Possible Etiology of Viral Encephalitis [1]
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7729",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Customer Relationship Management and IT",title:"Customer Relationship Management and IT",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"All of us enjoy individually specific service or a product that is delivered for us only. 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\r\n\tThe role of a leader has changed drastically since scholars began theorizing the modern leader. Contemporary society has, and is continuing to evolve. Existing leadership theories need to adapt to be relevant to the expectations of leaders now. That is, new leadership theories emerge in their place. This book will offer an open-access place for new ideas in leadership in the 21st-century context, and new models to emerge that explain how individuals enact good leadership. This book will serve as an opportunity to critique or defend current understandings of leadership and propose new evidence-based and theory-driven insights into leadership.
\r\n\r\n\tLeadership is understood as more complex than an individual influencing another. Within the broad domains of leadership, there are leaders, followers, leadership processes, followership processes, teams, dyads, relationships, and context. Each of these is critical in defining what it is to be a good leader in increasingly complex professional and personal environments. This book will encourage authors to make compelling arguments not for how leadership is and has been, but for how good leadership should be.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-308-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-307-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-309-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"85f77453916f1d80d80d88ee4fd2f2d1",bookSignature:"Dr. Joseph Crawford",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12141.jpg",keywords:"Authentic Leadership, Servant Leadership, Trait Theory, Emotions in Leadership, Outcomes, Antecedents, Nomological Networks, Organizational Performance, Individual Performance, Methodological Studies, Structural Equation Modelling, Focus Groups",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 3rd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 1st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 30th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 18th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 17th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a day",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Crawford received his Ph.D. in leadership psychometrics and is currently based in the Office of the Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Education), University of Tasmania, Australia. He was recognized as the Launceston Chamber of Commerce Young Professional of the Year in 2019 and rewarded the Vice Chancellors Award in 2021 for Innovation for his work in learning and teaching. He is also an award-winning entrepreneur.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"420133",title:"Dr.",name:"Joseph",middleName:null,surname:"Crawford",slug:"joseph-crawford",fullName:"Joseph Crawford",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/420133/images/system/420133.jpg",biography:"Dr Crawford is an award-winning organisational behaviour, leadership, and higher education scholar based in the Office of the Deputy Vice Chancellor (Education), University of Tasmania. Joseph is passionate about leaders and how their behaviours shape the world around them. This includes organizational leaders from diverse disciplines including top management teams, leadership in organizations, teachers-as-leaders, and student leaders. His PhD was in leadership psychometrics, with a focus on conceptualising and rigorously measuring authentic leader behaviours.\n\nDr Crawford also works closely on applying leadership and organizational behavior theory to understanding how students and teachers interact and learn together. His success in this area led to appointment as Editor in Chief of the Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice (Scopus and Web of Science ranked). He received the Vice Chancellors Award (2021) for Innovation for his work in learning and teaching. Joseph has won national awards for his social entrepreneurship with sustainable men's grooming products business Fifth Estate Co. and carbon negative gin distillery, Negat-ve Distillery.",institutionString:"University of Tasmania",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Tasmania",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"7",title:"Business, Management and Economics",slug:"business-management-and-economics"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"225753",firstName:"Marina",lastName:"Dusevic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225753/images/7224_n.png",email:"marina.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"41749",title:"Cerebrospinal Fluid Abnormalities in Viral Encephalitis",doi:"10.5772/54590",slug:"cerebrospinal-fluid-abnormalities-in-viral-encephalitis",body:'Encephalitis is defined as the presence of an inflammatory process of the brain in association with clinical manifestation of neurological system of the individual. In other words, onset of central nervous system (CNS) symptoms due to infections of the brain. Described pathogens reported as to be the causative agents for encephalitis, the majority of them are viral in origin, but sometimes bacteria or fungi or a postinfectious process. Inspite of the fact that molecular biology researches advance, new era of essentials elements in diagnosis commences, extensive tests are being used widely, the etiology of encephalitis remains unclear and unknown in a considerable degree of the patients [1-3].
Acute encephalitis includes a medical emergency. In most cases, the presence of focal neurological signs and mostly focal seizures will distinguish an encephalitic situation from an encephalopathic process. The diagnosis of encephalitis is suspected in a febrile patient who comes with altered conciousness and signs of cerebral dysfunction. The latters are so wise, therefore the dilemma of diagnosis starts with the beginning, and continues with the determination of the relevance of an infective agent. These agents may play a role in the neurologic manifestations of illness, but not necessarily by directly invading the CNS. Apart from this, there is a big challenge in distinguishing between infectious encephalitis and posinfectious encephalomyelitis. Vaccination programs were completed in the Western world already; therefore postinfectious or posimmunizative type encephalitis or encephalomyelitis (mainly acute disseminated encephalomyelitis [ADEM]) should be different in etiological aspect, since ADEM is mediated by an immunologic response to antigenic stimuli from infecting microorganisms or immunization. Noninfectious CNS diseases (e.g., fibroelastic tissue diseases, vasculitis, collagenous diseases, and paraneoplastic syndromes) can mimic encephalitis, or present with similar outcomes to those of encephalitis and should be account in the differential diagnosis. Herpes simplex encephalitis (HSE) is the commonest sporadic acute viral encehalitis in developed countries. The emergence of unusual forms of zoonotic encephalitis have an important public health problem all over the world. Vaccination and vector control measures are useful preventive strategies in the management of certain arboviral and zoonotic encephalitis [4].
Since the medical situation is emergent, in the approach to the patient with encephalitis, the main attempt should be carried out to build a reliable etiological diagnosis. Although, there are no definitive effective treatment – with few exceptions, no specific therapy is avaliable for most forms of viral encephalitis – in many cases, identification of a spesific agent – if possible – may be important for prognosis, potential prophylaxis, counseling of patients and family members, and public health issues [1].
Epidemiological clues that may help in directing the investigations for an etiologic diagnosis include season, geographical localization, travel history, occupational status, insect and animal contact, vaccinations, immunization of the insult. Therefore clinic approach should be carried out for etiology. Possible etiological agents of encephalitis – mainly viral – based on epidemiology and related risk factors are represented in Table 1. This table is revised from Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDAS) Guidelines 2008:
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Age | \n\t\t|
Neonates | \n\t\t\tHerpes simplex virus (HSV) type 2, Cytomegalovirus (CMV), Rubella virus, | \n\t\t
Infant and children | \n\t\t\tEastern equine encephalitis virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, Murray Valley encephalitis virus, Influenza virus, La crosse virus | \n\t\t
Elderly persons | \n\t\t\tEastern equine encephalitis virus, St Louis encephalitis virus, West Nile virus, sporadic Creutzfeldt –Jacob disease (sCJD) | \n\t\t
Animal contacts | \n\t\t|
Bats | \n\t\t\tRabies virus, Nipah virus | \n\t\t
Birds | \n\t\t\tWest Nile virus, Eastern equine encephalitis virus, | \n\t\t
Cats | \n\t\t\tJapanese virus, | \n\t\t
Dogs | \n\t\t\tRabies virus, | \n\t\t
Horses | \n\t\t\tRabies virus, Eastern equine encephalitis virus, Western equine encephalitis virus, Hendra virus | \n\t\t
Skunks | \n\t\t\tRabies virus, | \n\t\t
Swine | \n\t\t\tJapanese encephalitis virus, Nipah virus | \n\t\t
Immunocompromised persons | \n\t\t\tVaricella zoster virus (VZV), CMV, Human herpesvirus 6, West Nile virus, HIV, JC virus | \n\t\t
Unpasteurized milk | \n\t\t\tTick-born encephalitis virus, | \n\t\t
Insect contact | \n\t\t|
Mosquitoes | \n\t\t\tEastern equine encephalitis virus, Western equine encephalitis virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, St Louis encephalitis virus, Murray Valley encephalitis virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, West Nile virus | \n\t\t
Ticks | \n\t\t\tTick-born encephalitis virus, Powassan virus, | \n\t\t
Occupation | \n\t\t|
Exposure to animals | \n\t\t\tRabies virus, | \n\t\t
Expoure to horse | \n\t\t\tHendra virus, | \n\t\t
Exposure to old World primates | \n\t\t\tB virus | \n\t\t
Laboratory workers | \n\t\t\tWest Nile virus, HIV, | \n\t\t
Physicians and health care workers | \n\t\t\tVZV, HIV, Influenza virus, measles virus, | \n\t\t
Veterinarians | \n\t\t\tRabies virus, | \n\t\t
