Trust factors and leadership traits – derived from Zak [35].
\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
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\r\n\tProbability theory is a fascinating paradigm across the ages till modern times that includes essential theorems and diverse applications in all science. It is a branch of statistics, a science that employs mathematical methods of collection, organization, and interpretation of data, with applications in practically all scientific areas. When working with probability theory, we analyze random – or stochastic – phenomena and assess the likelihood that an event will occur. Topics chosen in this book will aim to serve the purpose of illustrating probability theory and stochastic variables and processes. As a matter of fact, the subject is very broad and could be developed surely in many manuals and research papers. Thus, the book will intend to be an introduction to this exciting, profound, and modern field of mathematics and knowledge. This book will aim to discuss some fundamental aspects of pure and applied probability theory and explore their use to solve a large array of problems, as we will see. As such, the book will be of interest to all scholars, researchers, and undergraduate and graduate students in pure and applied mathematics, classical and modern physics, engineering, computer science, and science in general.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-296-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-295-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-297-3",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"f6f474da3dbb92cb35aeabdcbbf8498e",bookSignature:"Dr. Abdo Abou Jaoudé",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12021.jpg",keywords:"Probability, Novel Models, Applications, Latest Trends, New Theorems, Simulations, Computer Science, Applications to Physics, Applications to Engineering, Pure Mathematics, Stochastic Processes, New Probability Axioms",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 2nd 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 30th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 29th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 17th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 16th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"11 hours",secondStepPassed:!1,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé is a pioneering Associate Professor of Mathematics and Statistics at Notre Dame University-Louaizé. He holds two PhDs in Mathematics and Prognostics from the Lebanese University and Aix-Marseille University. His research interests are in the field of mathematics.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"248271",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdo",middleName:null,surname:"Abou Jaoudé",slug:"abdo-abou-jaoude",fullName:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248271/images/system/248271.jpg",biography:"Abdo Abou Jaoudé has been teaching for many years and has a passion for researching and teaching mathematics. He is currently an Associate Professor of Mathematics and Statistics at Notre Dame University-Louaizé (NDU), Lebanon. He holds a BSc and an MSc in Computer Science from NDU, and three PhDs in Applied Mathematics, Computer Science, and Applied Statistics and Probability, all from Bircham International University through a distance learning program. He also holds two PhDs in Mathematics and Prognostics from the Lebanese University, Lebanon, and Aix-Marseille University, France. Dr. Abou Jaoudé's broad research interests are in the field of applied mathematics. 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Primary symptoms of cerebral palsy are problems with muscle tone, balance, selectivity, and strength. Rehabilitation of the children with CP aims to reach and maintain optimal physical, sensory, intellectual, psychological, and social function. It includes providing the tools an individual needs to gain and maintain independence and self-determination. Brain plasticity is important to the pathophysiology and treatment of CP throughout a patient’s life. This feature has directed research into functional recovery, and rehabilitation therapies that aim to capitalize on neuroplasticity are being developed. Recent recommendations state that intensive rehabilitation improves motor function in children with CP by including motor learning theories. Repetitive, goal-directed movements that are associated with sensory feedback and an attractive environment are likely to promote reorganization of the neuronal pathways and motor development after brain injuries [1, 2]. Advances in neuroscience suggest that the central nervous system (CNS) has some plasticity and the potential to reorganize throughout the entire lifespan rather than merely during a short period of development. Activity-dependent plasticity takes place in the motor cortex. The concept that intense, task-specific exercises capitalize on the potential plasticity of the CNS and thus improve motor recovery has led to the development of several successful interventions. In general, techniques used in CP rehabilitation can be classified as (1) approaches without using any equipment and (2) approaches with using equipments. In the rehabilitation of CP, there have been several major therapeutic practices during past years, including the Bobath concept and sensory integration; these models of treatment have been adopted as good practice and accepted as conventional approaches to treatment. Additional, well-controlled, randomized trials are needed to establish efficacy and to define the most appropriate roles for new technologies in physical rehabilitation interventions for children with CP [3, 4].
