This process involves adding substrates, culture medium and nutrients into a fermentor containing active microorganisms and withdrawing the products continuously. The products obtained are usually ethanol, cells and residual sugar. The advantages of continuous fermentation process are high productivity, small fermenter volumes, and low investment and operational cost [42]. The disadvantages include possibility of product contamination, and potential decline in yeast capability to support ethanol production because of long cultivation time [43].
This is the combination of batch and continuous fermentation processes involving charging the substrate into the fermentor without removing the medium. Comparing with other fermentation processes, fed-batch process has higher productivity, more dissolved oxygen in medium, shorter fermentation time and lower toxic effect of the medium [43]. The disadvantage is that ethanol productivity is limited by cell mass concentration and feed rate [40].
The Enzymatic hydrolysis is separated from fermentation allowing enzymes to operate at high temperature and the fermentation microorganisms to function at moderate temperature for optimum performance [26]. Since the hydrolytic enzymes and the fermentation organisms operate at their optimum conditions, it is expected that the productivity of ethanol will be high. The disadvantages of SHF are high capital cost especially as two reactors are required, requirement of high reaction time, and possibility of limiting the cellulase activities by sugars released during the hydrolysis step [44].
Here the saccharification of cellulose and the fermentation of monomeric sugars are carried out in the same reactor simultaneously [45]. Since the hydrolysate is simultaneously used for fermentation, the usual inhibition of the cellulase activities can be avoided [46]. The disadvantage of SSF is the variation in the optimum temperature required for efficient performance of the cellulase and microorganisms during hydrolysis and fermentation, respectively. The high temperature required by the cellulase for hydrolysis might reduce the microorganisms such as yeast used for fermentation.
This involves carrying out the hydrolysis and saccharification in the same unit with co-fermentation of pentose sugars. Usually, genetically modified
This requires the enzyme production, hydrolysis and fermentation to be carried out in a single unit. The microorganism mostly used in this process is
The factors which impact the bioethanol production include temperature, sugar concentration, pH, fermentation time, agitation rate and inoculum size [49]. High temperature could denature the enzymes and reduce their activity. The ideal temperature for the fermentation of biomass is 20–35oC [50]. The optimum yield of bioethanol production could be achieved using a concentration of 150 g/L [49]. The pH of the broth also affects the production of bioethanol because, it impacts on the bacterial contamination, yeast growth, fermentation rate and by-product formation. The optimum range of pH for the fermentation of the biomass using
This involves combining one or more processes in the bioethanol production processes from the lignocellulosic biomass for the purpose of optimization, resulting to the increase in yield and minimum production cost [33]. An example of IP is membrane reactor where both reaction and separation of products occur simultaneously [33]. The hydrolysis and fermentation processes can be integrated into separate hydrolysis and fermentation (SHF) and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF). As discussed earlier, SHF provides an opportunity for the temperatures of the cellulases and
Separate hydrolysis and co-fermentation (SHCF) [
Saccharification coupled with co-fermentation (SCCF) [
The SSF has been developed further to a technology known as consolidated bioprocessing (CBP) by integrating enzyme production into the operation (Figure 9). As mentioned earlier on, enzyme production, hydrolysis and fermentation are conducted in a single unit [48].
Consolidated bioprocessing [
The fermentation of monomeric sugars is usually followed by ethanol recovery from the fermentation broth. Usually, the water content of the broth is reduced to approximately 0.5% by volume enabling the formation of anhydrous ethanol with a minimum of 99.5% by volume. This operation is constrained by the azeotropic nature of ethanol-water solution and can be carried out based on the principle of distillation (i.e. leveraging the difference in boiling point of the components of the solution). The problem with the azeotropic solution is overcome by using a separating agent which alters the relative volatility of the key component. The techniques used in the recovery of pure ethanol from the fermentation broth include adsorption distillation, azeotropic distillation, diffusion distillation, extractive distillation, vacuum distillation, membrane distillation and chemical dehydration. The conventional techniques include azeotropic distillation, liquid-liquid extraction and extractive distillation [53]. Extractive distillation is the most predominantly used for large scale operations. There are some other techniques that are gaining traction for future use especially due to less energy requirement. These are pervaporation and salt distillation [54].
This assessment is usually carried out to measure the environmental impact of bioethanol production using different feedstocks. The LCA tool helps for the identification of potential impacts during a process design and for decision making in order to improve the process prior to scaling-up [55]. The LCA methodology consists of four main stages including definition of goal and scope, Life Cycle Inventory Analysis (LCIA), Impact assessment, and Interpretation of the results [1]. The LCIA can be conducted using methodologies such as CML 2002, Eco-indicator 99, ReCiPe, LIME, Lucas and TRACI depending on the impact categories and selection of indicators [56]. Numerous investigations have been conducted on the environmental impact of bioethanol and allied chemical products from different lignocellulosic feedstock (Table 3). The table indicates that bioethanol has the capacity to reduce the greenhouse gases emission and global warming potential substantially and hence facilitates the protection of the ozone layer.
Feedstock | Method of production | Environmental analysis | Ref. | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Method of Assessment | Main impacts | |||
Cattle manure (CM) | Drying, milling, pretreatment, solid phase separation, Separated Hydrolysis and Fermentation (SHF), and distillation | SimaPro software v.7.3.2 was used with ReCiPe method and EcoInvent libraries | 1. Results from midpoint indicators with normalized data showed that the main impacts were on human toxicity, freshwater eutrophication, terrestrial and marine ecotoxicity and fossil depletion 2. Endpoint indicators showed that the main impacts were climate change, human toxicity, particulate matter formation and fossil resource depletion | [55] |
Wheat straw | Steam pretreatment, hydrolysis, Fermentation, distillation, enzyme recycling, C5 sugars drying, and lignin pelletizing | Simplified LCA approach according to European Renewable Energy Directive (RED) | Up to 87% GHG potential mitigation | [57] |
Sweet potato | Cultivation, and conversion of sweet potato to bioethanol | EcoInvent 3.1database, literature and field data. SimaPro software was used for the impact assessment with CML IA baseline 3.02 method | Reduction of global warming potential (GWP) of 44% | [58] |
Loblolly pine, eucalyptus, unmanaged hardwoods, forest residues, and switchgrass | Thermochemical conversion | SimaPro 7.3 was used with the US Life Cycle Inventory dataset. The Tool for the Reduction and Assessment of Chemical and Other Environmental Impacts (TRACI) impact assessment method was used to calculate the life cycle environmental and human health midpoint impacts | Reduction in the GHG emissions by more than 60% compared to gasoline. | [59] |
LCA of bioethanol production from different feedstock.
TEA is an effective tool used in assessing the economic feasibility of different processes pertaining to bioethanol production. This analysis provides the opportunity to evaluate the technical and economic efficiencies of different process routes leading to bioethanol production with an overarching objective of choosing the best route(s) [60]. The technical aspect of the analysis involves the development of the process flow diagram, and rigorous material and energy balance calculations using simulation software such as Aspen Plus and SuperPro. The economic aspect involves the capital and project cost estimation, discounted cash flow and determination of the minimum ethanol selling price (MESP). This may be carried out using the Aspen Economic Evaluator package (Aspen Technology, Inc., USA). The MESP can be used for comparing the differences in technology between processes or for carrying out sensitivity analyses which helps to determine where economic or process performance improvement is required. Numerous investigators have studied the techno-economic analysis of bioethanol production using lignocellulose as feedstocks. For instance, Quintero et al. conducted a techno-economic analysis of bioethanol production from sugar cane bagasse, coffee cut-stems, rice husk, and empty fruit bunches for the Colombian case [61]. These researchers used Aspen Plus and Aspen Process Economic Analyzer for the process simulation and economic analysis, respectively. The results obtained showed that considering the four lignocellulosic biomasses assessed, the production cost of bioethanol from the empty fruit bunches was the lowest (0.49 US$/L).
Exergy is the maximum amount of work that can be obtained when a mass or energy stream is brought to equilibrium with a reference environment. Exergy analysis helps in: identifying the location, source, and the magnitude of true thermodynamic losses; determining the exergy losses in each process step which reduces the performance of the system, and comparing various process configurations to determine the most efficient route for maximum productions. Exergy analysis can be used to evaluate the thermodynamic efficiency (η) of a system, Eq. (2) [62].
Eq. (2) can be adapted to evaluate the overall efficiency (
Where;
Exergy balance can be applied to the system boundary of a unit operation of a process to evaluate the thermodynamics losses, Eq. (4). This equation shows that contrary to energy, exergy is not conserved.
Where;
From Eq. (4) exergy loss associated with the unit process =
The exergy analysis can be combined with life cycle assessment (LCA) to form exergetic life cycle assessment (ELCA) which helps to account for all environmental issues as well as the depleting natural resources [62]. This involves closed material and energy balances and can be carried out by determining the exergy destruction during the process.
Several works have been carried out by investigators in the area of applying the exergy tools to evaluate the process performance in the bioethanol production from biomass. Hurtado et al. used exergy analysis to evaluate the efficiency of the bioethanol production processes using rice husks as feedstock [63]. Aspen Plus software was used to simulate the process and the results of the exergy analysis showed that the pretreatment stage required improvement of either mass or energy as the stage gave the lowest exergetic efficiency and highest irreversibilities.
This is the pictorial representation of chemical, physical, biological, other technical processes and unit operations in a simulation software. The software helps: in the design of environmental-friendly and safe processes, reduction of capital and operating costs, to provide functionality and flexibility needed for modelling efficient biofuel processes, to enhance heat recovery processes, reconcile data, verify operating conditions, efficient and optimal process design, regulatory compliance, and operational analysis of the biofuels process [64]. With the simulation software, engineers can work virtually, thereby avoiding expenses and time delays associated with testing the process in the real world [64]. Examples of simulation software used in simulating the bioethanol production include Aspen plus, Chemcad, Prosimplus, Hysys and PRO/II [1, 64]. The most commonly used software in biorefinery is the Aspen plus [1]. The simulation of bioethanol production from lignocellulosic biomass requires interconnecting the various unit operations: pretreatment, hydrolysis, fermentation and distillation involved. This has been demonstrated by Peralta-Ruίz et al. by simulating the bioethanol production process using residual microalgae biomass as the feedstock [65]. These investigators evaluated the most effective route from three technologies: simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF), simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) and separate saccharification and fermentation using acid hydrolysis (SHF) leading to the highest yield of bioethanol. The simulation was carried out using Aspen Plus 7.1 and the results obtained showed that SSCF gave the highest yield of 23.6% and SHF the lowest yield of 18.5%. With these results, they concluded that enzymatic technologies could be used for microalgal production of bioethanol.
The quantity of bioethanol produced globally is increasing (110 billion liters in 2018 and could be 140 billion liters in 2022) with US and Brazil currently the highest producers. These countries produce bioethanol (1G bioethanol) from corn and sugar cane, respectively. Due to high cost of production with 40–70% contribution from the feedstocks, other sources of feedstocks are being considered leading to the production of the 2G, 3G and 4G bioethanol, respectively. The high cost of processing lignocellulosic biomass into bioethanol still makes the route unattractive compared to 1G bioethanol. The 2G bioethanol constitutes less than 3% of the total bioethanol production and has a higher GHG reduction potential compared to 1G bioethanol. Results show that bioethanol has the capacity to reduce the greenhouse gases emission and global warming potential substantially and hence facilitates the protection of the ozone layer.
In order to increase the yield of bioethanol and minimize the cost of production, different processes maybe combined through integrated processes, for example SHCF, SCCF and CBP.
Based on the LCA of the bioethanol production, the environmental impacts depend on the feedstock availability and the technology used for converting them to bioethanol.