Person to person transmission | \n\t\t\tHSV (neonatal), VZV, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (rare), Poliovirus, nonpolio Enterovirus, Measles virus, Nipah virus, Mumps virus, Rubella virus, Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), Human herpesvirus 6, B virus, West Nile virus (transfusion, transplantation, breast feeding), HIV, Rabies virus (transplantation), Influenza virus, | \n\t\t
Recent vaccination | \n\t\t\tAcute disseminated encephalomyelitis, | \n\t\t
Recreational activities | \n\t\t|
Camping/hunting | \n\t\t\tAll agents transmitted by mosquitoes and ticks (see above) | \n\t\t
Sexual contact | \n\t\t\tHIV, | \n\t\t
Spelunking | \n\t\t\tRabies virus, | \n\t\t
Swimming | \n\t\t\tEnterovirus, | \n\t\t
Seasons | \n\t\t|
Late summer/early fall | \n\t\t\tAll agents transmitted by mosquitoes and ticks (see above), Enterovirus | \n\t\t
Winter | \n\t\t\tInfluenza virus | \n\t\t
Travel | \n\t\t|
Africa | \n\t\t\tRabies virus, West Nile virus, | \n\t\t
Australia | \n\t\t\tMurray Valley encephalitis virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, Hendra virus | \n\t\t
Central America | \n\t\t\tRabies virus, Eastern equine encephalitis virus, Western equine encephalitis virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus, St. Louis encephalitis virus, | \n\t\t
Europe | \n\t\t\tWest Nile virus, Tick-born encephalitis virus, | \n\t\t
India, Nepal | \n\t\t\tRabies virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, | \n\t\t
Middle East | \n\t\t\tWest Nile virus | \n\t\t
Russia | \n\t\t\tTick-born encephalitis virus, | \n\t\t
South America | \n\t\t\tRabies virus, Eastern equine encephalitis virus, Western equine encephalitis virus, St Louis encephalitis virus, | \n\t\t
Southeast Asia, China, Pasific Rim | \n\t\t\tJapanese encephalitis virus, Tick-born encephalitis virus, Nipah virus | \n\t\t
Unvaccinated status | \n\t\t\tVZV, Japanese encephalitis virus, Poliovirus, Measles virus, Mumps virus, Rubella virus | \n\t\t
Possible Etiology of Viral Encephalitis [1]
Clinical findings (physical and specific neurological signs and symptoms) may indicate certain causative agents in patients with encephalitis (Table 2). This table is again revisely taken from the same guideline mentioned in the previous paragraph [1];
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
General findings | \n\t\t|
Lymphadenopathy | \n\t\t\tHIV, EBV, CMV, Measles virus, Rubella virus, West Nile virus, | \n\t\t
Parotitis | \n\t\t\tMumps virus | \n\t\t
Rash | \n\t\t\tVZV, B virus, Human herpesvirus 6, West Nile virus, Rubella virus, certain Enteroviruses, | \n\t\t
Respiratory tract findings | \n\t\t\tVenezuela equine encephalitis virus, Nipah virus, Hendra virus, Influenza virus, Adenovirus, | \n\t\t
Retinitis Urinary symptoms | \n\t\t\tCMV, West Nile virus, St Louis encephalitis virus (early) | \n\t\t
Neurological findings | \n\t\t|
Cerebellar ataxia | \n\t\t\tVZV (in children), EPV, Mumps virus, St. Louis encephalitis virus, | \n\t\t
Cranial nerve abnormalities | \n\t\t\tHSV, EBV, | \n\t\t
Dementia | \n\t\t\tHIV, Human transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, sCJD and variant Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease (vCJD), Measles virus (Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis (SSPE)) | \n\t\t
Parkinsonism | \n\t\t\tJapanese encephalitis virus, St. Louis encephalitis virus, West Nile virus, Nipah virus, | \n\t\t
Poliomyelitis-like flaccid paralysis | \n\t\t\tJapanese encephalitis virus, West Nile virus, Tick-born encephalitis virus, Enterovirus (enterovirus-71, coxsackieviruses), Poliovirus | \n\t\t
Rhombencephalitis | \n\t\t\tHSV, West Nile virus, Enterovirus 71 | \n\t\t
Possible etiological agents of viral Encephalitis based on clinical findings
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is produced in choroid plexus of brain ventricules and in subarachnoid pial surface. Noninfective CSF contains maximum 5 wight blood cells (WBC) in a mm3. The protein content in normal CSF does not exceed 50mg/dl and CSF glucose is 50-70 % of serum glucose levels. Central nervous system infections alter this normal content in varied degrees. Thus, knowing these alerations in various infectious and noninfectious situations is crucial for attaining veritable diagnosis. CNS infections should be born in mind in patients, who attain to emergency departments with fever, impaired consciousness and findings attributed to nervous system. Obtaining CSF with lumber puncture performed in early period leads to at once, differentiation of central pathologies from systemic ones, of infectious etiologies from noninfectious causes, and getting data concerning the character of a possible central nervous system infection; therefore CSF analysis maintains its importance as a valid method currently, for searching brain infections.
Lumbar puncture is performed generally from L4-5 intervertebral space. However L3-4 and L5-S1 intervertebral spaces are also utilized. Sufficient CSF sample should be obtained for routine laboratory tests, and a certain amount should be spared for advanced tests. Initially, protein and glucose levels are analysed from obtained sample, white blood cell count is done, and cultural analyses are performed. Opening pressure and protein concentration are increased, and glucose levels are decreased in bacterial menengitis. Polymorphonuclear cells (PNL) are usually found. Opening pressure is normal or mildly increased however in viral encephalitis and menengitis. In a classical viral encephalitis glucose levels are normal, but protein concentration is found to be mildly or moderatly increased. CSF findings in several infectious situations is summarized in Table 3.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tIncreased | \n\t\t\tNormal-mildly increased | \n\t\t\tNormal-mildly increased | \n\t\t\tIncreased | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tLow | \n\t\t\tNormal | \n\t\t\tLow | \n\t\t\tLow | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tPNL | \n\t\t\tMononuclear | \n\t\t\tMononuclear | \n\t\t\tPNL/mononuclear | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tHigh | \n\t\t\tHigh | \n\t\t\tHigh | \n\t\t\tHigh | \n\t\t
General characteristics of various CNS infections
In viral encephalitis, a more important problem is to find out the etiological agent and to apply therefore the appropriate antiviral agent beginning from the early period of the disease. Nevertheless, CSF findings, as they are analysed by routine tests, are not specific in viral encephalitis, and couldn’t be heplfull to distinguish different etiological agents. These findings combined with radiological data could also not be assistant, and determination of etiology may be delayed. As a matter of fact, various serological methods, cell cultures and genom analyses are widely utilised currently. Methods to apply should be adapted to geographical factors, to epidemyological data, and to travel history in a specific individual. Negative results does not always rule out a certain agent, therefore repeated tests could be needed.
A hemorhagic CSF could be seen in Herpes simplex type I encephalitis [5]. Lymphositic pleocytosis (10-500 mononuclear cell/mm3) and increased protein concentrations are usually found [6]. However, in immuncompromised patients especially, one could not encounter typical pleocytosis. Thus, CSF findings could be misleading in such situations; before ruling out the disease or an etiological agent, a wider CSF screen is needed in these patients. Determination of HSV-DNA with polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a widely utilised method today. As a gold diagnostic standart currently, PCR’s sensitivity is 95 % in Herpes simplex type I, and its specifity is 100 % [7]. Since the identification of HSV-I in the early period of the disease is an ongoing problem, the test should be repeated after 3-7 days in cases with negative results [1]. Studies searching for the association between HSV-DNA load and disease prognosis haven’t revealed consistent results hitherto; hence, further studies are needed [8]. Isolation of the virus in cell culture is also possible, but methods sensitivity is quite low and is not invoked in clinical practice widely. Another method is to determine specific antibodies. Blood/CSF antibody ratio below 20/1 exposes the intratecal synthesis and is usefull in diagnosis of Herpes simplex encephalitis in a considerable degree. Positive PCR results are tend to diminish with the parenteral application of acyclovir, possibility of a positive test after second week is quite decreased; in contrast, in this period of the disease, specific antibodies are easily determined. The fact that patients with negative PCR and positive oligoclonal bands are frequently encountered in a specific period of the disease suggests that these two methods are sensitive to different stages of the diseases [9]. Recent studies displayed some inflamatory cytokine level alterations in CSF. While in the early period of the disease the IFN-γ and IL-6 levels are high, at the period of 2-6 weeks, TNF-α, IL-2 and soluable CD8 levels are found to be increased [10]. Maybe, these findings are reflecting the neuronal damage and inflamatory reaction, however the clinical importance of them are not well established currently.
A lymphocytic pleocytosis is seen in Varicella zoster virus (VZV) encephalitis (below 100 cells/mm3), and increased protein concentrations and normal glucose levels are found. Opening pressure maybe increased [6]. In cell culture, the virus is rarely isolated. VZV-PCR is a usefull technique for determining the agent. Once again, negative results do not rule out the virus. In many cases, virus DNA is diminished in CSF after the first week, hence the way to be chosen is to analyze intrathecal antibodies at this period. Determining the ratio of IgG antibodies to blood content or IgM levels are helpfull. VZV glycoprotein E does not express antigenic resemblance with the herpes simplex virus, and is easily determined with performing ELISA. This method has a high specifity and sensitivity for VZV encephalitis, it may also be utilised for the differential diagnosis with herpes virus [11]. The test to be choosen in Ebstein-Barr virus and in Citomegalovirus encephalitis is again PCR. Negative results do not exclude the agents. Determining the alterations of IgM and IgG levels with serological analyses maybe usefull in EBV encephalitis. HHV-6 and HHV-7 PCR tests should be added to routine CSF screen in immuncompromised patients [5]. It should also be noted that HHV-6 PCR does not distinguish latent infection from active encephalitis. Diagnostic methods for encephalitis caused by herpesviridea family is shown in Table 4.