\nThe Bobath approach, also known as neurodevelopmental treatment (NDT), was developed by Dr. Karel Bobath and Berta Bobath in the 1940s. The concept was based on observations of how abnormal tone interfered with the child’s ability to develop functional activity. The Bobaths developed a theoretical framework for practice based on the neurophysiological knowledge of the day [5]. The Bobath concept says that normal quality of tone is necessary for effective movement. In Bobath concept, therapists use specialized handling techniques that improve the quality of tone and facilitate the movement patterns in the execution of everyday tasks. Also, active participation of the child is emphasized throughout treatment with the specific aim and controlling the activity. The quality of tone has always been central to this concept [6]. The Bobaths emphasized the need for movement strategies learnt in treatment to be carried over into everyday life activities. When planning the most appropriate activity, therapists draw on an in-depth knowledge of normal motor development and the control of movement [7]. NDT aims to normalize the muscle tone, inhibit primitive and abnormal reflexes, and to facilitate normal movements [8]. The Bobath concept based on the systems approach to motor control, with neuroplasticity as the primary mechanism for neurological recovery [9, 10]. Bobath concept helps to improve postural alignment and inhibit abnormal reflexes with child’s active participation and practice of functional skills. Using handlings, the therapist aims to facilitate the desired muscle action. Through these handlings, it is possible to conduct movements, influence muscle tone, and improve postural alignment and postural self-organization [11–13]. Self-organization facilitates posture and movement integration, allowing the use of postural control strategies contributing for motor learning and motor control improvement. Normal movements are facilitated, and abnormal patterns are inhibited to allow appropriate active reactions [14]. The therapist induces an expected motor response by means of the stimulation of sensory pathways, which are the gateways to motor control and motor learning [15, 16]. This approach also provides observation, analyzing a child’s performance and finding his/her potential. The purpose of this approach is to correct abnormal postural tone and to facilitate more normal movement patterns for performing daily activities [17]. Despite the widespread use of NDT, studies of its effectiveness have reported conflicting or inconsistent findings. Thus, more accurate assessment tools are important for measuring the effectiveness of NDT in cerebral palsy (CP) rehabilitation [16].
\nThe aim of this therapy for children with CP, as for most children with developmental disabilities, is to facilitate the child’s participation in everyday life situations, e.g., to communicate with parents, siblings, and peers; to move from one place to another; to dress and undress; to eat; and to play. The choice of goals for therapy is dependent on many factors: the child’s likings and the family’s preferences, the society and environment in which the family lives, and the child’s degree of disability [18, 19]. Gradually, a shift has occurred in therapy. Today the child is given the possibility to be more of an active problem solver (instead of, as previously, a passive recipient of treatment) in the context of the day-to-day environment. This treatment approach is referred to as ‘task-oriented’ approach and is built on theories of motor control. The development and learning of new skills occur in an interaction between the child, the task to be performed, and the particular environment in which the activity takes place [20–22]. This is the context in which the goals for therapy are set in close collaboration with the child’s family and sometimes also the child. The goals and especially the grading of the goals in steps provide an individual plan for the child to learn the specific activity and reach the goal [23, 24]. Thus, it is important to integrate principles of motor learning in the treatment concept and adapt the principles to the prerequisites of each specific child. As CP is a very heterogeneous disorder, large differences exist between the children. Also from this viewpoint, the formulation of treatment goals offers an opportunity to an individualized treatment approach. The set goals should be specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and timed (SMART) [25–31]. Functional training and practice of functional tasks are important parts of the rehabilitation management in CP. Achievement of functional goals was always the ultimate purpose of therapists [10]. Physiotherapists often identify a general aim in treatment of their patients, such as improving trunk balance or gait pattern. Such aims have general changes in the child’s performance, they do not refer to a specific activity achievement. Setting a treatment goal involves identifying and formulating standards of motor activity, which are in advance of the child’s current capacity. Previous studies on a group of quadriplegic children reported improved motor function after treatment using goal setting [32–35]. In randomized trials, the goal-directed therapy in real environment has been shown to be more effective than approaches focusing on impairments in quality of movement and muscle performance [35–38]. Collaborative goal setting and achieving meaningful, client-selected goals bring about effective therapy service [39, 40]. Effective listening and communication are strategies and fundamental components of successful interventions to establish a common goal [41, 42]. Treatment success was defined by Goal Attainment Scaling (GAS). GAS is an individualized criterion-referenced measurement that quantifies the achievement of treatment or intervention goals for different kinds of treatment issues [43, 44]. For each goal, client and therapist improved specific, observable, and quantifiable outcomes. Five outcome levels were identified, including expected level of performance (assigned 0), two levels of less favorable (assigned −2 or −1), and two levels of more favorable outcomes (assigned +1 or +2) [24].