To date, thousands upon thousands of people suffer and even die from various tumors with high morbidity and mortality including malignant hematologic tumors and metastatic solid tumors worldwide, which have cause tremendous physical and mental stress to the patients and their guardians [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]. Despite the encouraging progresses in cancer treatment, one of the core dilemmas is the current limitation in classical therapeutic modalities such as surgery, radiation and chemotherapy [7, 8]. For instance, surgery in combination with radiation treatment and chemotherapy drugs has been proved to be effective for localized cancers without metastasis and diffusion [9, 10]. Chemoradiotherapy has been considered as a synergistic anticancer remedy for locally advanced solid tumors whereas with increased damage to normal tissues and microbiota resistance [11, 12, 13]. Distinguish from the conventional cancer treatment (e.g., surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy), noncellular immunotherapy such as checkpoint inhibitors (e.g., PD-1, PD-L1, CTLA4), lymphocyte-promoting cytokines (e.g., IFN-γ, GM-CSF, G-CSF), and cancer vaccines (e.g., mRNAs) has been continuously developed to fulfill the goals for cancer administration as well [14, 15, 16, 17]. Additionally, current progress has also highlighted the feasibility of nanomaterials (e.g., organic nanomaterials, inorganic nanomaterials, organic–inorganic hybrid nanomaterials) as promising agents for cancer therapy based on the knowledge of nanobiotechnology and clinical biomedicine [18, 19, 20]. However, the significant disadvantages of the aforementioned strategies are apparent and should not be ignored including drug delivery barriers, graft-versus-host disease, off-target effects and severe toxicity [5, 21, 22].
Therewith, the assumption of eradicating tumors by utilizing the human immune system has been successfully and extensively practiced for the past decades by pioneering investigators and clinicians [23]. To date, a series of cellular Immunotherapy has been identified to promote the outcomes and reduce adverse reactions of cancer patients, and in particular, those with late-stage patients with various treatment-refractory cancers [14, 15, 16, 17]. Therefore, in this chapter, we mainly focus on the progress as well as the prospective and challenges in cellular immunotherapy for cancer treatment including the patient-specific immune cells (e.g., tumor infiltrating lymphocytes, cytokine induced killer cells), innate immunocytes (e.g., natural killer cells, dendritic cells, macrophage), adaptive immunocytes (T lymphocytes, B lymphocytes), engineered immunocytes (e.g., chimeric antigen receptor-transduced T cells, T cell receptor-transduced T cells, CAR-NK, CAR-M) [21, 24, 25, 26, 27]. Collectively, the immune cell-mediated cancer immunotherapy has constituted a promising area of cancer biotherapy.
LAKs are effector cells with significant cytotoxic activity, which are induced by culturing with recombinant IL-2 and have been proven effective against NK cell-resistant allogeneic and autologous tumor cells or cell lines [28]. Generally, LAKs after regional intra-arterial perfusion mainly accumulate at tumor sites, whereas the intravenously infused LAKs first accumulate in lung tissues before migrating to the liver regions [29].
LAKs-mediated adoptive immunotherapy has been confirmed with limited efficacy in vivo ranging from 20–30% including the metastatic or advanced tumor models and clinical studies upon patients (e.g., hepatic carcinoma, renal cell carcinoma, melanoma, leukemia) [30, 31, 32]. For example, Rosenberg et al. reported the treatment of 157 patients with advanced cancer using LAKs and IL-2, and confirmed the marked tumor regression and even remission by the immunotherapeutic approach. Nevertheless, the ultimate role of LAKs-based cancer immunotherapy still awaits further improvement including the efficacy and the decrease of toxicity and complexity [32].
TILs are infiltrating lymphocytes in cancer tissues and play a critical role in mediating response to chemotherapy [33]. To date, of the tumor-infiltrating immune cells such as mast cells, macrophages, dendritic cells and leucocytes, TILs have been considered as selected heterogeneous populations of T lymphocytes with a higher and specific immunological reactivity against cancer cells than the non-infiltrating subset [34]. Despite the accumulation of TILs has been recognized as prognosis for elevated survival and clinical outcomes, yet tumors with high level of TILs also with increased PD-1 immune checkpoint expression [35]. Thus, the feasibility of TILs as biomarker for reflecting the immune responses and predicting the clinical outcomes of cancer immunotherapy still need systematic formulations and detailed explorations [34]. Generally, although ineffective for in vivo tumor elimination, yet TILs are adequate to functionate proliferation and effector capacity when separated from immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment [36]. Taken together, identification of specific subpopulations and the corresponding molecular mechanism of TILs in cancer might be of great importance for guiding prognosis and developing appropriate sequencing of immunotherapy [33].
CIKs are a heterogeneous population of CD3+CD56+ natural killer T (NKT) cells and recognized as pharmacological tools for tumor immunotherapy, and in particular, in refractory to conventional radiotherapy and chemotherapy [37, 38]. Generally, CIKs contain two main subsets including the CD3 + CD56+ and CD3 + CD56- subpopulations endowed with higher anti-tumor activity and higher proliferation ability, respectively. Mature CIKs express active receptors of NK cells including NKG2D and DNAM-1, whereas with minimal expression of NKG2A, NKp44, NKp46 or CD94 [39].
For decades, numerous clinical trials of CIKs-based tumor immunotherapy have been registered attribute to the distinctive properties including intense MHC-independent antitumor activity, low toxicity effects and high safety on healthy cells [39, 40]. For instance, Yu et al. verified that CIKs-based immunotherapy was an effective adjuvant strategy in the early stage of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) rather than advanced HCC, and suggested that targeting myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) would provide additional therapeutic benefits alongside CIKs-based therapy [23]. Moreover, CIKs can be expanded to match the clinical relevant rates cost-effectively and conveniently by a simple protocol, which is also the key issue for clinical application of adoptive immunotherapy [39].
Of the multiple modalities for cancer immunotherapy, vaccination with DC-CIKs has revealed limited therapeutic success in the administration of advanced solid tumors [41]. Therefore, considering the shortcomings of CIKs-based cellular immunotherapy alone, integrated therapy or combined modality therapy such as CIKs, cytokines, gene editing, immune checkpoints, radiotherapy and chemotherapy have better potentiality in relieving the major side effects and improving the clinical outcomes of standard treatment options [40].
NK cells are heterogeneous cell population with unique characteristics of and belong to the innate lymphoid cells (ILCs), which can be divided into the cytotoxic CD56dimCD16high and IFN-γ-producing CD56brightCD16low/neg subsets and play an important role in both innate and adoptive immune responses dispense with preliminary antigen presentation via receptor-ligand mediated cytotoxicity, antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC), release of perforin and granzyme as well as cytokine-based paracrine effects (e.g., IFN-γ, GM-CSF) [21, 42].
For decades, we and other investigators have reported the generation of NK cells from various sources such as cell lines (e.g., NK-92, NK-92MI, YT), perinatal blood (e.g., cord blood, placental blood), peripheral blood, hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) and human pluripotent stem cells (e.g., human embryonic stem cells, human induced pluripotent stem cells) [21, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48]. Distinguish from the chimeric antigen receptor-transduced T cells (CAR-T), NK cells with non-MHC-restricted recognition revealed reliable cytotoxicity against pathogenic microorganism and tumor cells without the significant disadvantages graft-versus-host disease (GvHD), cytokine release syndrome (CRS) and neurotoxicity [49, 50, 51]. Moreover, NK cells are supposed to eliminate non-proliferating or quiescent cancer stem cells (CSCs), which collectively highlights the possibility and preponderance of NK cell-based cytotherapy for cancer immunosurveillance and immunotherapy [52, 53].
DCs are most potent antigen-presenting cells (APCs) arising from lympho-myeloid hematopoiesis and linking the innate and adaptive immunity, which are firstly identified in 1973 and capable of initiating and activating lymphocytes including T cells and B cells and thus play a unique function in cancer immunotherapy as well as the tumor microenvironment [54, 55, 56, 57]. As recently reviewed by Stevens and the colleagues, the advent of DC-based immunotherapy and immune checkpoint inhibitors (e.g., PD-1/PD-L1, CTLA-4) has become a paradigm shift in the treatment of cancers including the small cell lung cancer (SCLC) and non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) [58].
Notably, DCs derived
Macrophages (MΦ), one type of innate immune cells including the M1 (inhibit growth and kill) and M2 (promote growth and repair) subtypes, possess superior antineoplastic effects due to the phenomena of engulfing pathogens and dead cells, which are pivotal modulators of tissue regeneration and hematopoietic stem cell renewal as well as cancer progression [63, 64, 65, 66]. However, considering the purposiveness of identification of tumor-specific anticancer responses, the characteristics of MΦ in cancer as bidirectional executors have been largely overlooked for a long period [67, 68].
Current updates have indicated the biofunction of macrophages in the regression of cancers by modulating the polarization peculiarity of the predominate M2 repair-type MΦ (pro-tumor) to M1 kill-type (anti-tumor) [69]. Disturbances in MΦ function usually result in deficiency of anti-inflammatory MΦ, uncontrolled secretion of inflammatory factors (e.g., TGF-β, VEGF, EGF, PGE2, IFN-γ) and production of nitric oxide (NO) as well as poor communication with functional cells (e.g., endothelial cells, epithelial cells, lymphocytes) and cancer cells [70, 71]. For instance, the tumor-associated MΦ (TAMs) are recognized as the prominent components in tumor microenvironment (TME), which thus considered as promising and advantaged targets for developing immunotherapeutic strategy [72, 73].
Thus, MΦ/innate immunology can be orchestrated to play a critical role in indirectly or directly combating numerous hematological malignancies and metastatic solid tumors via the activity of M1 kill-type and the stimulatory effect of M1-type MΦ to cytotoxic Th1 cells and relative effector cells, respectively [69, 74]. Moreover, state-of-the-art updates have suggested the feasibility of conversion of the dominating cancer growth-promoting MΦ into growth-inhibiting type and the resultant progression in cancer immunotherapy as well [69].
According to the tumor immunosurveillance theory, considerable attention has been caused on enhancing the effectiveness and cytotoxicity of antitumor immunity, and in particular, the T lymphocyte-based host immune response and the accompanied T cell signaling and metabolism as well [75]. T lymphocytes are CD3+ mononuclear cells and are essential for eradicating tumor cells, allergens and microorganisms as well as tissue repair, and thus people with the impairment or dysfunction of T cells are at high risk of cancers and infections and eventually poor prognosis or mortality [76, 77].
Immunotherapeutic resistance remains the substantial barrier of cancer immunotherapy, and the selection of appropriate standard-of-care treatments is critical for combating tumors in preclinical and clinical studies [78, 79]. Numerous investigations have indicated the feasibility of effectively eliminate immunotherapeutic resistance by promoting priming or activation of T lymphocytes, attracting or sustaining T cell-based immune response as well as favoring the immune-promoting the aforementioned TME, which is critical for cancer immunoediting and the component phases including elimination, equilibrium and escape [80, 81]. However, the developing of an effective T cell-based cytotherapy against cancer are extremely difficult largely due to the correspondence of tumor antigens to self MHC-associated fragments of self-proteins as well as the tumor heterogeneity [75, 82]. Encouragingly, functional cytolytic T lymphocyte (CTL)-mediated immune response has been reported with self-tumor antigen expression and efficient efficacy upon some cancer models and patients (e.g., melanoma, pancreatic carcinoma, breast cancer) [83, 84]. Collectively, T lymphocytes orchestrate various aspects of adaptive immunity, while subset delineation (e.g., TCF1+ progenitor subsets in exhausted CD8+ T cells, memory T cells) and tissue localization as well as targeted strategies (e.g., genetically engineered CAR-T or TCR-T) are key determinants of T lymphocyte function in immune responses [75, 77, 82, 85].