Besides HSV and VZV, PCR test is trusty also in JC virus. In immuncompromised patients in whom multifocal leucoencephalopathy is suspected, PCR technique is highly specific. Pleocytosis is charactheristic in Mumps encephalitis. Interestingly however, protein levels are generally normal and glucose concentrations are decreased. The disease should be differentiated from Lymphocytic choriomenengit virus, since decreased glucose levels are resulted also from that agent caused encephalitis (Figure 1). Cell culture and PCR are equally helpfull. Specific antibodies should be investigated if PCR is negative. Four fold increase in IgG levels or determining IgM are helpfull, but it should be born in mind that Mumps specific antibodies may express cross-reaction with Parainfluenza virus antibodies [6]. In the course of encephalitis caused by Enteroviruses, CSF cell count is generally normal, or a mildly mononuclear pleocytosis is present. Glucose levels are normal and protein concentration is increased. Method to be choosen is RT-PCR. Sensitivity and specifity are 86 % and 100 % respectively. Cell culture may also be helpfull. Despite Influenza encephalitis is rarely reported, it should be investigated in pandemic situations and/or in conditions, in which no other etiological agent is determined. Routine CSF screen is usually normal. The etiological analysis is performed by RT-PCR and cell culture in suspected cases.
HSV-1 | \n\t\t\tPCR, quantitative PCR, routine serology | \n\t\t
HSV-2 | \n\t\t\tPCR, routine serology, culture | \n\t\t
EBV | \n\t\t\tPCR, routine serology | \n\t\t
CMV | \n\t\t\tPCR | \n\t\t
HHV-6, HHV-7 | \n\t\t\tPCR, routine serology, culture | \n\t\t
VZV | \n\t\t\tPCR, routine serology, VZV Ge | \n\t\t
Diagnostic methods in herpesviridae family.
CNS infections, in which low CSF glucose levels are found.
In encephalitis caused by Flaviviruses, clinical suspicion maintains its importance. Methods that target Flaviviruses should be added to routine CSF analyses in endemic regions, or in patients who have a travel history; at times, repeated lumbar punctures are needed for determining the etiological agent. In West nile virus encephalitis, domination of polymorphonuclear leukocytes in hyperacute period, leaves its place to lympocytes afterwards. CSF protein concentrations are usually increased, glucose levels are normal. RT-PCR is assistant, but it is not possible in late stages of the disease to capture the virus RNA [12]. Virus isolation by means of CSF cultures is also utilised [13]. Today the most valid methods are serological approaches. The success of ELISA in detecting WNV-specific antibodies is increased in 8-21 days after the beginning of clinical symptoms. Similar serological methods can be used in other Flavivirus infections. In Japan encephalitis, for example, the valid method currently is ELISA capture of JE-IgM [14] (Table 5). Various biomarkers, which are detected in CSF in the course of WNV encephalitis may reflect the severity of disease and neuronal damage. In 58 % of cases with WNV, NfH-SM135 and GFAP-SM126 can be found positive, S100B positivity is seen in 90 % of this same group [15]. In Eastern equine encephalitis, leucocyte count is much more increased, and it can reach 1000-2000 cells per mm3; it should also be noted that dominant cells are polymorphnuclear. CSF findings emerged from various encephalitic situations are summarized in Table 6.
As we mentioned above, a part of recent studies targets on inflammatory responses in CSF. Without question, these biomarkers are not etiology specific. However, they can be used for manifesting the severity of neuroinvasif disease. One of those markers is macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF) that increases in CSF in CNS infections [16]. Studies that investigate the association of these factors with possible etiological agents and disease severity is needed (Figure 2).
Several biomarkers elevating in CSF during the course of central nervous system infections.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Elevated protein, high cell count (initially neutrophilic; mononuclear pleocytosis after a certain time), normal glucose concentrations | \n\t\t
RT-PCR, IgM ELISA capture | \n\t\t
Virus isolation | \n\t\t
CSF characteristics and diagnostic methods in flavivirus encephalitides
CSF findings in all types of encephalitis may expose time dependent alterations. In cases with negative PCR, repeated lumbar punctures should be performed, differences in cell count should be observed, PCR studies should be repeated and new cell cultures should be made for virus isolation. This aproach is valid in patients receiving amprical antiviral treatment also. For example, it is known that PCR becomes positive several days after the onset of clinical symptoms in herpes encephalitis. PCR test becomes negative after a certain time in HSV and VZV encephalitis. This duration is shorter in patients receiving antiviral therapy. Once again, in herpes encephalitis, intrathecal antibody production commences beginning from the second week. In West Nile virus encephalitis, initial neutrophylic dominance gives way to a lymphocytic pleocytosis. Capturing specific IgM antibodies in the first week after syptom onset leads frequently to negative results. But the chance of detection increases in the following days. Therefore it is crucial to repeat lumbar puncture in such cases. On the other hand, WNV RT-PCR is positive in a narrow period, but the possibility of a positive result decreases as the disease progresses (Table 7).
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tMN | \n\t\t\tHigh | \n\t\t\tNormal-Low | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tMN | \n\t\t\tHigh | \n\t\t\tNormal-Low | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tMN | \n\t\t\tHigh | \n\t\t\tNormal | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tMN | \n\t\t\tNormal- High | \n\t\t\tNormal-Low | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tNormal-MN | \n\t\t\tHigh | \n\t\t\tNormal | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tPNL-MN | \n\t\t\tHigh | \n\t\t\tNormal | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tNormal | \n\t\t\tNormal | \n\t\t\tNormal | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tNormal | \n\t\t\tHigh | \n\t\t\tNormal | \n\t\t
CSF characteristics of encephalitis in various viruses.
\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tNormal-mononuclear | \n\t\t\tNegative | \n\t\t\tNegative | \n\t\t
3-14 days | \n\t\t\tMononuclear | \n\t\t\tPositive | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
"/>14 days | \n\tMononuclear | \n\t\n\t\t | \n\t\n\t\t | \n
\n\t\t | \n\tPolymorphnuclear | \n\tPositive | \n\tNegative | \n
2-7 days | \n\tMononuclear | \n\tPositive-Negative | \n\tNegative | \n
"/>7 days | \nMononuclear | \nNegative | \nPositive | \n
Time dependent alterations of CSF findings in Herpes and WNV.
Current diagnostic methods which have been described above have been providing valuable proves for diagnostic process of the viral encephalitis but new approaches are needed with increased knowledge of pathogenesis of viral encephalitis. These are must be combined according to clinical picture and possible etiological agents. These promising methods are;
Detection of viral genomic materials
RT-PCR, IgM ELISA capture
Detection of viruses
Differentiation of lytic and lstent viral infectivity
Evaluation of inflammatory markers
IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-2, IL-6, CD8
Macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF)
Determination of the antibodies
Evaluation of tissue and neuronal damage products
NfH-SM135, GFAP-SM126
S100B
Related to future prospects of diagnostic methods which will evaluate biomarkers in CSF must be improved as diagnostic and also prognostic methods.
A real circular economy may be realized if products at the end of their life cycle are reutilized or transformed into raw materials giving them the possibility for another life. The energy balance among the content of the new products and that one required by the transformation must be positive; that is, the process must require less energy of those present in the products; otherwise, the process will have a deleterious effect on the environment. More positive is the balance less will be the contamination. This goal is one of the main challenges in which scientists are involved to solve the problems concerning both global warming and the end of mineral resources. These recycled sources also represent a strong driving force for developing sustainable industrial processes. Many industrial firms are now involved in environmental issues, and they are, even in a different way, engaged in solving this problem [1].
The world plastic production in 2019 was 368.0 x 106 tons with an increase of 2.5% concerning for 2018 [2] while in the same year, the European production was 57.9 x 106 tons between thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers. Among them, polyolefins are the most produced and employed material in everyday life for industrial, domestic, and technological applications [3]. They are thermoplastic polymers and are mainly used for packaging; their life cycle is very short, which means they must be disposed of in a short time after their production. A less important amount of them is employed to realize furniture, insulating materials, automotive parts, and so on, and their life cycle is considerably longer (10 years or more).
A very recent study by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OCSE) was published in the “Global Plastic Outlook” [4] where it is reported that less than 10% of plastics are recycled around the world. Considering that the world production is estimated to be 460.0 x 106 tons, higher than the total waste (353.0 x 106 tons) produced in the same year, many actions are required to dispose of these plastics.
Mechanical recycle of polymeric materials is easily through environmental-friendly and economic processes, as reported in Figure 1. In this way, renewed objects are realized by recycled plastic materials avoiding disposal of these plastics through landfilling or combustion and reducing the use of mineral oil for their production. This process, however, may be applied only when a single plastic material is available, and it is not contaminated or strongly deteriorated. In the other cases, different environmentally friendly routes may be followed, such as thermochemical processes, thus contributing to the realization of a circular economy and reducing the emission of greenhouse gases (GHG). Polymer thermochemical processes may supply fuels and chemicals using end life plastic materials as a feedstock, and it may be an alternative to oil-based raw materials [5]. These research studies led to the development of new technologies able to convert waste into resources minimizing the environmental impact of their treatment, avoiding the production of by-products, or limiting the amount of secondary waste.
Pathway for mechanical recycling of thermoplastic materials.
Chemical recycling technologies [1, 6] are likely to play a crucial role in the transition toward a circular economy and close the recycling of materials giving compounds such as hydrocarbons, available for the production of new compounds. These technologies are able to remove hazardous substances, eventually present in the waste, thus giving new recycled feedstocks. Agreements with materials and chemical producers the use of raw materials from secondary sources are necessary for developing sustainable, feasible, and cost-efficient chemical recycling.
Among chemical recycling technologies, pyrolysis is one of the most important, also referred to as thermolysis or chemical recycling. It represents the transformation of organic materials, under the effect of heat, in the absence of oxygen. Depending on the process conditions, pyrolysis typically yields a mixture of molecules in the form of liquid or wax as the main products. This liquid or wax can be refined to obtain chemicals or fuels, as well as solid and gas may be used for the production of energy.