\nEnhancing muscular fitness and higher levels of muscular strength causes significantly better cardiometabolic risk factor profiles, lower risk of all-cause mortality, fewer cardiovascular disease events, and lower risk of developing functional limitations. In CP, muscle weakness is a primary impairment, and there is strong evidence showing that children with CP are significantly weaker than children with typical development [45–52]. In the past, strength training was considered to be contraindicated in children with CP because it was thought to increase muscles stiffness and result in an increase in spasticity. However, studies have found no change in spasticity during or after training, which supports the current belief that strength training for persons with spasticity is not contraindicated [53–55]. Muscle strength training studies have shown that training may strengthen muscles without adverse effects in children and adolescents with CP. The majority of participants were spastic diplegic or hemiplegic distribution. These trials are evidence for benefit of strength training programs that improve strength [56]. Also, there is an evidence that targeted strength training improves spasticity. Therefore, in conjunction with cardiorespiratory fitness, target muscle strengthening in children, adolescents, and adults with CP is imperative [57]. As for children with typical development, resistance training has observable benefits in strength among children, adolescents, and adults with CP [58]. There is inadequate evidence to show changes in activity or participating in everyday life. However, there are strong indications that strength training programs play an important role in the habilitation of individuals with CP [7]. Isokinetics has been used in testing and performance enhancement for over 30 years. In 1967, some authors introduced the concept of isokinetic exercise training and rehabilitation. Isokinetics are frequently chosen because of their inherent patient safety and objectivity. Isokinetic represents a match between mechanically imposed velocity and the subject movement that contacts against a controlled angular velocity. Therefore, through accommodating resistance, the muscle contracts at its maximal capability at all points throughout the range of motion [59]. Endurance exercises are considered as exercises that are done in a time limit of a person’s ability to maintain either a specific force or power involving muscular contractions. Several studies have found out that endurance exercises can greatly increase strength in the muscles by adding specific weight training to their programs. Strength development through endurance training is important for the prevention and rehabilitation of injuries and for improving sport performance. Strength is also important for maintenance of functional capacity; with aging or injury, there is catabolic breakdown of the muscle connective tissue, resistance training presents the only natural method to offset such wasting conditions. Resistance exercise is a very common type of endurance training, which can improve the muscle strength and give a good balance to our bodies [60–65]. Strength training also increase the power of weak antagonist muscles and of the spastic agonists. Improvements with various modalities ranged from 19.6% with isokinetic strengthening to over 100% with training machines and free weights [66–70]. The nature of the relationship between strength and function is of considerable relevance to clinical practice. Task-oriented weight-bearing strength training for children with CP was effective in increasing strength and functional performance. Gains in strength improve functional motor performance, if strengthening exercises includes more functional closed kinetic chain exercises. In these exercises, the subject is weight bearing through the feet, and the body mass is raised and lowered over the feet by concentric and eccentric action of lower limb muscles, such as sit-to-stand and walking [71].
\nConductive education (CE) is a combined educational and task-oriented approach for children with CP. Specially trained ‘conductors’ give education to homogeneous groups of children with motor disorders [72]. This approach has its origins in learning theory. The movement problems experienced by children with CP are thought of primary learning process problems. Training takes place in an educational setting. The conductor who is trained in all aspects of motor and cognitive development structures the activities, especially the self-care activities. Group work is important as a motivating factor, and there is a strong emphasis on the importance of anticipation, with forward planning of activities and volitional control in acquisition of new skills [73]. CE approach aims to educate people with physical disabilities to acquire new experiences in activities of daily living (ADLs). In this approach, the child is educated on how to use his/her abilities for performing active movements and generalizing this learning to different life situations. In this technique, children present activities in the form of a group, using music and rhythmic speech during activities. Paying attention to all aspect of child development, that is, the physical, intellectual, cognitive, and social approach, is important [74]. The CE approach is more effective in improving social interaction and relationships than the other approaches. Educational programs for parents can also improve the quality of life of children with CP in activities, such as eating, bowel, and urine control [75]. In Hungary, where this approach was pioneered, children tend to be in the educational setting all day. Frequently, group work and the use of specialized furniture are incorporated into more eclectic treatment programs [7]. Major differences in outcome between CE and another intensive rehabilitation program was not demonstrated [76]. A study comparing individual PT or OT with CE showed that CE improved coordinative hand functions and activities of daily living [77]. The emphasis of intervention is on independence in attaining goals rather than on quality of movement. CE is sometimes included in the group of complementary therapies for CP. It has been reported to be used by 21% of children with CP [6, 10, 78, 79].