B cells, including the fetal liver-originated B-1 and bone marrow-derived B-2 subsets, are heterogeneous lymphocytes with antibody production and cytokine release capacity, which also represent a pivotal cellular constituent of humoral immunity and function critically in the maintenance of tolerance and immune regulation [86, 87, 88, 89]. Generally, B-1 lymphocytes, consist of B-1a and B-1b subsets, are part of innate immune system and mainly function in providing immunity to various specific pathogens via producing immunoglobulins [90]. B-2 lymphocytes, including the follicular B cells (FOB) and marginal zone B cells (MZB), have been considered as mediators of adaptive immunity and are capable of differentiating into memory cells [87].
Current studies have indicated the excessive inflammatory responses of regulatory B cells (Bregs) during autoimmune diseases, unresolved infections or chronic metabolic diseases, which also contribute to the dynamic balance of equilibrium required for tolerance by simultaneously reestablishing immune homeostasis and limiting ongoing immune responses [91, 92, 93]. Bregs encompassing all B cells for immune response suppression also play a promoting role in regulatory T cell (Treg) differentiation by accelerating anti-inflammatory cytokine (IL-10, IL-35, TGF-β) secretion and inhibiting proinflammatory cytokine production [91, 94]. Additionally, memory B cells (MBCs) have also been identified in humans and play an important role for the rapid development and response of protective immunity [95]. Collectively, with the aid of novel genetic and pharmacological technologies as well as the in-depth understanding of the phenotype, function and developmental processes, B cell-based cytotherapy has become a rapidly growing field in tumor immunotherapy [86, 94, 95, 96].
T lymphocytes with the antibody-like CAR structure expression are adequate to recognize the unique structures on the surface of tumor-associated cells or tumor cells, and in particular, the remarkable efficacy of CAR-Ts for the management of hematological malignancies [27, 82, 97]. For instance, we and other investigators have reported the remission of various hematopoietic malignancies such as refractory or relapsed B acute lymphoblastic leukemia (r/rB-ALL) and B-cell non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (NHL) by utilizing the CAR-Ts targeting CD19, CD20, CD22 [98, 99, 100, 101, 102]. However, the adverse effects and the regulatory mechanisms of CAR-Ts-based tumor immunotherapy cannot be ignored [97, 103]. For example, Giavridis and the colleagues have reported the involvement of MΦ and IL-1 blockade in mediating and abating CAR-Ts-induced CRS [27, 104].
Despite the encouraging progress in hematologic malignancies, yet the applications of CAR-Ts-based cell therapy to solid tumors or as candidate pharmaceutical options have been challenging and suspicious [27, 68, 105, 106, 107]. In particular, the immunosuppressive TMEs of tumors represent the most important factor for limiting the efficacy of CAR-Ts-based immunotherapy [108]. It’s noteworthy that pioneering investigators have suggested the synergistic effect of oncolytic virus with CAR-Ts in improving the therapeutic effect of solid tumors [109]. For instance, Watanabe and the colleagues took advantage of the Mesothelin-redirected CAR-Ts (meso-CAR-Ts) and combined with an OAd-TNFa-IL2 oncolytic adenovirus for TNF-α and IL-2 expression, which increased CAR-Ts and host T cell infiltration to TME and thus showed enhanced efficacy upon human- pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDA)-xenograft immunodeficient mice [110].
Besides chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) transduction, T lymphocytes can also be genetically engineered with αβ T cell receptor expression, which is capable of recognizing MHC-restricted peptide antigens and therefore poised to turn into an important pillar of cellular cancer immunotherapy [82, 111]. Generally, TCRs are capable of recognizing a relatively broad range of human leucocyte antigen (HLA)/specific peptide that can be expressed in the surface of patient’s T cells [112, 113, 114]. Therefore, TCR-Ts hold the potential to redirect the recognition of tumor-associated surface antigens and the removal of cancer cells. In details, TCR-Ts-based cytotherapy are principally intended to redirect circulating CD8+ T lymphocytes to the targets of expressing class I epitopes of HLA compared to those CD4+/CD8+ T cells with HLA Class-II epitopes. Collectively, TCR-transduced T cells hold promising prospective in targeting all intracellular proteins when peptide epitopes have been presented on the HLAs including over-expressed neoantigens and self -antigens, viral antigens [115]. Even though the characteristics of adaptive evolution in T cell immunity and the preferential expansion of T lymphocytes with high-affinity TCRs, yet whether the affinity maturation of T cells by clonal selection continues during the course of tumor development remains unresolved [114, 116].
Compared to CAR-Ts, the genetically modified CAR-NKs not only inherit the splendid properties of adoptive NK cells including the aforementioned biological effects but also hold promising prospects for solid tumor administration without causing adverse effects including CRS, GvHD or immune cell- associated neurotoxicity syndrome (ICANS) [49, 50, 51, 117]. Thus, the CAR-NKs-based immunotherapy represents a virgin ground of immunotherapy innovation [118, 119, 120].
As to CAR transduction, a series of methodology has been developed to fulfill the high-efficient delivery demands via retrovirus-, lentivirus-, nonviral-mediated transfection with the range from 27–70% [121, 122]. In particular, the DNA transposon system composed of the sleeping beauty (SB) and the PiggyBac (PB) subsets is competent for delivering CAR structure into the genomes of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) or primary NK cells with high-efficient and long-lasting transgene expression [27, 123]. As to the CAR structures, a group of preclinical and clinical studies have reported the successful design and delivery of vectors carrying the cassettes of CAR-conjunct targets (e.g., CD19, CD5, CD137) into NK cells with the second- or third- or fourth-generation constructs against diverse malignancies, respectively [124, 125, 126, 127, 128]. Of note, Li
State-of-the-art updates have indicated the feasibility of CAR-Ms for solid tumor management and virion load reduction [129, 130]. Differ from the other CAR-transduced immune cells, CAR-Ms are important sources of matrix metalloproteinase (MMPs), which can enter tumor tissue and degrade almost all extracellular matrix (ECM) components and thus destroy malignant tumor progression [130]. Strikingly, Klichinsky
The current clinical and preclinical successes of cellular immunotherapy represent a remarkable point in cancer management, which also underscore the consequence of decoding the underlying tumor immunology [36, 134, 135]. Accumulating evidence has indicated the safety and effectiveness of cellular immunotherapy in recognizing and eliminating transformed cancer cells during various hematologic malignancies whereas those upon metastatic solid tumors are challenging and unsatisfactory [135, 136].
Generally, according to ClinicalTrials.gov (https://www.clinicaltrials.gov/) website, a total number of 4377 trials upon tumors by immunotherapy have been registered by the end of September, 2021. Of the aforementioned trials, there are 2463 in North America, 1089 in Europe and 834 in East Asia, respectively (Figure 1). As shown in Figure 1, among the indicated registered trials, there are 3944 interventional trials including 96 trials in early phase 1 stage, 957 in phase 1 stage, 776 in phase 1/2 stage, 1555 in phase 2 stage, 59 in phase 2/3 stage, 260 in phase 3 stage and 29 in phase 4 stage. In details, lymphoma (512 trials), leukemia (331 trials) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (281 trials) are the top three indicates among hematologic malignancies, while lung neoplasms (822 trials), neuroectodermal tumors (751 trials) and digestive system neoplasms (696 trials) are the top three indicates among solid tumors (Figure 1). For instance, 26 trials of NK cell-based immunotherapy have been registered for a series of metastatic or recurrent tumor administration such as acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia, liver cancer, breast cancer, non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC), pancreatic cancer, ovarian cancer, cervical cancer, tongue cancer and esophageal cancer. Also, a number of 16 CAR-T-based immunotherapy (e.g., CD19, CD22, HER2, mesothelin, PSCA, MUC1, GPC3, BCMA, SLAMF7) has also been carried out for both hematological malignancies (e.g., relapsed/refractory multiple myeloma, acute lymphocytic leukemia and refractory indolent adult non-Hodgkin lymphoma) and solid tumors (e.g., advanced lung cancer, colon cancer, esophageal carcinoma, pancreatic cancer, prostate cancer, gastric cancer and hepatic carcinoma). For instance, we recently took advantage of the CD22, CD19–22 CAR-T therapy in patients with refractory or relapsed (r/r) B acute lymphoblastic leukemia (B-ALL) and confirmed the sustained remission after sequential treatment [98, 99, 100, 137, 138]. Additionally, other cancer immunotherapy has also been taken into practice including PD-1 (NCT02843204), TCR-T therapy (NCT03778814), DC-CIKs (NCT03190811, NCT01783951), Bevacizumab (NCT02857920).
The overview of registered cancer immunotherapy worldwide.
As to preclinical investigations, immunotherapy has also acted as an “off-the-shelf” strategy and a promising candidate for clinical evaluation of cancer [21, 25, 102]. For example, Sommer
For decades, comprehensive strategies for eliciting anticancer immunity have been extensively explored [34]. In particular, antitumor immunotherapies involving adoptive cellular transfer or immune checkpoint inhibitors are validated as effective and promising treatment option for hematopoietic malignancies and solid tumors [78]. Of the obstacles, tumor escape and cytotoxicity are the core burning issues in oncotherapy. To overcome the shortcomings, the systematic and precise understanding of TMEs and the relevant networks including pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines, immunosuppressive cells, tumor-associated stroma, tumor hypoxia and metabolism as well as immune inhibitory checkpoints are collectively of great importance for improving the trafficking and delivery efficacy of CAR-transduced immune cells into the tumor site and helping solve the drawback of tumor antigen heterogeneity [108].
State-of-the-art updates have indicated the rosy and powerful implement of the anti-cancer immunotherapy including adoptive cellular transplantation and immune-checkpoint inhibitors for solid tumor and hematologic malignancy management in both preclinical studies and clinical practices [142, 143]. Nevertheless, the potentially acute and chronic adverse effects caused by immunotherapy-associated cytotoxicity have led to severe outcomes in tumor patients such as neurotoxicity, aGvHD, innate or acquired resistance, autoimmunity, nonspecific inflammation, cytokine storm syndrome (CSS), and the difficulty in realizing controllable modulation of the immune response, which are also the prerequisites and key challenges in the extensive implementation of immunotherapy for tumor, and in particular, the hurdles in adoptive T cell-based immunotherapy and double-edged properties of cancer immunoediting [75, 142, 143].
As to gene-edited adoptive immune cells, improvement strategies for enhancing the transfection efficiency and target selection as well as efficiently reducing the concomitant cytotoxicity during cancer immunotherapy are the key issue. For example, even though CAR-NKs exhibit inferior baseline cytotoxicity and preferable tumor killing activity when compared with other sources, yet the occasional issues should be systematically and thoroughly overcome by subsequent stimulation with optimized cytokine cock-tails [27, 144]. Therefore, it is of great importance to explore emerging features for the efficient development of novel immunotherapies, such as the selection of ideal CARs or TCRs targeting validated antigenic epitopes with well-characterized tumor cell expression and processing, enhancing immune cell effector function, persistence, expansion, trafficking, and memory formation by strategic selection of co-stimulated substrate cells, and novel technologies for gene-engineering [21, 27].
Of note, the variations and adverse effects in cancer immunotherapy reveals the heterogeneity and instability of the current immune cell products, and thus highlight the necessity and urgency of industrialization and standardization for clinical applications [145]. Generally, a cohort of core issues both in fundamental research and clinical practice of cancer immunotherapy need to be improved before large-scale applications [21, 146]. For instance, the screening criteria of healthy tissues for generating immune cell sources, the standardized regents and procedures for cell product preparation, the dose and frequency of cell transplantation, the delivery strategies and targets for engineered cells [147, 148, 149]. Therefore, it is of great importance for the generation of clinical-grade immune cell products based on good manufacturing practice (GMP) and convenient to universally improve life quality of patients with standard supervision. Additionally, multidisciplinary research has also highlighted the feasibility and prospective of nanomaterials (e.g., surface-conjugated nanoparticles, injectable scaffolds) as promising agents for cancer therapy attribute to the rapid progresses of nanobiotechnology and clinical biomedicine [18–20].