In this way, waste or contaminated plastic materials may be transformed into oil for industrial purposes, reducing the request and the environmental impact of mineral oil. The potential for recycling is enormous. In 2018, in Europe, plastic production reached almost 62.0x106 tons, and all this plastic should be utilized at the end of its life cycle, in one way or the others. For the oil industry, the use of waste plastic as an alternative feedstock represents a new business.
From a chemical point of view, pyrolyzed plastics are a good raw base material for the oil industry so long the remaining impurities are removed from the plastics, and the oil can be used as feedstock for oil refineries. Pyrolysis involves the use of heat and anoxic conditions to break down plastic waste into compounds containing smaller molecules, yielding valuable hydrocarbons in the form of liquid, waxes, and gases. The end products of pyrolysis can be monomers, heating oil, refinery feedstock, transportation fuels, and chemicals.
Chemical recycling can be mainly used to recycle mixed post-consumer plastic waste when sorting single components is not economical. That is, pyrolysis is a very flexible method that allows the use of various feedstocks. Another method of chemical recycling is gasification. This process converts carbonaceous materials into gases. The main product of gasification is synthesis gas (syngas: CO, and H2), which can be further processed into various final products such as gasoline, diesel, methanol, and synthetic methane. Among these processes, the microwave technologies have taken large attention due to their high efficiency in supplying the energy required for a plethora of industrial processes. The main performances of the use of microwaves as correlated to a classical heating system are resumed in Table 1. Some examples of products obtained from pyrolysis of different polymers using Microwave-Assisted Pyrolysis (MAP) are reported in Table 2.
Microwave heating | Conventional heating | ||
---|---|---|---|
Advantages | Volumetric heating | Detriments | Surface heating |
Short reaction time (minutes) | Long reaction time (hours) | ||
High heating efficiency | Heating efficiency is usually low | ||
The low thermal conductivity of polymers may be overwhelmed: easy heating of polymers | Hard heating of polymers: their thermal conductivity is low | ||
The gas formed does not contain combustion gas | The gas formed is contaminated by combustion gas (Direct heating) | ||
Detriments | Electrical power is required | Advantages | Every fuel source may be employed |
Microwave absorber is required | Additives are not required; some heating carriers are sometimes used |
Correlation between microwave and conventional heating.
Polymer | Products yield (Min-max) % | Ref. | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Solid | Liquid | Gas | ||
PE | 0.4–0.6 | 80.2–83.9 | 15.7–19.2 | [3, 7] |
PP | 9.1–12.0 | 56.5–74.4 | 13.3–34.4 | [3, 5] |
PS | 0.9–16.7 | 73.5–96.1 | 3.0–9.8 | [8, 9, 10] |
PVC | 13.9–53.2 | 10.2–70.8 | 13.3–75.8 | [11] |
PET* | 15.6 | 41.3 | 38.7 | [12] |
PLA | 2.6–7.6 | 28.4–57.7 | 38.5–69.0 | [13] |
Tyre | 40.6–65.0 | 20.7–44.0 | 9.0–27.4 | [14, 15, 16, 17] |
WEEE | 14.2 | 76.6 | 9.2 | [18] |
MPB | 24.9–59.9 | 31.1–43.7 | 9.0–42.5 | [19] |
CDP | 11.1–30.1 | 22.3–47.6 | 28.7–46.2 | [20] |
Products obtained from microwave-assisted pyrolysys of plastics.
Pyrolysis using classic thermal heating.
PE: Polyethylene; PP: Polypropylene; PS: Polystyrene, PVC: Poly(vynil chloride); PET: Poly(ethylene therephtalate); PLA: Poly(lactic acid); WEEE: Waste electric and electronic equipment; MPB: Multilayer packaging beverage; CDP: Corn-derived plastic bag.
This chapter aims to offer a comprehensive description of the path from laboratory research to the realization of an industrial plant able to transform up to 2,000 Kg/d of waste plastic into valuable products. These products are available to synthesize new plastic materials, and they may be certified as renewed plastics. However, for plastic waste-based pyrolysis products to become a reality on an industrial scale, ardent development in technologies, value chains, and supporting legislation is needed. Despite these hurdles, the missing links in the plastic recycling loop can be addressed and eventually fixed to establish an actual circular economy for plastics.
A circular economy is one of the drivers boosting chemical recycling because it may realize, more and more, so reusing all waste materials. Chemical recycling, such as pyrolysis, is therefore needed, but legislative issues are required for this big challenge of improving the development of this technology.
Techwave s.r.l. is an Italian start-up established to realize an industrial plant from a patent able to transform, by means of microwave, plastic complex polymers into their original components, ready for a new use. The process is based on an Italian proprietary patent [21] of Cooperativa Autotrasportatori Fiorentini (CAF Scrl-Italy) developed and filed by a research team of Department of Organic Chemistry – University of Florence – Italy, in 2011, and converted into a European patent [3] acquired by Techwave in 2018.
Experiments were started in 2008 at the Department of Organic Chemistry “Ugo Schiff,” University of Florence, where a set of trials were performed on tires and various types of plastic materials, ranging from polystyrene (PS) to polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC), and their mixtures [22]. Similar experiments were also performed on Waste Electric and Electronic Equipment (WEEE) [18].
Pyrolysis studies were initially performed on a laboratory scale (Figure 2). The experiments were carried out on a batch oven, and 100–300 g/h of materials were processed. The oven was equipped with four external MW generators, each having an absorption of electric power of 2 KW capable of delivering up to 6 KW of microwave power inside the oven, operating at the frequency of 2.45 GHz.
Laboratory MW oven.
During the experimental trial, many arrangements were tested to determine the influence of several parameters on the quantity and quality of the three products formed: a liquid, an uncondensable gas, and a char. In particular, it was verified how some critical factors such as the residence time inside the pyrolytic oven, the temperature reached, and the type of downstream fractionating system would affect the amount and the composition of the three products of the reaction. The liquid may be employed for the synthesis of new polymeric products (Figure 3), while the gas and char may be used as fuel or employed for other uses [1].
The circular economy using a MAP process for polymeric waste materials.
This first study showed MAP as a suitable technique for cracking various types of plastic even if they may be highly contaminated and absolutely heterogeneous. The results obtained led to the publication of various scientific papers and process patents (Table 2) and the identification of the guidelines for the scale-up of MAP technology to an industrial level [1].
Therefore, a first development phase was run for this purpose, to design and then build a prototype that allows the scale-up of the MAP process, enabling the transition from the experimental laboratory studies carried out until today to a pre-industrial phase. The idea, born at the University of Florence and initially funded by one of Techwave’s future partners, was materialized in 2016 with the construction of the first pre-industrial prototype (Figure 4).
Pre-industrial prototype.
This prototype was initially designed for the treatment of End Life Tires (ELTs) and was able to process [14, 15, 16, 17] whole tire (approx. 8 kg) in 30 minutes. The prototype was equipped with electric heating to bring the material to the optimum temperature for the absorption of microwaves and four external MW generators, each supplied with electric power of 1 KW and able to deliver up to 3.2 KW of microwave power inside the oven, operating at the frequency of 2.45 GHz. Later with the birth of Techwave in 2018, it was decided to continue the scale-up of the MAP process by extending the technology to other waste plastic materials, even if mixed or contaminated. The results obtained during the first testing phase are described in the following paragraph.
The purpose of this initial phase was the validation of the data reported on the laboratory scale, both in qualitative and quantitative terms, from the pyrolysis of plastic wastes. It also aimed to determine the operating parameters necessary to treat flows of various types of plastic materials at the end of their life cycle, and PS was chosen as the first example. Polystyrene, like all plastics, is unable to absorb microwave energy and convert it into heat. It must therefore be blended with a microwave absorber to realize the pyrolysis. The materials used as a microwave absorber are commonly carbon or iron powder.
The experiments were carried out using expanded polystyrene (EPS) as starting material and focused on analyzing the ratio between the amount of polystyrene processed and the microwave power used. Therefore, an energy density close to that foreseen in the prototype was used to acquire the information necessary for the design. The process was also studied to correlate the overall yield of the process and the composition of the products to the operating parameters. The data obtained are reported in Table 3.
Exp. N. | PS (kg) | MW Abs* | PS/Abs | MW power (kW) | Total time (min) | Electrical time (min) | MW time (min) | Liquid (%) | Gas (%) | Solid (%) | Styrene in liquid (%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 1.26 | Fe | 2.0 | 1.2 | 30 | 0 | 30 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
2 | 1.26 | Fe | 2.0 | 1.2 | 62 | 20 | 42 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
3 | 1.26 | Fe | 2.0 | 2.4 | 90 | 28 | 62 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
4 | 1.13 | Fe | 1.8 | 2.4 | 80a | 80 | 60 | 25.2 | 56.6 | 18.2 | 56.5 |
5 | 0.75 | C | 2.0 | 2.4 | 60a | 60 | 45 | 82.4 | 15.3 | 2.3 | 57.5 |
6 | 1.13 | Fe | 2.0 | 4.8 | 90 | 0 | 90 | 64.6 | 24.8 | 10.6 | 69.5 |
7 | 1.01 | C | 2.3 | 4.8 | 60 | 0 | 60 | 56.7 | 24.4 | 18.9 | 55.6 |
8 | 0.98 | Fe | 2.0 | 4.8 | 80 | 25 | 55 | 71.9 | 17.9 | 10.2 | 55.5 |
9 | 0.98 | Fe | 2.0 | 4.8 | 90 | 90 | 60 | 71.9 | 18.9 | 9.2 | 54.7 |
10 | 0.49 | Fe | 1.9 | 4.8 | 75 | 75 | 30 | 44.1 | 24.3 | 31.6 | 62.1 |
11 | 0.49 | Fe | 1.9 | 4.8 | 90 | 90 | 45 | 62.9 | 21.8 | 15.3 | 59.6 |
12 | 0.98 | Fe | 2.0 | 4.8 | 80 | 80 | 45 | 55.6 | 22.4 | 21.9 | 68.2 |
MAP of PS: operating parameters.
MW Abs: Microwave absorber.
Electrical and MW heating work at the same time.
In all experiments, polystyrene was mostly converted into a liquid using mainly iron powder as a microwave absorber. Working at low power, the energy is not enough to start the pyrolysis process (EXP 1–3). Even by preheating the pyrolysis chamber through electrical resistances, the liquid yield is low (EXP 4). Instead, it can be noted that under the same reaction conditions, but using carbon as an absorber, the liquid increases considerably (EXP 5) confirming carbon as a better MW absorber. To obtain good yields of the liquid, it was necessary to increase the power (EXP 6–12), working with a ratio microwave power/PS of approx. 4.8–9.6 kW/kg. Analyses carried out on the liquid samples of the most significant tests showed aromatic hydrocarbons as the main compounds, among which single-ring aromatic compounds such as styrene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and α-methylstyrene were present in very high amounts. Styrene was the compound present in the highest percentage (approx. 55–70%). The results confirmed the previous studies carried out at the laboratory level [8, 9, 10], albeit working with a considerably lower MW power than that one previuosly employed in laboratory experiments (4.8–9.6 vs. 30 kW/kg), and made it possible to develop the application of the MAP process of PS on an industrial scale.
The experiments with the pre-industrial prototype were run to collect process information for the realization of the industrial plant. Thanks to the collaboration between Cognito Engineering srl and the Department of Chemistry of the University of Florence, in 2019, Techwave built its first experimental industrial prototype following the scheme reported in Figure 5. The plant was installed in its factory in Massa (Italy) (Figures 6–8).
Flow diagram of MAP process.
Industrial prototype plant.
Plastic container located in the upper part of the prototype.
MW oven located in the bottom part of the prototype with, in front, the microwave guide.
The prototype was realized considering its possible introduction in two standard containers for easy shipping, even if its dimension may be strongly scaled up if required. Taking into account the dimension, it may be installed on one small ship. Waste plastic materials are largely present in the sea [23], and they may be collected and immediately disposed of through this plant or another plant close to this. The products formed may be employed to produce the energy required, while the excess may be sold on the market. Furthermore, a plant of this dimension may be installed in a municipal collecting and selection center of waste plastics, where it may be employed to pyrolyze the mixed plastics collected, avoiding their sending to a disposal plant. The prototype may be useful also for a large hospital to dispose of the contaminated waste plastics. The pyrolysis products do not contain dangerous contaminants because the biological products are destroyed during the process as reported in the literature [24, 25] while the chemicals formed may be sold for their commercial uses. In 2020, the plant started testing operations using EPS, ABS, or PP as plastic materials. Tests were carried out for 1 year, improving the results step by step, both in terms of plant efficiency and the quality of the secondary raw materials produced. The description of the tests carried out and the results obtained are reported in the following paragraphs.
The description shows how the tests for the MAP process were run in the industrial prototype with the plant working in semi-batch mode. The amount of plastic and carbon black for a single test was taken from the storage area. The carbon black required for the absorption of the microwave was manually introduced into the pyrolysis reactor, while the plastic material was added through the plastic loading system.
Experiments were carried out in an inert atmosphere (nitrogen), realized through various vacuum/nitrogen cycles. The carrier gas was not used to avoid the dilution of the uncondensable gas with the carrier gas. At the end of the purge operations, the plastic material was loaded into the pyrolysis reactor by a screw conveyor and the electrical resistances were switched on to preheat the reactor. Then, they were switched off, and the microwave generators were switched on.
The plastic thermal degradation formed hydrocarbon vapors conveyed to a cooling system. The higher boiling fraction was condensed and collected in the bottom of the cooling system, while the low boiling fraction, together with uncondensable gas, was sent to a torch. During the pyrolysis, further amounts of plastic material were added to the reactor constantly. At the end of the process, the microwave generators were switched off. When the plant was returned to room temperature, vacuum/nitrogen cycles were repeated as described above. At the end of this operation, the solid fraction was collected from the bottom of the reactor. The process was completed, and a new pyrolysis cycle could be started.
In the experiment, the microwave launch system was studied and modified several times until it reached the optimal configuration. The experiments let to identify and refine some operational parameters of the MAP process for improving the yields and quality of pyrolysis products. Table 4 reports the operating parameters of the most significant tests. Microwave power is critical in MAP as it must provide enough energy to break the polymer bonds and start the thermal degradation process. Comparing the data in Table 4, an increase in MW power allowed to treat a double amount of plastic with the same reaction time (PS1, PS3, and PS4).
Entrya | Plastic b (kg) | Power (KW) | Time (min) | Liquid (wt%) | Gas (wt%) | Solid (wt%) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PS1 | 8 | 6;12c | 210;15c | 94 | 4 | 2 |
PS2 | 32 | 12 | 310 | 95 | 3 | 2 |
PS3 | 20 | 12 | 280 | 89 | 6 | 5 |
PS4 | 38 | 18 | 272 | 98 | 1 | 1 |
ABS1 | 75 | 18 | 221 | 67 | 23 | 10 |
ABS2 | 69 | 18 | 225 | 68 | 28 | 4 |
PP1 | 61 | 18 | 237 | 81 | 12 | 7 |
PP2 | 70 | 18 | 230 | 86 | 7 | 6 |
Operating parameters of the most significant tests.
PS: Polystyrene; ABS: Acrylonitrile/Butadiene/Styrene rubber; PP: Polypropylene;
Absorber 1.8 kg (in all tests);
6 KW for 210 min then 12 KW for 15 min.
Once the microwave launch system was fine-tuned, the design of experiments (DOE) was planned to optimize the plant productivity, using various types of plastic materials (PS, ABS or PP, Table 4). By way of example, the logs of temperatures, microwave power, and liquid level produced during the MAP of experiment ABS2 are reported in Figure 9 to describe the evolution of the pyrolysis process. Although the temperature plays an important role, this parameter is detected with high uncertainty in microwave pyrolysis [26]. For this reason, the process was followed by monitoring the temperatures recorded by the probes located in several areas of the plant.
From top to bottom: temperatures log, microwave power log, and level liquid log produced in MAP of ABS2.
The probes from TT101 to TT105 were arranged on the reactor from top to bottom: on the bottom of the reactor was the TT110 probe. The temperature of the vapors generated during pyrolysis was recorded by the TT106 on the condensation pipeline, located after the exit from the reactor. The TT120 probe monitors the electrical resistances of the preheating reactor. All the probe temperatures were referenced to the TT001 corresponding to the ambient temperature.
When the reactor was heated at the prefixed temperature by the electrical resistances, these resistances were switched off while the microwave generators were turned on. Following the curves of the temperature probes on the reactor, it was possible to see how the temperature rose suddenly. During this phase, the carbon black absorbed the microwaves and transferred the heat to the plastic material, which starts to melt. As the process went on, the temperature curves of the reactor reached a value corresponding to the start of the thermal degradation of plastics and consequent generation of hydrocarbon vapors, as could be seen from the TT106 curve. At the same time, the LT101 level curve increased due to the condensation of the vapors and liquid was collected.
When the plant was in full operation, the TT101–106 curves remained constant, and the level LT101 of the liquid in the container continuously grew until the microwave generators were switched off, so the system was cooled, and all temperatures started to decrease when the industrial plant works in the best operating conditions, let to treat 33 kg/h of waste plastic.
As described above, the plant can carry out the MAP process of waste plastic materials at the end of its life cycle, from which three types of products were obtained (liquid, solid, and gas). During the experiment, samples were collected for each type of material for their characterizations. These analyses provided useful information to establish the quality and commercial value of the products formed. The following paragraphs report for each type of polymer tested, a description of analysis results, both for the starting material and the products obtained from the MAP.
For each plastic material evaluated during the experiments, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetric analysis (DSC) were carried out to obtain information on the polymer composition, stability and consequently predict the yield of the pyrolysis products. Specifically, TGA and DSC are two thermal analyses used to characterize polymers. TGA variations measure the weight loss of a sample subject to a constant increase in temperature to quantify the products formed, including gaseous emissions, while DSC measures phase transitions such as melting point and glass transition temperature.
The polystyrene sample was shredded before being analyzed (Figure 10). Two thermal ramps were employed for the TGA/FTIR analysis, the first at a rising temperature of 20°C/min in an inert atmosphere followed by an isotherm in an oxygen atmosphere. The thermogram shows a single weight loss of 99.8 wt % related to the organic part of the polymer and a final residue equal to 0.2% attributed to inorganic impurities present (Figure 11).
EPS sample before (left) and after (right) shredding for TGA analysis.
TGA analysis of EPS.