Collectively, comprehensive treatment strategies by combining the conventional remedies (eg., laparoscopic rectal surgery, robotic surgery, radiotherapy, chemotherapy, drugs), checkpoint blockade (e.g., PD-1/PD-L1, CTLA-4), vaccines (e.g., mRNAs), biomaterials (e.g., nanoparticles) with the aforementioned cellular immunotherapy will largely benefit the malignancy management and effectively reduce the cytotoxicity [21, 108, 150, 151, 152].
To date, hematological malignancies and metastatic solid tumors have caused a prevalence of over 10 million mortalities annually [3, 4, 5, 6]. Antitumor immunotherapy has served as a promising and alternative strategy for improving the outcomes of tumor patients as well as reducing the concomitant cytotoxicity. Objectively, there’s still a long way to go and a cohort of central issues need to be solved before large-scale application in cancer immunotherapy. Overall, cancer immunotherapy has become a notable and synergistic anti-tumor remedy for a variety of hematopoietic malignancies and locally advanced solid tumors.
The authors would like to thank the members in National Postdoctoral Research Station of Gansu Provincial Hospital, Hefei Institute of Physical Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and Institute of Health-Biotech, Health-Biotech (Tianjin) Stem Cell Research Institute Co., Ltd. for their technical support. We also thank the staff in Beijing Yunwei Biotechnology Development Co., LTD for their language editing service. This study was supported by grants from the project Youth Fund funded by Shandong Provincial Natural Science Foundation (ZR2020QC097), the Non-profit Central Research Institute Fund of Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences (2019PT320005), Science and technology projects of Guizhou Province (QKH-J-ZK [2021]-107), the project Youth Fund funded by Jiangxi Provincial Natural Science Foundation (S2021QNJJL0277), Jiangxi Provincial Key New Product Incubation Program from Technical Innovation Guidance Program of Shangrao city (2020G002, 2020 K003), Natural Science Foundation of Tianjin (19JCQNJC12500), Jiangxi Provincial Novel Research and Development Institutions of Shangrao City (2020AB002, 2021F013).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Not applicable.
chimeric antigen receptor-transduced T cells chimeric antigen receptor-transduced NK cells chimeric antigen receptor-transduced macrophage T cell receptor-transduced T cells lymphokine-activated killer cells tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes cytokine-Induced Killer cells natural killer T hepatocellular carcinoma myeloid-derived suppressor cells antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity innate lymphoid cells graft-versus-host disease hematopoietic stem cells cytokine release syndrome cancer stem cells antigen-presenting cells small cell lung cancer non-small cell lung cancer damage-associated molecular patterns macrophages nitric oxide cytolytic T lymphocyte non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma immune cell- associated neurotoxicity syndrome induced pluripotent stem cells matrix metalloproteinase extracellular matrix chronic myelogenous leukemia acute lymphoblastic leukemia transcription activator-like effector nuclease leukemic hematopoietic microenvironment
Our business values are based on those any scientist applies to their research. The values of our business are based on the same ones that all good scientists apply to their research. We have created a culture of respect and collaboration within a relaxed, friendly, and progressive atmosphere, while maintaining academic rigour.
\n\nPlease check out our job board for open positions.
',metaTitle:"Careers at IntechOpen",metaDescription:"Employee quote to be added",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/careers-at-intechopen",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Integrity - We are consistent and dependable, always striving for precision and accuracy in the true spirit of science.
\\n\\nOpenness - We communicate honestly and transparently. We are open to constructive criticism and committed to learning from it.
\\n\\nDisruptiveness - We are eager for discovery, for new ideas and for progression. We approach our work with creativity and determination, with a clear vision that drives us forward. We look beyond today and strive for a better tomorrow.
\\n\\nIntechOpen is a dynamic, vibrant company, where exceptional people are achieving great things. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, and passionate environment but never lose sight of the fact that science and discovery is exciting and rewarding. We constantly strive to ensure that members of our community can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow their own career and develop their own experiences.
\\n\\nIf this sounds like a place that you would like to work, whether you are at the beginning of your career or are an experienced professional, we invite you to drop us a line and tell us why you could be the right person for IntechOpen.
\\n\\n\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"
Integrity - We are consistent and dependable, always striving for precision and accuracy in the true spirit of science.
\n\nOpenness - We communicate honestly and transparently. We are open to constructive criticism and committed to learning from it.
\n\nDisruptiveness - We are eager for discovery, for new ideas and for progression. We approach our work with creativity and determination, with a clear vision that drives us forward. We look beyond today and strive for a better tomorrow.
\n\nIntechOpen is a dynamic, vibrant company, where exceptional people are achieving great things. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, and passionate environment but never lose sight of the fact that science and discovery is exciting and rewarding. We constantly strive to ensure that members of our community can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow their own career and develop their own experiences.
\n\nIf this sounds like a place that you would like to work, whether you are at the beginning of your career or are an experienced professional, we invite you to drop us a line and tell us why you could be the right person for IntechOpen.
\n\n\n"}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{},profiles:[{id:"396",title:"Dr.",name:"Vedran",middleName:null,surname:"Kordic",slug:"vedran-kordic",fullName:"Vedran Kordic",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/396/images/7281_n.png",biography:"After obtaining his Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering he continued his education at the Vienna University of Technology where he obtained his PhD degree in 2004. He worked as a researcher at the Automation and Control Institute, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Vienna University of Technology until 2008. His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. In the Engineering side, Digital Signal Processing, Computer Architecture, Electronics Devices, Digital Filtering and Engineering Management.\nApart from his Academic Interest and activities he loves sport especially, Cricket, Football, Snooker and Squash. He plays cricket for Esbjerg city in the second division team as an opener wicket keeper batsman. He is a very good player of squash but has not played squash since his arrival in Denmark.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"611",title:"Prof.",name:"T",middleName:null,surname:"Nagarajan",slug:"t-nagarajan",fullName:"T Nagarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi Petronas",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:6654},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5945},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:2452},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:12681},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:1014},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:17701}],offset:12,limit:12,total:133951},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish"},books:[{type:"book",id:"11369",title:"RNA Viruses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"52f8a3a1486912beae40b34ac557fed3",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Yogendra Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11369.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11027",title:"Basics of Hypoglycemia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"98ebc1e36d02be82c204b8fd5d24f97a",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Alok Raghav",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11027.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"334465",title:"Dr.",name:"Alok",surname:"Raghav",slug:"alok-raghav",fullName:"Alok Raghav"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11124",title:"Next-Generation Textiles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"093f9e26bb829b8d414d13626aea1086",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Hassan Ibrahim",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11124.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"90645",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"hassan-ibrahim",fullName:"Hassan Ibrahim"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11610",title:"New Insights in Herbicide Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"eb3830b8176caf3d1fd52c32313c5168",slug:null,bookSignature:"Ph.D. Kassio Ferreira Mendes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11610.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"197720",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassio",surname:"Ferreira Mendes",slug:"kassio-ferreira-mendes",fullName:"Kassio Ferreira Mendes"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11561",title:"Zeolite From Wastes - New Perspectives on Innovative Resources and Their Valorization Process",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"3ed0dfd842de9cd1143212415903e6ad",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Claudia Belviso",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11561.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"61457",title:"Dr.",name:"Claudia",surname:"Belviso",slug:"claudia-belviso",fullName:"Claudia Belviso"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11731",title:"Nephrolithiasis - From Bench to Bedside",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2ea5ea58b6f360fd378153fe35413100",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. M Hammad Ather",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11731.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"88868",title:"Prof.",name:"M Hammad",surname:"Ather",slug:"m-hammad-ather",fullName:"M Hammad Ather"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11491",title:"Current Perspectives on Applied Geomorphology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f9f0fe8910dc02818cad71316650d297",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. António Vieira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11491.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"103627",title:"Prof.",name:"António",surname:"Vieira",slug:"antonio-vieira",fullName:"António Vieira"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11461",title:"Advances in Nanowires Synthesis and Applications to Sensing Technologies \ufeff",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"94ce46811974b75b5efded35f161ea18",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Felix Kutsanedzie, Dr. Annavaram Viswadevarayalu, Dr. Akwasi Akomeah Agyekum and Dr. Isaac Asempah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11461.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"443651",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",surname:"Kutsanedzie",slug:"felix-kutsanedzie",fullName:"Felix Kutsanedzie"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11466",title:"Titanium Alloys - Recent Progress in Design, Processing, Characterization, and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1c89c2e1b5d03b90db5b13d44479baa6",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ram Krishna",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11466.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"296477",title:"Dr.",name:"Ram",surname:"Krishna",slug:"ram-krishna",fullName:"Ram Krishna"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11594",title:"Melanoma - Standard of Care, Challenges, and Updates in Clinical Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"ed8a0af96af7b311ef7f9bbbde152d0f",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sonia Maciá",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11594.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"281982",title:"Dr.",name:"Sonia",surname:"Maciá",slug:"sonia-macia",fullName:"Sonia Maciá"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11709",title:"Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"cc0e61f864a2a8a9595f4975ce301f70",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Shilpa Mehta and Dr. Resmy Palliyil Gopi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11709.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"342545",title:"Dr.",name:"Shilpa",surname:"Mehta",slug:"shilpa-mehta",fullName:"Shilpa Mehta"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11710",title:"Lifestyle-Related Diseases and Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c556d78df6bb93e8e3973ce0a9547ea8",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Naofumi Shiomi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11710.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"163777",title:"Dr.",name:"Naofumi",surname:"Shiomi",slug:"naofumi-shiomi",fullName:"Naofumi Shiomi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:39},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:13},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:23},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:66},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:16},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:26},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:122},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:4}],offset:12,limit:12,total:429},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11012",title:"Radiopharmaceuticals",subtitle:"Current Research for Better Diagnosis and Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f9046d6f96148b285e776f384991120d",slug:"radiopharmaceuticals-current-research-for-better-diagnosis-and-therapy",bookSignature:"Farid A. Badria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11012.jpg",editors:[{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9974",title:"E-Learning and Digital Education in the Twenty-First Century",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88b58d66e975df20425fc1dfd22d53aa",slug:"e-learning-and-digital-education-in-the-twenty-first-century",bookSignature:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9974.jpg",editors:[{id:"94099",title:"Dr.",name:"M. Mahruf C.",middleName:null,surname:"Shohel",slug:"m.-mahruf-c.-shohel",fullName:"M. Mahruf C. Shohel"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:4422},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1677,editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10195",title:"Serotonin and the CNS",subtitle:"New Developments in Pharmacology and Therapeutics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7ed9d96da98233a885bd2869a8056c36",slug:"serotonin-and-the-cns-new-developments-in-pharmacology-and-therapeutics",bookSignature:"Berend Olivier",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10195.