The FT-IR spectrum of the gas released during the degradation of the polymeric component is reported in Figure 12. The spectrum of the gas released at a temperature of 480°C shows the typical signals of hydrocarbons due to the degradation products of polystyrene. The degradation occurred by both end chains and random cleavage and gave only aromatic compounds such as styrene monomer and oligomers, benzene, and toluene. The spectrum shows the typical frequencies of aromatic compounds, such as the stretching of the C-H bond at 3000 cm−1, the stretching of the aromatic double bond at 1600–1450 cm−1, and the signals between 900 and 700 cm−1 of the aromatic C-C backbone.
FT-IR spectrum of the gases released during the TGA analysis of EPS.
The sample was also subjected to DSC analysis, using three thermal ramps in the temperature range from −10 to 200° C, alternating heating–cooling–heating, in an inert atmosphere. The DSC analysis (Figure 13) shows the presence of a peak at about 60°C, which almost completely disappears in the second heating, probably due to the memory effect or to the presence of traces of volatile compounds in the sample, not visible in the TGA analysis. Furthermore, the sample shows a temperature glass transition at about 94°C, which agrees with the classical Tg of polystyrene. The TGA and DSC analyses show that the sample is essentially polystyrene with probable traces of volatile substances and a small percentage of inorganic impurities.
DSC analysis of EPS.
The sample was analyzed without any pretreatment. Two thermal ramps were adopted for the TGA analysis, the first at a rising temperature of 20°C/min in an inert atmosphere followed by an isotherm in an oxygen atmosphere. As can be seen from the thermogram (Figure 14), the following weight losses were recorded:
at about 330°C, weight loss of 8.2 wt%;
between 400 and 530°C, weight loss of 78.3 wt%, associated with the degradation of the polymeric component;
at 700°C, weight loss of 2.5 wt% associated with the degradation of inorganic compounds;
at 800°C after the switch in the atmosphere of O2 weight loss of 3.3 wt%.
TGA analysis of ABS.
At the end of the analysis, a final residue of 7.7 wt% of the sample was present and associated with inorganic compounds that do not degrade up to this temperature.
The FTIR spectrum of the gas released by the sample during TGA analysis is reported in Figure 15. In the FTIR spectrum of the gas released at 330°C (black line) is present only the emission of CO2, probably due to the degradation with the temperature of inorganic compounds present in ABS. At 440°C, the FTIR spectrum shows signals associated with degradation products of a carbonate containing ABS.
FT-IR spectra of gases released at 330°C (black) and 440°C (red) during the TGA analysis of ABS.
As reported in the literature, the thermal degradation of ABS polymer begins at 340°C with the formation of the butadiene monomer. The aromatic compounds begin to be noticed at 350°C, a temperature at which the degradation of polybutadiene unities is still evident. As the temperature increases, the formation of styrene becomes more important, and at 420°C, the intensities of the C-H bands of butadiene and styrene are approximately equal. At higher temperatures, the presence of aromatics decreases in intensity while that one of butadiene is very strong. The evolution of acrylonitrile begins at about 400°C and ends at 450°C [27].
According to the above description, the spectrum of gas released at 440°C (Figure 15, red line) shows the stretching of aromatic C-H at 3100 cm−1, and aliphatic C-H stretches at 2900 cm−1 and the stretching of the nitrile group at approx. 2200 cm−1. Another sample of ABS was crushed and subsequently subjected to DSC analysis, running three thermal ramps in the temperature range from 25 to 300°C, alternating heating–cooling–heating, in an inert atmosphere. DSC analysis shows a glass transition at T = 108.25°C (Figure 16, red curve) associated with the styrenic portion typical of acrylic copolymers such as acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), styrene–acrylonitrile (SAN), or acrylonitrile–styrene-acrylate (ASA), a glass transition at T = 124.08°C associated with polycarbonate present and a glass transition at T = 162.42°C associated with ABS.
DSC analysis of ABS.
From the DSC and TGA/FTIR analyses, the sample is a polycarbonate containing ABS (78.3%) with small quantities of polypropylene.
Propylene experiments were carried out using single-use masks as a sample of PP. The single-use masks were cut to separate the non-woven polypropylene from the elastic bands, and the two samples were analyzed separately by DSC. For each sample, three thermal ramps were performed in the temperature range from −10 to 300°C, alternating heating–cooling–heating, in an inert atmosphere. Measurement of the glass transition temperature, (Tg), of polypropylene is generally considered difficult to detect with DSC analysis because the transition is weak. The graph (Figure 17) instead shows a peak at 167°C corresponding to the melting temperature of polypropylene (green curve) and a peak at 221°C typical of the nylon used to realize the elastic bands of single-use masks (purple curve).
TGA analysis of single-use mask.
The products formed in the MAP process of these plastic materials were liquid, gas, and char. In all cases, the liquid was the most important fraction both in quantity and commercial value. The characterization of this fraction for the most significant tests is reported below; the chemical–physical properties are shown in Table 5. Physical characteristics of liquids from MAP of PS were not affected by the variation of the MW power. The density recorded in all samples was almost the same and in a very narrow range among 0.92–0.95 g/cm3. Furthermore, close values of ultimate analyses and the molar C/H ratios suggested that all the liquid samples had a similar composition, even if different process parameters have been employed. The C/H molar ratio in a range between 0.94 and 1.0 wt% confirmed the prevailing presence of the aryl compounds in liquids from PS pyrolysis.
Entry | Density | LHV | Elemental analysis (wt %) | C/H | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(g/cm3) | (MJ/kg) | C | H | N | molar ratio | |
PS1 | 0.94 | 39.6 | 82.8 | 7.35 | <0.50 | 0.94 |
PS2 | 0.95 | 40.0 | 89.2 | 7.60 | <0.50 | 0.98 |
PS5 | 0.92 | 39.1 | 85.2 | 7.07 | <0.50 | 1.00 |
ABS1 | 1.02 | 34.4 | 79.8 | 7.8 | 2.9 | 0.85 |
PP2 | 0.75 | 34.3 | 84.3 | 14.3 | 0.0 | 0.49 |
Physical characteristics of liquids obtained from MAP of plastics.
The lower calorific value (LHV) of the liquids from MAP of PS also showed the same trend as the C/H molar ratio, with values close to styrene, benzene, and ethylbenzene (LHV of 39.6, 40.0, and 39.1 MJ/kg, respectively for PS1, PS2, and PS5). As foreseen from the literature and in agreement with the tests carried out both in the laboratory and on the pre-industrial prototype, the main products of PS pyrolysis are aromatic hydrocarbons such as benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, styrene, and α-methylstyrene (Table 6).
Compounds | Area (%) |
---|---|
Toluene | 3.4 |
Ethylbenzene | 7.9 |
Styrene | 56.9 |
Cumene | 1.2 |
α-Methylstyrene | 8.0 |
1,3-Diphenylpropane | 4.0 |
Bis(1,1′-(1-methyl-1,3-propanedyl))benzene | 1.6 |
Stilbene | 0.7 |
1,2-Diphenylcyclopropane | 2.2 |
Bis(1,1’-(3-methyl-1-propenylidene))benzene | 1.4 |
Others | 12.7 |
Main compounds identified in liquid from MAP of PS4, by GC–MS.
Styrene is always the predominant compound in each liquid sample. From the analysis of data reported in Table 7 it is possible to show how the amount of styrene (evaluated by chromatographic area of the GC/MS spectra) is correlated with the microwave power used. The highest amount of styrene was present in PS2 and PS4 (respectively 52.8 and 56.9%), corresponding to experiments where a higher microwave power was used. In contrast, using a lower microwave power (PS1, Table 7), the amount of styrene was drastically reduced. Also, as reported above for PS, the MAP of ABS gives a liquid fraction with a density between 0.97 and 1.02 g/cm3 and C/H molar ratio of 0.85 wt% indicative of the prevailing presence of aromatic compounds. The liquid fraction was analyzed by GC–MS, a complete list of compounds identified through the NIST library is reported in Table 8. Aryl compounds, especially styrene, are present in large amounts in the liquid from MAP of ABS. In the presence of acrylonitrile, nitrile compounds such as 2-methylenpropionitrile were formed in a significant amount. MAP of PP gave a low-density liquid (0.746–0.760 g/cm3) and a C/H molar ratio of 0.5 wt%, confirming the prevailing presence of aliphatic compounds in this liquid. The main compounds identified in the liquid from MAP of PP are reported in Table 9, they were branched saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons, which wereformed through C-C bond cleavage of the PP backbone. In particular, there was a prevalence of C9-C12 hydrocarbons, and among these, the 2,4-dimethyl-1-hepthene was found as the main compound, in agreement with previous results [8]. Many other compounds were present in very low amounts and reported as others. The presence of aromatic hydrocarbons was attributed to cyclization and aromatization reactions of unsaturated compounds formed during the MAP process as reported.
Entry | Power (kW) | Styrene (wt%) |
---|---|---|
PS1 | 6;12 | 37.4 |
PS2 | 12 | 52.8 |
PS4 | 18 | 56.9 |
Correlation between styrene in liquid and MW power in the MAP of PS.
Compounds | Area (%) |
---|---|
2-Methyl-2-propenenitrile | 12.5 |
Toluene | 4.4 |
Ethylbenzene | 8.8 |
Styrene | 20.8 |
Cumene | 3.8 |
α-Methylstyrene | 12.5 |
6,7-dihydro-5-methyl-5H-cyclopentapyrazine | 7.9 |
1,3-Diphenylpropane | 7.2 |
Others | 22.1 |
Main compounds identified in liquids from MAP of ABS, by GC–MS.