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1337,editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",middleName:null,surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:1309,editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:847,editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10901",title:"Grapes and Wine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d7f2aa74874444bc6986e613ccebd7c",slug:"grapes-and-wine",bookSignature:"Antonio Morata, Iris Loira and Carmen González",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10901.jpg",publishedDate:"June 15th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2273,editors:[{id:"180952",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Morata",slug:"antonio-morata",fullName:"Antonio Morata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:591,editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:515,editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:413,editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9537",title:"Human Rights in the Contemporary World",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"54f05b93812fd434f3962956d6413a6b",slug:"human-rights-in-the-contemporary-world",bookSignature:"Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",publishedDate:"June 8th 2022",numberOfDownloads:2194,editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",numberOfDownloads:341,editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10755",title:"Corporate Governance",subtitle:"Recent Advances and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ffe06d1d5c4bf0fc2e63511825fe1257",slug:"corporate-governance-recent-advances-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali and Feyza Bhatti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10755.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"196317",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Okechukwu Lawrence",middleName:null,surname:"Emeagwali",slug:"okechukwu-lawrence-emeagwali",fullName:"Okechukwu Lawrence Emeagwali"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11029",title:"Hepatitis B",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"609701f502efc3538c112ff47a2c2119",slug:"hepatitis-b",bookSignature:"Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11029.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"73208",title:"Prof.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigo",slug:"luis-rodrigo",fullName:"Luis Rodrigo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10774",title:"Model Organisms in Plant Genetics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6624b58571ac10c9b636c5d85ec5e54",slug:"model-organisms-in-plant-genetics",bookSignature:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10774.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"213344",title:"Prof.",name:"Ibrokhim Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Abdurakhmonov",slug:"ibrokhim-y.-abdurakhmonov",fullName:"Ibrokhim Y. Abdurakhmonov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11332",title:"Essential Oils",subtitle:"Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"742e6cae3a35686f975edc8d7f9afa94",slug:"essential-oils-advances-in-extractions-and-biological-applications",bookSignature:"Mozaniel Santana de Oliveira and Eloisa Helena de Aguiar Andrade",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11332.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"195290",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mozaniel",middleName:null,surname:"Santana De Oliveira",slug:"mozaniel-santana-de-oliveira",fullName:"Mozaniel Santana De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11080",title:"Engineering Principles",subtitle:"Welding and Residual Stresses",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6c07a13a113bce94174b40096f30fb5e",slug:"engineering-principles-welding-and-residual-stresses",bookSignature:"Kavian Omar Cooke and Ronaldo Câmara Cozza",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11080.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"138778",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavian",middleName:"Omar",surname:"Cooke",slug:"kavian-cooke",fullName:"Kavian Cooke"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10839",title:"Protein Detection",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2f1c0e4e0207fc45c936e7d22a5369c4",slug:"protein-detection",bookSignature:"Yusuf Tutar and Lütfi Tutar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10839.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10858",title:"MOOC (Massive Open Online Courses)",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d32f86793bc72dde32532f509b1ec5b0",slug:"mooc-massive-open-online-courses-",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10858.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11371",title:"Cerebral Circulation",subtitle:"Updates on Models, Diagnostics and Treatments of Related Diseases",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e2d3335445d2852d0b906bb9750e939f",slug:"cerebral-circulation-updates-on-models-diagnostics-and-treatments-of-related-diseases",bookSignature:"Alba Scerrati, Luca Ricciardi and Flavia Dones",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"182614",title:"Dr.",name:"Alba",middleName:null,surname:"Scerrati",slug:"alba-scerrati",fullName:"Alba Scerrati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11120",title:"Environmental Impact and Remediation of Heavy Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e77514288e7394f1e6cd13481af3509",slug:"environmental-impact-and-remediation-of-heavy-metals",bookSignature:"Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11120.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"144691",title:"Prof.",name:"Hosam M.",middleName:null,surname:"Saleh",slug:"hosam-m.-saleh",fullName:"Hosam M. Saleh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10696",title:"Applications of Calorimetry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c87f7e2199db33b5dd7181f56973a97",slug:"applications-of-calorimetry",bookSignature:"José Luis Rivera Armenta and Cynthia Graciela Flores Hernández",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10696.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"June 23rd 2022",editors:[{id:"107855",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rivera Armenta",slug:"jose-luis-rivera-armenta",fullName:"Jose Luis Rivera Armenta"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science",parent:{id:"1",title:"Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology",slug:"physical-sciences-engineering-and-technology"},numberOfBooks:477,numberOfSeries:1,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:10635,numberOfWosCitations:16372,numberOfCrossrefCitations:11963,numberOfDimensionsCitations:22012,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"9",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"10821",title:"Automation and Control",subtitle:"Theories and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"18463c2291ba306c4dcbabd988227eea",slug:"automation-and-control-theories-and-applications",bookSignature:"Elmer P. Dadios",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10821.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111683",title:"Prof.",name:"Elmer P.",middleName:"P.",surname:"Dadios",slug:"elmer-p.-dadios",fullName:"Elmer P. Dadios"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10522",title:"Coding Theory",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6357e1dd7d38adeb519ca7a10dc9e5a0",slug:"coding-theory-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan and Sudev Naduvath",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10522.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"26327",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudhakar",middleName:null,surname:"Radhakrishnan",slug:"sudhakar-radhakrishnan",fullName:"Sudhakar Radhakrishnan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10400",title:"The Application of Ant Colony Optimization",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f4fdfd07ee1ab99fb7c740d6d0c144c6",slug:"the-application-of-ant-colony-optimization",bookSignature:"Ali Soofastaei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10400.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"257455",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Soofastaei",slug:"ali-soofastaei",fullName:"Ali Soofastaei"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10991",title:"Digital Image Processing Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e7e57bea225c50ab5ac522627afc9d93",slug:"digital-image-processing-applications",bookSignature:"Paulo E. Ambrósio",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10991.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"256064",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo",middleName:"Eduardo",surname:"Ambrosio",slug:"paulo-ambrosio",fullName:"Paulo Ambrosio"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10693",title:"Open Data",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0da9c2560358c1bc738e737aeb28f6a2",slug:"open-data",bookSignature:"Vijayalakshmi Kakulapati",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10693.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"355072",title:"Prof.",name:"Vijayalakshmi",middleName:null,surname:"Kakulapati",slug:"vijayalakshmi-kakulapati",fullName:"Vijayalakshmi Kakulapati"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10961",title:"Computational Statistics and Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1c6b5b7c26b825d27383de72ec2e34f1",slug:"computational-statistics-and-applications",bookSignature:"Ricardo López-Ruiz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10961.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"9849",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"López-Ruiz",slug:"ricardo-lopez-ruiz",fullName:"Ricardo López-Ruiz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10859",title:"Data Mining",subtitle:"Concepts and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"63a4e514e537d3962cf53ef1c6b9d5eb",slug:"data-mining-concepts-and-applications",bookSignature:"Ciza Thomas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10859.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"43680",title:"Prof.",name:"Ciza",middleName:null,surname:"Thomas",slug:"ciza-thomas",fullName:"Ciza Thomas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10857",title:"Augmented Reality and Its Application",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5d66e2c09cddac7cc377ffb103aa7ef9",slug:"augmented-reality-and-its-application",bookSignature:"Dragan Cvetković",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10857.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"101330",title:"Dr.",name:"Dragan",middleName:"Mladen",surname:"Cvetković",slug:"dragan-cvetkovic",fullName:"Dragan Cvetković"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11066",title:"The Monte Carlo Methods",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d1488c96b5b4d4909e963b9a91b1632f",slug:"the-monte-carlo-methods-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",bookSignature:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11066.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"248271",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdo",middleName:null,surname:"Abou Jaoudé",slug:"abdo-abou-jaoude",fullName:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9971",title:"Data Science, Data Visualization, and Digital Twins",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"353b70c06c03295318688a64535d6d85",slug:"data-science-data-visualization-and-digital-twins",bookSignature:"Sara Shirowzhan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9971.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"273838",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Shirowzhan",slug:"sara-shirowzhan",fullName:"Sara Shirowzhan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10271",title:"Software Usability",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c71aff43977a455e7563255a2c104b1",slug:"software-usability",bookSignature:"Laura M. Castro, David Cabrero and Rüdiger Heimgärtner",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10271.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"151757",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura M.",middleName:"M.",surname:"Castro",slug:"laura-m.-castro",fullName:"Laura M. Castro"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"135236",title:"Dr.",name:"Rüdiger",middleName:null,surname:"Heimgärtner",slug:"rudiger-heimgartner",fullName:"Rüdiger Heimgärtner",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/135236/images/system/135236.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rüdiger Heimgärtner is the founder and owner of Intercultural User Interface Consulting (IUIC) and the author of the first German-language book on intercultural user interface design (IUID). He is a foundation member of the International Usability and User Experience Qualification Board (UXQB) and teaches the scheme for certified professionals for UX (CPUX). As an assessor for SPICE and human-centered design (HCD) processes, he promotes the process assessment model (PAM) for HCD processes at the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and coaches how to establish and improve usability engineering processes to support, enhance, and optimize software usability.",institutionString:"IUIC (Intercultural User Interface Consulting)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10402",title:"MATLAB Applications in Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"52f37e72f4007a3248a3658dbaeb1172",slug:"matlab-applications-in-engineering",bookSignature:"Constantin Voloşencu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10402.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:477,seriesByTopicCollection:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],seriesByTopicTotal:1,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"14882",doi:"10.5772/16004",title:"Review of Input Variable Selection Methods for Artificial Neural Networks",slug:"review-of-input-variable-selection-methods-for-artificial-neural-networks",totalDownloads:9362,totalCrossrefCites:134,totalDimensionsCites:259,abstract:null,book:{id:"117",slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",fullTitle:"Artificial Neural Networks - Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications"},signatures:"Robert May, Graeme Dandy and Holger Maier",authors:[{id:"22868",title:"Dr.",name:"Robert",middleName:"James",surname:"May",slug:"robert-may",fullName:"Robert May"},{id:"23014",title:"Dr.",name:"Holger",middleName:null,surname:"Maier",slug:"holger-maier",fullName:"Holger Maier"},{id:"26897",title:"Prof.",name:"Graeme",middleName:null,surname:"Dandy",slug:"graeme-dandy",fullName:"Graeme Dandy"}]},{id:"20889",doi:"10.5772/25097",title:"A Unifying Statistical Model for Atmospheric Optical Scintillation",slug:"a-unifying-statistical-model-for-atmospheric-optical-scintillation",totalDownloads:3693,totalCrossrefCites:150,totalDimensionsCites:200,abstract:null,book:{id:"1362",slug:"numerical-simulations-of-physical-and-engineering-processes",title:"Numerical Simulations of Physical and Engineering Processes",fullTitle:"Numerical Simulations of Physical and Engineering Processes"},signatures:"Antonio Jurado-Navas, José María Garrido-Balsells, José Francisco Paris and Antonio Puerta-Notario",authors:[{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas"},{id:"60012",title:"Dr.",name:"José María",middleName:null,surname:"Garrido-Balsells",slug:"jose-maria-garrido-balsells",fullName:"José María Garrido-Balsells"},{id:"60014",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Puerta-Notario",slug:"antonio-puerta-notario",fullName:"Antonio Puerta-Notario"},{id:"61792",title:"Prof.",name:"José Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Paris",slug:"jose-francisco-paris",fullName:"José Francisco Paris"}]},{id:"5781",doi:"10.5772/6237",title:"A Survey of Shape Feature Extraction Techniques",slug:"a_survey_of_shape_feature_extraction_techniques",totalDownloads:12942,totalCrossrefCites:95,totalDimensionsCites:182,abstract:null,book:{id:"5687",slug:"pattern_recognition_techniques_technology_and_applications",title:"Pattern Recognition",fullTitle:"Pattern Recognition Techniques, Technology and Applications"},signatures:"Yang