Compounds | Area (%) |
---|---|
5-Methylhex-1-ene | 0.8 |
2,4-Dimethyl heptane | 12.5 |
1,4-Dimethylbenzene | 1.2 |
1,3,5-Trimethylbenzene | 0.5 |
1,2,4,5-Tetramethylbenzene | 0.2 |
2,4,6,8-Tetramethylundec-1-ene | 3.5 |
2,4,6,8-Tetramethylundecane | 2.3 |
2,4,6,8,10-Pentamethyltridec-3-ene | 0.6 |
Others | 78.4 |
Compounds identified in liquids from MAP of PP, by GC–MS.
The facemasks were converted into the classical three products of a MAP (liquid, small amount of solid, and gas), having a composition close to those reported in the pyrolysis of PP. The possible contamination was absent in the products formed due to the pyrolysis conditions adopted.
The quality and quantity of end-of-life plastics are continuously improved while the amount of recycled material is always too low. Several firms such as AmSty and Agylix [28], ReVital Polymers, Pyrowave, and INEOS Styrolution [29], BASF, Quantafuel, and REMONDIS [30], Neste [31], and so on are involved in recycling plastic materials using thermochemical processes [1] using, mainly, classic heating method. This review shows the MAP process developed by Techwave as an industrial novelty proposed for the friendly and economical disposal of waste/contaminated plastics. In this way, valuable products, useful as a source of secondary raw material, close the cycle of a circular economy because plastic waste is converted in a feedstock for the production of new plastics.
MAP is a very interesting way to dispose of end life plastics because it does not produce waste from chemical recycling of plastics but three classes of products: a char, an oil, and a gas, available as fuel or the source of new materials for the synthesis of new products. The process is self-sustainable from an energetic point of view rendering the process economically sustainable. The Techwave proposal offers an industrial plant designed to obtain secondary raw materials from plastic wastes, thus closing the cycle for a circular economy and giving a strong advantage in terms of environmental protection and expansion of the recycled material market in a green and sustainable way.
Finally, the plant was realized as planned, so it is possible to introduce in two standard containers for its shipping. Furthermore, a plant of this dimension may be installed in a municipal collecting and selecting center of waste plastic where it may be employed to pyrolyze the mixed plastic present, avoiding the transport of this waste for disposal. The plant may be useful also for a large hospital to dispose of the waste/contaminated plastic present, taking into account that the pyrolysis products do not contain biological contamination because they are destroyed in the course of the process as reported in the literature [24, 25] while the products formed may be sold on the market. The dimension of the plant lets its installation on one small ship where the waste plastic materials present in the sea may be collected and immediately disposed. The products formed may be employed to produce the energy required for all operations, while the excess may be sold on the market.
Techwave srl is acknowledged for financial support. M.F. thanks the University of Florence for financial support.
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Darji",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5271.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"141348",title:"Dr.",name:"Pranav H.",middleName:null,surname:"Darji",slug:"pranav-h.-darji",fullName:"Pranav H. Darji"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:7,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"67088",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86387",title:"Epoxy Adhesives",slug:"epoxy-adhesives",totalDownloads:1261,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Epoxy adhesives are primarily composed of epoxy resin and curing agent. Epoxy adhesives are supplied in both one-component package and two-component package depending on curing agent used and curing method applied. Two-component epoxy adhesives are prepared by packing epoxy composition and curing agent composition separately. They cure soon after mixing the two components together. Almost all room temperature cure epoxy adhesives are supplied in two-component package. One-component epoxy adhesives are prepared and supplied by mixing all formulated components in advance including epoxy resin and curing agent. One-component epoxy adhesives usually need cure at elevated temperature and store at low temperature in a refrigerator or even freezer. Epoxy adhesives have been widely used as typical reactive adhesives for various applications ranging from general industry, construction, electronics assembly, automobile production to aerospace market. Typical room temperature cure epoxy adhesives, thermal cure epoxy adhesives and UV cure epoxy adhesives are introduced in detail.",book:{id:"7679",slug:"adhesives-and-adhesive-joints-in-industry-applications",title:"Adhesives and Adhesive Joints in Industry Applications",fullTitle:"Adhesives and Adhesive Joints in Industry Applications"},signatures:"Chunfu Chen, Bin Li, Masao Kanari and Daoqiang Lu",authors:[{id:"234454",title:"Dr.",name:"Chunfu",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chunfu-chen",fullName:"Chunfu Chen"}]},{id:"51522",doi:"10.5772/64247",title:"Friction and Wear in Automotive Journal Bearings Operating in Today’s Severe Conditions",slug:"friction-and-wear-in-automotive-journal-bearings-operating-in-today-s-severe-conditions",totalDownloads:2873,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"A current trend in the transport sector seeks to increase the vehicle efficiency and to cut fuel consumption which leads to new technologies and advancements in modern and future combustion engines. Some of these technical progresses lead to highly stressed engine parts and new challenges arise, particularly for journal bearings. The increasing thermal and mechanical load caused by downsized and turbocharged engines, friction reduction by employing low-viscosity lubricants and other emission reduction measures—for utilizing stop-start systems—put additional stress on the crankshaft journal bearings. This contribution focuses on highly stressed journal bearings which operate in the boundary, mixed and hydrodynamic lubrication regime. Therefore, measurements on a journal bearing test-rig are performed which allow an extensive verification of the numerical investigation. For the numerical analysis of friction and wear, a mixed elasto-hydrodynamic simulation approach is developed, which considers the elastic deformation of the contacting components, the complex rheological behaviour of the lubricant and metal-metal contact if the lubricant is unable to separate the contacting surfaces. Both the rheological data and the surface roughness parameters are obtained from measurements. The current challenges are studied in four application-oriented examples and the influencing parameters on a reliable friction and wear prediction are explored.",book:{id:"5271",slug:"advances-in-tribology",title:"Advances in Tribology",fullTitle:"Advances in Tribology"},signatures:"David E. Sander, Hannes Allmaier and Hans-Herwig Priebsch",authors:[{id:"151052",title:"Dr.",name:"Hannes",middleName:null,surname:"Allmaier",slug:"hannes-allmaier",fullName:"Hannes Allmaier"},{id:"151317",title:"Mr.",name:"David",middleName:"E.",surname:"Sander",slug:"david-sander",fullName:"David Sander"},{id:"188490",title:"Prof.",name:"Hans-Herwig",middleName:null,surname:"Priebsch",slug:"hans-herwig-priebsch",fullName:"Hans-Herwig Priebsch"}]},{id:"51177",doi:"10.5772/63654",title:"The Tribology and Chemistry of Phosphorus‐Containing Lubricant Additives",slug:"the-tribology-and-chemistry-of-phosphorus-containing-lubricant-additives",totalDownloads:2639,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Phosphate esters, thiophosphate esters and metal thiophosphates have been used as lubricant additives for over 50 years. Recently, phosphorus‐containing ionic liquids have emerged as a new class of lubricant additives. While the use of phosphorus compounds has been extensive, a detailed knowledge of how they work has been a much more recent development. In this chapter, the use of phosphate esters, thiophosphate esters, metal thiophosphates and phosphorus‐containing ionic liquids as antiwear or extreme pressure additives is discussed. The primary emphasis will be on how they form a protective film, which is both durable and reduces friction. The first part of the chapter discusses the use of alkyl phosphates, triaryl phosphates and metal‐containing thiophosphate esters with primarily iron‐ and steel‐based bearing materials. The second part of the chapter examines phosphorus‐containing ionic liquids and the challenges posed by new bearing materials with different surface chemistries.",book:{id:"5271",slug:"advances-in-tribology",title:"Advances in Tribology",fullTitle:"Advances in Tribology"},signatures:"David W. Johnson",authors:[{id:"178441",title:"Dr.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Johnson",slug:"david-johnson",fullName:"David Johnson"}]},{id:"50962",doi:"10.5772/63657",title:"Tribocorrosion",slug:"tribocorrosion",totalDownloads:2275,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"This chapter includes some of the definitions of corrosion as important problem in many industries. The main forms of corrosion have been discussed in this chapter which depended on the appearance of corroded surface with some details of their mechanisms and how can prevent them. This chapter reviews tribocorrosion and explains the simplest method for tribocorrosion test by certain set-up using electrochemical test with three electrodes. Tribocorrosion test is needs to special arrangement of cell to be predicted which also has been mentioned in this chapter.",book:{id:"5271",slug:"advances-in-tribology",title:"Advances in Tribology",fullTitle:"Advances in Tribology"},signatures:"Rana Afif Majed Anaee and Majid Hameed Abdulmajeed",authors:[{id:"181900",title:"Dr.",name:"Rana",middleName:"Afif",surname:"Anaee",slug:"rana-anaee",fullName:"Rana Anaee"},{id:"190735",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Majid",middleName:"Hameed",surname:"Abdulmajeed",slug:"majid-abdulmajeed",fullName:"Majid Abdulmajeed"}]},{id:"51347",doi:"10.5772/63533",title:"Modelling Cavitation in (Elasto)Hydrodynamic Lubrication",slug:"modelling-cavitation-in-elasto-hydrodynamic-lubrication",totalDownloads:1649,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:7,abstract:"In this chapter we will present a derivation of a mathematical model describing how cavitation influences the pressure distribution in a thin lubricant film between two moving surfaces. The main idea in the derivation is to first describe the influence of cavitation on the mass flow and thereafter using a conservation law for the mass. This leads to a nonlinear system with two complementary variables: one is the pressure distribution and the other is related to the density, i.e. a