Mingqiang, Kpalma Kidiyo and Ronsin Joseph",authors:null},{id:"211",doi:"10.5772/4847",title:"Machine Analysis of Facial Expressions",slug:"machine_analysis_of_facial_expressions",totalDownloads:5324,totalCrossrefCites:91,totalDimensionsCites:158,abstract:null,book:{id:"4816",slug:"face_recognition",title:"Face Recognition",fullTitle:"Face Recognition"},signatures:"Maja Pantic and Marian Stewart Bartlett",authors:null},{id:"497",doi:"10.5772/5101",title:"Artificial Bee Colony Algorithm and Its Application to Generalized Assignment Problem",slug:"artificial_bee_colony_algorithm_and_its_application_to_generalized_assignment_problem",totalDownloads:24512,totalCrossrefCites:68,totalDimensionsCites:154,abstract:null,book:{id:"3794",slug:"swarm_intelligence_focus_on_ant_and_particle_swarm_optimization",title:"Swarm Intelligence",fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence, Focus on Ant and Particle Swarm Optimization"},signatures:"Adil Baykasoğlu, Lale Özbakır and Pınar Tapkan",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"68505",title:"Research Design and Methodology",slug:"research-design-and-methodology",totalDownloads:24815,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"There are a number of approaches used in this research method design. The purpose of this chapter is to design the methodology of the research approach through mixed types of research techniques. The research approach also supports the researcher on how to come across the research result findings. In this chapter, the general design of the research and the methods used for data collection are explained in detail. It includes three main parts. The first part gives a highlight about the dissertation design. The second part discusses about qualitative and quantitative data collection methods. The last part illustrates the general research framework. The purpose of this section is to indicate how the research was conducted throughout the study periods.",book:{id:"8511",slug:"cyberspace",title:"Cyberspace",fullTitle:"Cyberspace"},signatures:"Kassu Jilcha Sileyew",authors:[{id:"292841",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kassu",middleName:null,surname:"Jilcha Sileyew",slug:"kassu-jilcha-sileyew",fullName:"Kassu Jilcha Sileyew"}]},{id:"77823",title:"Blockchain and AI Meet in the Metaverse",slug:"blockchain-and-ai-meet-in-the-metaverse",totalDownloads:1549,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:6,abstract:"With new technologies related to the development of computers, graphics, and hardware, the virtual world has become a reality. As COVID-19 spreads around the world, the demand for virtual reality increases, and the industry represented by the Metaverse is developing. In the Metaverse, a virtual world that transcends reality, artificial intelligence and blockchain technology are being combined. This chapter explains how artificial intelligence and blockchain can affect the Metaverse.",book:{id:"10394",slug:"advances-in-the-convergence-of-blockchain-and-artificial-intelligence",title:"Advances in the Convergence of Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence",fullTitle:"Advances in the Convergence of Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence"},signatures:"Hyun-joo Jeon, Ho-chang Youn, Sang-mi Ko and Tae-heon Kim",authors:[{id:"342782",title:"M.A.",name:"Hyun-joo",middleName:null,surname:"Jeon",slug:"hyun-joo-jeon",fullName:"Hyun-joo Jeon"},{id:"343117",title:"BSc.",name:"Ho-chang",middleName:null,surname:"Youn",slug:"ho-chang-youn",fullName:"Ho-chang Youn"},{id:"425798",title:"Dr.",name:"Sang-mi",middleName:null,surname:"Ko",slug:"sang-mi-ko",fullName:"Sang-mi Ko"},{id:"425799",title:"Dr.",name:"Tae-heon",middleName:null,surname:"Kim",slug:"tae-heon-kim",fullName:"Tae-heon Kim"}]},{id:"65993",title:"Automatic Speech Emotion Recognition Using Machine Learning",slug:"automatic-speech-emotion-recognition-using-machine-learning",totalDownloads:4634,totalCrossrefCites:21,totalDimensionsCites:42,abstract:"This chapter presents a comparative study of speech emotion recognition (SER) systems. Theoretical definition, categorization of affective state and the modalities of emotion expression are presented. To achieve this study, an SER system, based on different classifiers and different methods for features extraction, is developed. Mel-frequency cepstrum coefficients (MFCC) and modulation spectral (MS) features are extracted from the speech signals and used to train different classifiers. Feature selection (FS) was applied in order to seek for the most relevant feature subset. Several machine learning paradigms were used for the emotion classification task. A recurrent neural network (RNN) classifier is used first to classify seven emotions. Their performances are compared later to multivariate linear regression (MLR) and support vector machines (SVM) techniques, which are widely used in the field of emotion recognition for spoken audio signals. Berlin and Spanish databases are used as the experimental data set. This study shows that for Berlin database all classifiers achieve an accuracy of 83% when a speaker normalization (SN) and a feature selection are applied to the features. For Spanish database, the best accuracy (94 %) is achieved by RNN classifier without SN and with FS.",book:{id:"8141",slug:"social-media-and-machine-learning",title:"Social Media and Machine Learning",fullTitle:"Social Media and Machine Learning"},signatures:"Leila Kerkeni, Youssef Serrestou, Mohamed Mbarki, Kosai Raoof, Mohamed Ali Mahjoub and Catherine Cleder",authors:[{id:"247090",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Kerkeni",slug:"leila-kerkeni",fullName:"Leila Kerkeni"}]},{id:"63164",title:"Introduction to Kalman Filter and Its Applications",slug:"introduction-to-kalman-filter-and-its-applications",totalDownloads:10954,totalCrossrefCites:25,totalDimensionsCites:64,abstract:"We provide a tutorial-like description of Kalman filter and extended Kalman filter. This chapter aims for those who need to teach Kalman filters to others, or for those who do not have a strong background in estimation theory. Following a problem definition of state estimation, filtering algorithms will be presented with supporting examples to help readers easily grasp how the Kalman filters work. Implementations on INS/GNSS navigation, target tracking, and terrain-referenced navigation (TRN) are given. In each example, we discuss how to choose, implement, tune, and modify the algorithms for real world practices. Source codes for implementing the examples are also provided. In conclusion, this chapter will become a prerequisite for other contents in the book.",book:{id:"7466",slug:"introduction-and-implementations-of-the-kalman-filter",title:"Introduction and Implementations of the Kalman Filter",fullTitle:"Introduction and Implementations of the Kalman Filter"},signatures:"Youngjoo Kim and Hyochoong Bang",authors:null},{id:"53334",title:"Cloud Computing for Next-Generation Sequencing Data Analysis",slug:"cloud-computing-for-next-generation-sequencing-data-analysis",totalDownloads:4379,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"High-throughput next-generation sequencing (NGS) technologies have evolved rapidly and are reshaping the scope of genomics research. The substantial decrease in the cost of NGS techniques in the past decade has led to its rapid adoption in biological research and drug development. Genomics studies of large populations are producing a huge amount of data, giving rise to computational issues around the storage, transfer, and analysis of the data. Fortunately, cloud computing has recently emerged as a viable option to quickly and easily acquire the computational resources for large-scale NGS data analyses. Some cloud-based applications and resources have been developed specifically to address the computational challenges of working with very large volumes of data generated by NGS technology. In this chapter, we will review some cloud-based systems and solutions for NGS data analysis, discuss the practical hurdles and limitations in cloud computing, including data transfer and security, and share the lessons we learned from the implementation of Rainbow, a cloud-based tool for large-scale genome sequencing data analysis.",book:{id:"5416",slug:"cloud-computing-architecture-and-applications",title:"Cloud Computing",fullTitle:"Cloud Computing - Architecture and Applications"},signatures:"Shanrong Zhao, Kirk Watrous, Chi Zhang and Baohong Zhang",authors:[{id:"176364",title:"Dr.",name:"Shanrong",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",slug:"shanrong-zhao",fullName:"Shanrong Zhao"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"9",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82351",title:"Building an Online Ecosystem for English Teaching and Learning in the Times of Covid-19 Pandemic and Beyond",slug:"building-an-online-ecosystem-for-english-teaching-and-learning-in-the-times-of-covid-19-pandemic-and",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105651",abstract:"Online education is a revolutionary trend of educational technology today, particularly, since the Covid-19 pandemic, online classes have become the cornerstone of modern education. The rapid growth of online learning is challenging the relevance of traditional higher education systems. Although many efforts from educational institutions to promote online teaching and learning have rapidly increased, progress is far from sufficient, especially when a model of an online learning system needs further examination in practice after the pandemic. This chapter reports a case study at the center of foreign languages in Vietnam, addressing the need to develop an online learning ecosystem during the pandemic crisis and beyond. Characteristics of an online learning ecosystem are presented and basic steps of developing an online ecosystem for English teaching and learning are discussed in detail. The suggested ecosystem should cover the five key components including teaching environment, relationships between teachers and learners and between learners and learners, teaching methods, teaching content and resources, and teaching evaluation. Several recommendations for strengthening an online learning ecosystem are also presented.",book:{id:"11914",title:"E-service Digital Innovation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11914.jpg"},signatures:"Nguyen Quoc Hung Luu"},{id:"82313",title:"Perspective Chapter: Data as Currency - On the Impact of ICTs & Data on the Saudi Economy & Industrial Sector",slug:"perspective-chapter-data-as-currency-on-the-impact-of-icts-data-on-the-saudi-economy-industrial-sect",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103962",abstract:"In delineating successful digital application models in Saudi Arabia, this chapter explores the country’s digital readiness to further expound its industrial strategic goals. We argue that a gap exists between the availability of data and technology and the availability of human capabilities that can facilitate the meaningful processing of industrial data. Data deluge brings substantial challenges in the collection and management of massive amounts of unstructured data towards decision making. Likewise, unprecedented production of information exceeds the ability of authoritative bodies to create regulations and policies that can keep up with these transformations in the nature of work. We explicate the impact of well-timed policies (fiscal and monetary), prediction of long-term structural changes in the industrial sector, industrial strategy formulation practices, and examine the economic studies and analysis of sustainable development in these areas.",book:{id:"11198",title:"Digital Transformation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11198.jpg"},signatures:"Kinda R. Dahlan, Ahmed A. Badawi and Ali Megahed"},{id:"82302",title:"Collaborative XR Systems and Computer Games Development",slug:"collaborative-xr-systems-and-computer-games-development",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105555",abstract:"Computer games and, of course, the development associated with them have been in the spotlight for many years; recently, also with technologies, such as virtual reality or extended reality. The main part of this chapter presents the classification of collaborative XR systems, the concept of the major application architectures and the consistency models of shared virtual game environments. The next subchapter briefly deals with the sharing of property ownership. The mentioned concepts and examples used in the chapter are implemented in many works and projects using a collaborative environment (also in gamified form) developed in the laboratory LIRKIS, the home laboratory of the authors. The knowledge presented in this chapter may provide tips and inspiration for some other game projects, and practical and useful notes on the advantages or disadvantages of some systems will be interesting and useful.",book:{id:"11192",title:"Computer Game Development",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11192.jpg"},signatures:"Branislav Sobota, Marián Hudák and Emília Pietriková"},{id:"82300",title:"An Effective Method for Secure Data Delivery in IoT",slug:"an-effective-method-for-secure-data-delivery-in-iot",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104663",abstract:"The Internet of Things (IoT) has become very popular recently due to its important features that contribute to many aspects of our lives such as health and transportation. It consists of a vast number of different projects such as sensors, tags, actuators, and mobile devices, which can communicate and collaborate without human interactions. These devices carry small memory and low-energy battery, which affects their performance and lead to many issues. In this work, we are going to focus on the efficiency and security issues. We will propose a secure and efficient routing protocol for data delivery in order to improve its performance. The proposed technique will be evaluated in an implemented platform with appropriate case study. The expected outcome of this study will be a reference design and its practical implementation to support efficiency and security in IoT.",book:{id:"11197",title:"Internet of Things - New Trends, Challenges and Hurdles",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11197.jpg"},signatures:"Mnar Alnaghes, Nickolas Falkner and Hong Shen"},{id:"82267",title:"Methods for Speech Signal Structuring and Extracting Features",slug:"methods-for-speech-signal-structuring-and-extracting-features",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104634",abstract:"The preliminary stage of the biometric identification is speech signal structuring and extracting features. For calculation of the fundamental tone are considered and in number investigated the following methods – autocorrelation function (ACF) method, average magnitude difference function (AMDF) method, simplified inverse filter transformation (SIFT) method, method on a basis a wavelet analysis, method based on the cepstral analysis, harmonic product spectrum (HPS) method. For speech signal extracting features are considered and in number investigated the following methods – the digital bandpass filters bank; spectral analysis; homomorphic processing; linear predictive coding. This methods make it possible to extract linear prediction coefficients (LPC), reflection coefficients (RC), linear prediction cepstral coefficients (LPCC), log area ratio (LAR) coefficients, mel-frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCC), barkfrequency cepstral coefficients (BFCC), perceptual linear prediction coefficients (PLPC), perceptual reflection coefficients (PRC), perceptual linear prediction cepstral coefficients (PLPCC), perceptual log area ratio (PLAR) coefficients, reconsidered perceptual linear prediction coefficients (RPLPC), reconsidered perceptual reflection coefficients (RPRC), reconsidered perceptual linear prediction cepstral coefficients (RPLPCC), reconsidered perceptual log area ratio (RPLAR) coefficients. The largest probability of identification (equal 0.98) and the smallest number of coefficients (4 coefficients) are provided by coding of a vocal of the speech sound from the TIMIT based on PRC.",book:{id:"10992",title:"Speech Recognition - New Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10992.jpg"},signatures:"Eugene Fedorov, Tetyana Utkina and Tetiana Neskorodieva"},{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:6,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",abstract:"Face recognition across aging emerges as a significant area among researchers due to its applications such as law enforcement, security. However, matching human faces with different age gaps is still bottleneck due to face appearance variations caused by aging process. In regard to mitigate such inconsistency, this chapter offers five sequential processes that are Image Quality Evaluation (IQE), Preprocessing, Pose Normalization, Feature Extraction and Fusion, and Feature Recognition and Retrieval. Primarily, our method performs IQE process in order to evaluate the quality of image and thus increases the performance of our Age Invariant Face Recognition (AIFR). In preprocessing, we carried out two processes that are Illumination Normalization and Noise Removal that have resulted in high accuracy in face recognition. Feature extraction adopts two descriptors such as Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) and Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature (SIHKS). CNN extracts texture feature, and SIHKS extracts shape and demographic features. These features plays vital role in improving accuracy of AIFR and retrieval. Feature fusion is established using Canonical Correlation Analysis (CCA) algorithm. Our work utilizes Support Vector Machine (SVM) to recognize and retrieve images. We implement these processes in FG-NET database using MATLAB2017b tool. At last, we validate performance of our work using seven performance metrics that are Accuracy, Recall, Rank-1 Score, Precision, F-Score, Recognition rate and computation time.",book:{id:"11442",title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg"},signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:101},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:31,numberOfPublishedChapters:314,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:18,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:14,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"10",title:"Physiology",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",issn:"2631-8261",scope:"Modern physiology requires a comprehensive understanding of the integration of tissues and organs throughout the mammalian body, including the cooperation between structure and function at the cellular and molecular levels governed by gene and protein expression. While a daunting task, learning is facilitated by identifying common and effective signaling pathways mediated by a variety of factors employed by nature to preserve and sustain homeostatic life. \r\nAs a leading example, the cellular interaction between intracellular concentration of Ca+2 increases, and changes in plasma membrane potential is integral for coordinating blood flow, governing the exocytosis of neurotransmitters, and modulating gene expression and cell effector secretory functions. Furthermore, in this manner, understanding the systemic interaction between the cardiovascular and nervous systems has become more important than ever as human populations' life prolongation, aging and mechanisms of cellular oxidative signaling are utilised for sustaining life. \r\nAltogether, physiological research enables our identification of distinct and precise points of transition from health to the development of multimorbidity throughout the inevitable aging disorders (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, chronic kidney disease, heart failure, peptic ulcer, inflammatory bowel disease, age-related macular degeneration, cancer). With consideration of all organ systems (e.g., brain, heart, lung, gut, skeletal and smooth muscle, liver, pancreas, kidney, eye) and the interactions thereof, this Physiology Series will address the goals of resolving (1) Aging physiology and chronic disease progression (2) Examination of key cellular pathways as they relate to calcium, oxidative stress, and electrical signaling, and (3) how changes in plasma membrane produced by lipid peroxidation products can affect aging physiology, covering new research in the area of cell, human, plant and animal physiology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/10.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 20th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"35854",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz",middleName:null,surname:"Brzozowski",slug:"tomasz-brzozowski",fullName:"Tomasz Brzozowski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35854/images/system/35854.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Thomas Brzozowski works as a professor of Human Physiology and is currently Chairman at the Department of Physiology and is V-Dean of the Medical Faculty at Jagiellonian University Medical College, Cracow, Poland. His primary area of interest is physiology and pathophysiology of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, with the major focus on the mechanism of GI mucosal defense, protection, and ulcer healing. He was a postdoctoral NIH fellow at the University of California and the Gastroenterology VA Medical Center, Irvine, Long Beach, CA, USA, and at the Gastroenterology Clinics Erlangen-Nuremberg and Munster in Germany. He has published 290 original articles in some of the most prestigious scientific journals and seven book chapters on the pathophysiology of the GI tract, gastroprotection, ulcer healing, drug therapy of peptic ulcers, hormonal regulation of the gut, and inflammatory bowel disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jagiellonian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",slug:"felix-bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"188881",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando José",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Narváez",slug:"fernando-jose-andrade-narvaez",fullName:"Fernando José Andrade-Narváez",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRIV7QAO/Profile_Picture_1628834308121",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Yucatán",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"269120",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:"K.",surname:"Tyagi",slug:"rajeev-tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRaBqQAK/Profile_Picture_1644331884726",institutionString:"CSIR - Institute of Microbial Technology, India",institution:null},{id:"336849",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Izurieta",slug:"ricardo-izurieta",fullName:"Ricardo Izurieta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/293169/images/system/293169.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Florida",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"188219",title:"Prof.",name:"Imran",middleName:null,surname:"Shahid",slug:"imran-shahid",fullName:"Imran Shahid",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188219/images/system/188219.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Umm al-Qura University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"214235",title:"Dr.",name:"Lynn",middleName:"S.",surname:"Zijenah",slug:"lynn-zijenah",fullName:"Lynn Zijenah",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSEJGQA4/Profile_Picture_1636699126852",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zimbabwe",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"178641",title:"Dr.",name:"Samuel Ikwaras",middleName:null,surname:"Okware",slug:"samuel-ikwaras-okware",fullName:"Samuel Ikwaras Okware",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178641/images/system/178641.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Uganda Christian University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}}]}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. Kleczyk, Karin Hayes and Rajesh Mehta",slug:"evaluating-similarities-and-differences-between-machine-learning-and-traditional-statistical-modelin",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11422.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:24,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79345",title:"Application of Jump Diffusion Models in Insurance Claim Estimation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99853",signatures:"Leonard Mushunje, Chiedza Elvina Mashiri, Edina Chandiwana and Maxwell Mashasha",slug:"application-of-jump-diffusion-models-in-insurance-claim-estimation-1",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7723",title:"Artificial Intelligence",subtitle:"Applications in Medicine and Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7723.jpg",slug:"artificial-intelligence-applications-in-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 31st 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"a3852659e727f95c98c740ed98146011",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Artificial Intelligence - Applications in Medicine and Biology",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"7656",title:"Fuzzy Logic",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7656.jpg",slug:"fuzzy-logic",publishedDate:"February 5th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Constantin Volosencu",hash:"54f092d4ffe0abf5e4172a80025019bc",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Fuzzy Logic",editors:[{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institution:{name:"Polytechnic University of Timişoara",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"9963",title:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9963.jpg",slug:"advances-and-applications-in-deep-learning",publishedDate:"December 9th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"0d51ba46f22e55cb89140f60d86a071e",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Advances and Applications in Deep Learning",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}]},openForSubmissionBooks:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"11446",title:"Industry 4.0 - Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11446.jpg",hash:"be984f45b90c1003798661ef885d8a34",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"May 12th 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"303193",title:"Dr.",name:"Meisam",surname:"Gordan",slug:"meisam-gordan",fullName:"Meisam Gordan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11448",title:"Artificial Neural Networks - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11448.jpg",hash:"e57ff97a39cfc6fe68a1ac62b503dbe9",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,submissionDeadline:"June 3rd 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"22866",title:"Dr.",name:"Chi Leung Patrick",surname:"Hui",slug:"chi-leung-patrick-hui",fullName:"Chi Leung Patrick Hui"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{id:"11447",title:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances and Current Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11447.jpg",hash:"f68e3c3430a74fc7a7eb97f6ea2bb42e",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,submissionDeadline:"July 22nd 2022",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. Kleczyk, Karin Hayes and Rajesh Mehta",slug:"evaluating-similarities-and-differences-between-machine-learning-and-traditional-statistical-modelin",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11422.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:23,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79345",title:"Application of Jump Diffusion Models in Insurance Claim Estimation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99853",signatures:"Leonard Mushunje, Chiedza Elvina Mashiri, Edina Chandiwana and Maxwell Mashasha",slug:"application-of-jump-diffusion-models-in-insurance-claim-estimation-1",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81557",title:"Object Tracking Using Adapted Optical Flow",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102863",signatures:"Ronaldo Ferreira, Joaquim José de Castro Ferreira and António José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"object-tracking-using-adapted-optical-flow",totalDownloads:15,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81558",title:"Thresholding Image Techniques for Plant Segmentation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104587",signatures:"Miguel Ángel Castillo-Martínez, Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes, Blanca E. Carvajal-Gámez, Guillermo Urriolagoitia-Sosa and Alberto J. Rosales-Silva",slug:"thresholding-image-techniques-for-plant-segmentation",totalDownloads:20,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81471",title:"Semantic Map: Bringing Together Groups and Discourses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103818",signatures:"Theodore Chadjipadelis and Georgia Panagiotidou",slug:"semantic-map-bringing-together-groups-and-discourses",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"79491",title:"Fuzzy Perceptron Learning for Non-Linearly Separable Patterns",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101312",signatures:"Raja Kishor Duggirala",slug:"fuzzy-perceptron-learning-for-non-linearly-separable-patterns",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Raja Kishor",surname:"Duggirala"}],book:{title:"Data Clustering",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10820.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81234",title:"Cognitive Visual Tracking of Hand Gestures in Real-Time RGB Videos",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103170",signatures:"Richa Golash and Yogendra Kumar Jain",slug:"cognitive-visual-tracking-of-hand-gestures-in-real-time-rgb-videos",totalDownloads:38,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Information Extraction and Object Tracking in Digital Video",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",subseries:{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision"}}},{id:"81331",title:"Machine Learning Algorithm-Based Contraceptive Practice among Ever-Married Women in Bangladesh: A Hierarchical Machine Learning Classification Approach",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103187",signatures:"Iqramul Haq, Md. Ismail Hossain, Md. Moshiur Rahman, Md. Injamul Haq Methun, Ashis Talukder, Md. Jakaria Habib and Md. Sanwar Hossain",slug:"machine-learning-algorithm-based-contraceptive-practice-among-ever-married-women-in-bangladesh-a-hie",totalDownloads:20,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11422.