nonlinear complementarity problem (NLCP). The proposed approach is used to derive a mass conserving cavitation model considering that density, viscosity and film thickness of the lubricant depend on the pressure. To demonstrate the applicability and evaluate the proposed model and the suggested numerical implementation, a few model problems are analysed and presented.",book:{id:"5271",slug:"advances-in-tribology",title:"Advances in Tribology",fullTitle:"Advances in Tribology"},signatures:"Andreas Almqvist and Peter Wall",authors:[{id:"181745",title:"Dr.",name:"Andreas",middleName:null,surname:"Almqvist",slug:"andreas-almqvist",fullName:"Andreas Almqvist"},{id:"185675",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Wall",slug:"peter-wall",fullName:"Peter Wall"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"69687",title:"Modeling of Creep Deformation and Creep Fracture",slug:"modeling-of-creep-deformation-and-creep-fracture",totalDownloads:1e3,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"This chapter reports the recent progresses in (1) the development of a modified hyperbolic sine law able to depict the minimum creep strain rate over a wider range of stress levels; (2) the development of the creep fracture criterion and model based on the cavity area fraction along grain boundary calibrated with the most representative and comprehensive cavitation data obtained from X-ray synchrotron investigation; and (3) the development of mesoscopic composite approach modeling of creep deformation and creep damage. The first progress facilitates to overcome the difficulty in creep deformation modeling caused by stress breakdown phenomenon; the second progress is of a really scientifically sound and fundamental new approach, first in the world; the third progress provides the concept and tool, at the appropriate size scale, for the modeling of the creep deformation and creep fracture. They all contribute to the specific knowledge and new methodology to the topic area. Furthermore, it is expected that cavitation fracture modeling methodology reported here will find use in the analysis and modeling of other types of failure such as ductile and fatigue failure. This chapter presents an excellent example of interdisciplinary collaborative research and it advocates further such collaboration in its conclusion.",book:{id:"9265",slug:"strength-of-materials",title:"Strength of Materials",fullTitle:"Strength of Materials"},signatures:"Qiang Xu and Zhongyu Lu",authors:[{id:"308353",title:"Dr.",name:"Qiang",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"qiang-xu",fullName:"Qiang Xu"},{id:"319445",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhongyu",middleName:null,surname:"Lu",slug:"zhongyu-lu",fullName:"Zhongyu Lu"}]},{id:"66810",title:"Free Vibration of Axially Functionally Graded Beam",slug:"free-vibration-of-axially-functionally-graded-beam",totalDownloads:1160,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Axially functionally graded (AFG) beam is a special kind of nonhomogeneous functionally gradient material structure, whose material properties vary continuously along the axial direction of the beam by a given distribution form. There are several numerical methods that have been used to analyze the vibration characteristics of AFG beams, but it is difficult to obtain precise solutions for AFG beams because of the variable coefficients of the governing equation. In this topic, the free vibration of AFG beam using analytical method based on the perturbation theory and Meijer G-Function are studied, respectively. First, a detailed review of the existing literatures is summarized. Then, based on the governing equation of the AFG Euler-Bernoulli beam, the detailed analytic equations are derived on basis of the perturbation theory and Meijer G-function, where the nature frequencies are demonstrated. Subsequently, the numerical results are calculated and compared, meanwhile, the analytical results are also confirmed by finite element method and the published references. The results show that the proposed two analytical methods are simple and efficient and can be used to conveniently analyze free vibration of AFG beam.",book:{id:"8844",slug:"mechanics-of-functionally-graded-materials-and-structures",title:"Mechanics of Functionally Graded Materials and Structures",fullTitle:"Mechanics of Functionally Graded Materials and Structures"},signatures:"Dongxing Cao, Bin Wang, Wenhua Hu and Yanhui Gao",authors:[{id:"283678",title:"Prof.",name:"Dongxing",middleName:null,surname:"Cao",slug:"dongxing-cao",fullName:"Dongxing Cao"},{id:"295692",title:"Mr.",name:"Bin",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"bin-wang",fullName:"Bin Wang"},{id:"295693",title:"Dr.",name:"Wenhua",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wenhua-hu",fullName:"Wenhua Hu"},{id:"295694",title:"Mr.",name:"Yanhui",middleName:null,surname:"Gao",slug:"yanhui-gao",fullName:"Yanhui Gao"}]},{id:"51522",title:"Friction and Wear in Automotive Journal Bearings Operating in Today’s Severe Conditions",slug:"friction-and-wear-in-automotive-journal-bearings-operating-in-today-s-severe-conditions",totalDownloads:2873,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:12,abstract:"A current trend in the transport sector seeks to increase the vehicle efficiency and to cut fuel consumption which leads to new technologies and advancements in modern and future combustion engines. Some of these technical progresses lead to highly stressed engine parts and new challenges arise, particularly for journal bearings. The increasing thermal and mechanical load caused by downsized and turbocharged engines, friction reduction by employing low-viscosity lubricants and other emission reduction measures—for utilizing stop-start systems—put additional stress on the crankshaft journal bearings. This contribution focuses on highly stressed journal bearings which operate in the boundary, mixed and hydrodynamic lubrication regime. Therefore, measurements on a journal bearing test-rig are performed which allow an extensive verification of the numerical investigation. For the numerical analysis of friction and wear, a mixed elasto-hydrodynamic simulation approach is developed, which considers the elastic deformation of the contacting components, the complex rheological behaviour of the lubricant and metal-metal contact if the lubricant is unable to separate the contacting surfaces. Both the rheological data and the surface roughness parameters are obtained from measurements. The current challenges are studied in four application-oriented examples and the influencing parameters on a reliable friction and wear prediction are explored.",book:{id:"5271",slug:"advances-in-tribology",title:"Advances in Tribology",fullTitle:"Advances in Tribology"},signatures:"David E. Sander, Hannes Allmaier and Hans-Herwig Priebsch",authors:[{id:"151052",title:"Dr.",name:"Hannes",middleName:null,surname:"Allmaier",slug:"hannes-allmaier",fullName:"Hannes Allmaier"},{id:"151317",title:"Mr.",name:"David",middleName:"E.",surname:"Sander",slug:"david-sander",fullName:"David Sander"},{id:"188490",title:"Prof.",name:"Hans-Herwig",middleName:null,surname:"Priebsch",slug:"hans-herwig-priebsch",fullName:"Hans-Herwig Priebsch"}]},{id:"70512",title:"Residual Stress Modeling and Deformation Measurement in Laser Metal Deposition Process",slug:"residual-stress-modeling-and-deformation-measurement-in-laser-metal-deposition-process",totalDownloads:844,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Direct metal deposition (DMD) has become very popular within the space of rapid manufacturing and repair. Its capability of producing fully dense metal parts with complex internal geometries, which could not be easily achieved by traditional manufacturing approaches, has been well demonstrated. However, the DMD process usually comes with high thermal gradients and high heating and cooling rates, leading to residual stresses and the associated deformation, which can have negative effect on product integrity. This paper studies the features of thermal stress and deformation involved in the DMD process by constructing a 3-D, sequentially coupled, thermomechanical, finite element model to predict both the thermal and mechanical behaviors of the DMD process of Stainless Steel 304 (SS 304). A set of experiments were then conducted to validate deformation using a laser displacement sensor. Comparisons between the simulated and experimental results show good agreement. This model can be used to predict the mechanical behavior of products fabricated by the DMD process and to help with the optimization of design and manufacturing parameters.",book:{id:"8457",slug:"new-challenges-in-residual-stress-measurements-and-evaluation",title:"New Challenges in Residual Stress Measurements and Evaluation",fullTitle:"New Challenges in Residual Stress Measurements and Evaluation"},signatures:"Heng Liu and Frank Liou",authors:[{id:"101869",title:"Prof.",name:"Frank",middleName:null,surname:"Liou",slug:"frank-liou",fullName:"Frank Liou"},{id:"292019",title:"Mr.",name:"Heng",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",slug:"heng-liu",fullName:"Heng Liu"}]},{id:"67088",title:"Epoxy Adhesives",slug:"epoxy-adhesives",totalDownloads:1261,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"Epoxy adhesives are primarily composed of epoxy resin and curing agent. Epoxy adhesives are supplied in both one-component package and two-component package depending on curing agent used and curing method applied. Two-component epoxy adhesives are prepared by packing epoxy composition and curing agent composition separately. They cure soon after mixing the two components together. Almost all room temperature cure epoxy adhesives are supplied in two-component package. One-component epoxy adhesives are prepared and supplied by mixing all formulated components in advance including epoxy resin and curing agent. One-component epoxy adhesives usually need cure at elevated temperature and store at low temperature in a refrigerator or even freezer. Epoxy adhesives have been widely used as typical reactive adhesives for various applications ranging from general industry, construction, electronics assembly, automobile production to aerospace market. Typical room temperature cure epoxy adhesives, thermal cure epoxy adhesives and UV cure epoxy adhesives are introduced in detail.",book:{id:"7679",slug:"adhesives-and-adhesive-joints-in-industry-applications",title:"Adhesives and Adhesive Joints in Industry Applications",fullTitle:"Adhesives and Adhesive Joints in Industry Applications"},signatures:"Chunfu Chen, Bin Li, Masao Kanari and Daoqiang Lu",authors:[{id:"234454",title:"Dr.",name:"Chunfu",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"chunfu-chen",fullName:"Chunfu Chen"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"817",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[],lsSeriesList:[],hsSeriesList:[],sshSeriesList:[],testimonialsList:[]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"