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}}]},subseriesFiltersForOFChapters:[{caption:"Applied Intelligence",value:22,count:1,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Computer Vision",value:24,count:8,group:"subseries"},{caption:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",value:26,count:10,group:"subseries"}],publishedBooks:{paginationCount:11,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"10795",title:"Plant Stress Physiology",subtitle:"Perspectives in Agriculture",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10795.jpg",slug:"plant-stress-physiology-perspectives-in-agriculture",publishedDate:"April 28th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman and Kamran Nahar",hash:"c5a7932b74fe612b256bf95d0709756e",volumeInSeries:11,fullTitle:"Plant Stress Physiology - Perspectives in Agriculture",editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7999",title:"Free Radical Medicine and Biology",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7999.jpg",slug:"free-radical-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 15th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Kusal Das, Swastika Das, Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar, Varaprasad Bobbarala and S. Subba Tata",hash:"083e5d427097d368a3f8a02bd6c76bf8",volumeInSeries:10,fullTitle:"Free Radical Medicine and Biology",editors:[{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8762",title:"Melatonin",subtitle:"The Hormone of Darkness and its Therapeutic Potential and Perspectives",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8762.jpg",slug:"melatonin-the-hormone-of-darkness-and-its-therapeutic-potential-and-perspectives",publishedDate:"June 24th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marilena Vlachou",hash:"bfbc5538173f11acb0f9549a85b70489",volumeInSeries:9,fullTitle:"Melatonin - The Hormone of Darkness and its Therapeutic Potential and Perspectives",editors:[{id:"246279",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Marilena",middleName:null,surname:"Vlachou",slug:"marilena-vlachou",fullName:"Marilena Vlachou",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246279/images/system/246279.jpg",institutionString:"National and Kapodistrian University of Athens",institution:{name:"National and Kapodistrian University of Athens",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8002",title:"Tumor Progression and Metastasis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8002.jpg",slug:"tumor-progression-and-metastasis",publishedDate:"April 8th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Ahmed Lasfar and Karine Cohen-Solal",hash:"db17b0fe0a9b6e80ff02b81a93bafa4e",volumeInSeries:8,fullTitle:"Tumor Progression and Metastasis",editors:[{id:"32546",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Lasfar",slug:"ahmed-lasfar",fullName:"Ahmed Lasfar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32546/images/system/32546.png",institutionString:"Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey",institution:{name:"Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6897",title:"Biophysical Chemistry",subtitle:"Advance Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6897.jpg",slug:"biophysical-chemistry-advance-applications",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mohammed A. A. Khalid",hash:"0ad18ab382e2ffb9ff202d15282297eb",volumeInSeries:7,fullTitle:"Biophysical Chemistry - Advance Applications",editors:[{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8430",title:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disorder",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8430.jpg",slug:"neurodevelopment-and-neurodevelopmental-disorder",publishedDate:"November 27th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Michael Fitzgerald",hash:"696c96d038de473216e48b199613c111",volumeInSeries:6,fullTitle:"Neurodevelopment and Neurodevelopmental Disorder",editors:[{id:"205005",title:"Dr.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Fitzgerald",slug:"michael-fitzgerald",fullName:"Michael Fitzgerald",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/205005/images/system/205005.jpg",institutionString:"Independant Researcher",institution:{name:"Trinity College Dublin",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Ireland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8008",title:"Antioxidants",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8008.jpg",slug:"antioxidants",publishedDate:"November 6th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Emad Shalaby",hash:"76361b4061e830906267933c1c670027",volumeInSeries:5,fullTitle:"Antioxidants",editors:[{id:"63600",title:"Prof.",name:"Emad",middleName:null,surname:"Shalaby",slug:"emad-shalaby",fullName:"Emad Shalaby",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63600/images/system/63600.png",institutionString:"Cairo University",institution:{name:"Cairo University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"8797",title:"Adipose Tissue",subtitle:"An Update",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8797.jpg",slug:"adipose-tissue-an-update",publishedDate:"November 6th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leszek Szablewski",hash:"34880b7b450ef96fa5063c867c028b02",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Adipose Tissue - An Update",editors:[{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6924",title:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6924.jpg",slug:"adenosine-triphosphate-in-health-and-disease",publishedDate:"April 24th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Gyula Mozsik",hash:"04106c232a3c68fec07ba7cf00d2522d",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Adenosine Triphosphate in Health and Disease",editors:[{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"6925",title:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6925.jpg",slug:"endoplasmic-reticulum",publishedDate:"April 17th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Angel Català",hash:"a9e90d2dbdbc46128dfe7dac9f87c6b4",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Endoplasmic Reticulum",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Argentina"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"7264",title:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7264.jpg",slug:"calcium-and-signal-transduction",publishedDate:"October 24th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"John N. Buchholz and Erik J. Behringer",hash:"e373a3d1123dbd45fddf75d90e3e7c38",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Calcium and Signal Transduction",editors:[{id:"89438",title:"Dr.",name:"John N.",middleName:null,surname:"Buchholz",slug:"john-n.-buchholz",fullName:"John N. Buchholz",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89438/images/6463_n.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Loma Linda University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Plant Physiology",value:13,count:1},{group:"subseries",caption:"Human Physiology",value:12,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Cell Physiology",value:11,count:8}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:1},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:5},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:25,paginationItems:[{id:"429683",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilal",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"bilal-khalid",fullName:"Bilal Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/429683/images/system/429683.png",biography:"Dr. Bilal Khalid received a Ph.D. in Industrial Business Administration from KMITL Business School, Bangkok, in 2021, and a master’s in International Business Management from Stamford International University, Bangkok, in 2017. Dr. Khalid\\'s research interests include leadership and negotiations, digital transformations, gamification, eLearning, blockchain, Big Data, and management of information technology. Dr. Bilal Khalid also serves as an academic editor at Education Research International and a reviewer for international journals.",institutionString:"KMITL Business School",institution:{name:"King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang",country:{name:"Thailand"}}},{id:"418514",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Mohiuddin",slug:"muhammad-mohiuddin",fullName:"Muhammad Mohiuddin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038UqSfQAK/Profile_Picture_2022-05-13T10:39:03.jpg",biography:"Dr. Muhammad Mohiuddin is an Associate Professor of International Business at Laval University, Canada. He has taught at Thompson Rivers University, Canada; University of Paris-Est, France; Osnabruck University of Applied Science, Germany; and Shanghai Institute of Technology and Tianjin University of Technology, China. He has published research in Research Policy, Applied Economics, Review of Economic Philosophy, Strategic Change, International Journal of Logistics, Sustainability, Journal of Environmental Management, Journal of Global Information Management, Journal of Cleaner Production, M@N@GEMENT, and more. He is a member of CEDIMES Institut (France), Academy of International Business (AIB), Strategic Management Society (SMS), Academy of Management (AOM), Administrative Science Association of Canada (ASAC), and Canadian council of small business and entrepreneurship (CCSBE). He is currently the director of the Research Group on Contemporary Asia (GERAC) at Laval University. He is also co-managing editor of Transnational Corporations Review and a guest editor for Electronic Commerce Research and Journal of Internet Technology.",institutionString:"Université Laval",institution:{name:"Université Laval",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"189147",title:"Dr.",name:"Hailan",middleName:null,surname:"Salamun",slug:"hailan-salamun",fullName:"Hailan Salamun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/189147/images/19274_n.jpeg",biography:"Hailan Salamun, (Dr.) was born in Selangor, Malaysia and graduated from Tunku Ampuan Jamaah Religious High School at Shah Alam. Obtained a degree from the International Islamic University (UIA), Gombak in the field of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Heritage. Next, I furthered my studies to the professional level to obtain a Diploma in Education at UIA. After serving for several years in school, I furthered my studies to the Master of Dakwah and Leadership at Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), Bangi. I graduated with a Doctor of Philosophy in Principalship Leadership from the University of Malaya (UM) in 2010. I am currently a senior lecturer in the Department of Nationalism and Civilization, Center for Basic and Continuing Education, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu. Prior to that, I had served in several educational institutions such as schools, the Institute of Teacher Education (IPG), and also the University of Malaya. I am also actively involved in paper presentation, writing and publishing. My research interests are focused on leadership, education, society and Islamic civilization. This area of research requires a detailed understanding of Islamic studies and research studies in leadership. Another research interest that I have explored recently is the politics of the Malay community and also the leadership of the mosque.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"442081",title:"Dr.",name:"Audrey",middleName:null,surname:"Addy",slug:"audrey-addy",fullName:"Audrey Addy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"437993",title:"Mr.",name:"Job",middleName:null,surname:"Jackson",slug:"job-jackson",fullName:"Job Jackson",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Management College of Southern Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"428495",title:"Prof.",name:"Asyraf",middleName:null,surname:"Ab Rahman",slug:"asyraf-ab-rahman",fullName:"Asyraf Ab Rahman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"429650",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacqueline",middleName:null,surname:"Kareem",slug:"jacqueline-kareem",fullName:"Jacqueline Kareem",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Christ University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"421041",title:"Dr.",name:"Sunil",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar Ramdas",slug:"sunil-kumar-ramdas",fullName:"Sunil Kumar Ramdas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jain University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"421833",title:"Mr.",name:"Eugene",middleName:null,surname:"Owusu-Acheampong",slug:"eugene-owusu-acheampong",fullName:"Eugene Owusu-Acheampong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"239876",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Luciana",middleName:null,surname:"Mourão",slug:"luciana-mourao",fullName:"Luciana Mourão",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Salgado de Oliveira",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"421735",title:"Dr.",name:"elizabeth",middleName:null,surname:"addy",slug:"elizabeth-addy",fullName:"elizabeth addy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442083",title:"Dr.",name:"James",middleName:null,surname:"Addy",slug:"james-addy",fullName:"James Addy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"437991",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Hoque",slug:"muhammad-hoque",fullName:"Muhammad Hoque",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421006",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Uster",slug:"anna-uster",fullName:"Anna Uster",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"470243",title:"Dr.",name:"Md Samim",middleName:null,surname:"Al Azad",slug:"md-samim-al-azad",fullName:"Md Samim Al Azad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"470244",title:"Dr.",name:"Slimane",middleName:null,surname:"Ed-dafali",slug:"slimane-ed-dafali",fullName:"Slimane Ed-dafali",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421011",title:"Dr.",name:"Afatakpa",middleName:null,surname:"Fortune",slug:"afatakpa-fortune",fullName:"Afatakpa Fortune",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"446057",title:"Mr.",name:"Okedare",middleName:null,surname:"David Olubukunmi",slug:"okedare-david-olubukunmi",fullName:"Okedare David Olubukunmi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421778",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatimah",middleName:"Saeed",surname:"AlAhmari",slug:"fatimah-alahmari",fullName:"Fatimah AlAhmari",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421024",title:"Prof.",name:"Harold Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Patrick",slug:"harold-andrew-patrick",fullName:"Harold Andrew Patrick",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421065",title:"Ms.",name:"Euzália",middleName:null,surname:"do Rosário Botelho Tomé",slug:"euzalia-do-rosario-botelho-tome",fullName:"Euzália do Rosário Botelho Tomé",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421053",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ken",middleName:null,surname:"Kalala Ndalamba",slug:"ken-kalala-ndalamba",fullName:"Ken Kalala Ndalamba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"421826",title:"Dr.",name:"Inusah",middleName:null,surname:"Salifu",slug:"inusah-salifu",fullName:"Inusah Salifu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"420823",title:"Prof.",name:"Gardênia da Silva",middleName:null,surname:"Abbad",slug:"gardenia-da-silva-abbad",fullName:"Gardênia da Silva Abbad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"437613",title:"MSc.",name:"Juliana",middleName:null,surname:"Legentil",slug:"juliana-legentil",fullName:"Juliana Legentil",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"90",type:"subseries",title:"Human Development",keywords:"Neuroscientific research, Brain functions, Human development, UN’s human development index, Self-awareness, Self-development",scope:"
\r\n\tThe environment is subject to severe anthropic effects. Among them are those associated with pollution, resource extraction and overexploitation, loss of biodiversity, soil degradation, disorderly land occupation and planning, and many others. These anthropic effects could potentially be caused by any inadequate management of the environment. However, ecosystems have a resilience that makes them react to disturbances which mitigate the negative effects. It is critical to understand how ecosystems, natural and anthropized, including urban environments, respond to actions that have a negative influence and how they are managed. It is also important to establish when the limits marked by the resilience and the breaking point are achieved and when no return is possible. The main focus for the chapters is to cover the subjects such as understanding how the environment resilience works, the mechanisms involved, and how to manage them in order to improve our interactions with the environment and promote the use of adequate management practices such as those outlined in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/39.jpg",keywords:"Anthropic effects, Overexploitation, Biodiversity loss, Degradation, Inadequate Management, SDGs adequate practices"},{id:"38",title:"Pollution",scope:"\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment"},{id:"41",title:"Water Science",scope:"