\nSensory integration therapy is based on the idea that some kids experience “sensory overload” and are oversensitive to certain types of stimulation. When children have sensory overload, their brains have trouble processing or filtering many sensations at once. Meanwhile, other children are undersensitive to some kinds of stimulation. Children who are undersensitive do not process sensory messages quickly or efficiently. These children may seem disconnected from their environment. In either case, children with sensory integration issues struggle to organize, understand, and respond to the information they take in from their surroundings. Sensory integration therapy exposes children to sensory stimulation in a structured, repetitive manner. The theory behind this treatment approach is that, over time, the brain will adapt and allow them to process and react to sensations more efficiently. CP has been treated with an emphasis on ameliorating motor impairments; however, more recently, the significant impact of concomitant sensory impairments has been acknowledged and targeted for evaluation and intervention. Sensory integration is developed by an occupational therapist, Jean Ayres, in the 1960s. In this concept, difficulties in planning and organizing behavior are attributed to problems of processing sensory inputs within the CNS, including vestibular, proprioceptive, tactile, visual, and auditory. Children with sensory integration dysfunction frequently use different sensory combination strategies. Treatment focuses on integration of neurological processing by facilitating the individual to process the type, quality, and intensity of sensation. Children with sensory integration problems often display inappropriate responses to sensory input. Some children show poor ability to register sensory information and therefore seek sensory input, and those who are hypersensitive to sensory stimuli require desensitizing. The processing of sensory information is fundamental for organizing behaviors. A significant number of children with CP have sensory impairments. Sensory integration may help processing and integration of this sensory information, thereby enhancing the child’s acquisition of function [7, 80]. Programs of Sensory Integration Training in individuals and group treatments affect children with cerebral palsy. It was concluded that sensory integration training in children with cerebral palsy will be applied to combined programs and the relationship with individual and group treatments developed [81].
\nCongenital hemiplegia is the most common form of unilateral CP, with a prevalence of 1 in 1300 live births. One side of the body has impairments in movement and/or sensation, which may cause difficulty with daily activities. The result of sensory and motor impairments often leads to “developmental disuse”—a phenomenon in which such children tend not to use the affected extremity, so it accordingly fails to develop [26, 82]. Constraint-induced movement therapy (CIMT) is specifically used to improve upper limb function in children with hemiplegia who account for approximately 30% of all children with CP [83]. CIMT aims to increase spontaneous use of the impaired arm by forcing the child to use it by restraining the other one. It is characterized by the following elements: restraining of the unaffected side, concentrated and intensive practice (over 2–3 treatment weeks for 6–7 days with the unaffected hand restrained 90% of the waking hours, followed by 10 days of a 6-hour intensive program), and shaping activities [84]. This protocol has been modified in a number of studies and more recent use with children with hemiplegia has featured a shorter duration of restraint (with none taking place at home) and the use of child-friendly treatment tasks [85]. One potential advantage of CIMT is that the restraint allows the therapist administering the intervention to focus solely on the more-affected arm [86]. Some clinical trials show that this modified CIMT significantly improves movement efficiency and bimanual arm use in hemiplegic children [87, 88]. A recent systematic review provides evidence of efficacy of CIMT for improving hand function. CIMT was initially used in adults with hemiparesis [89]. During the acute phase of stroke, the individual unable to use the upper limb effectively, which over time results in learned nonuse of the affected upper limb. Similar loss of function was found in children with hemiplegia [90–92]. During development, the children with hemiplegia frequently find that daily tasks are more effective and efficient using the nonaffected hand. CIMT increases functional ability in the affected upper limb with a concomitant cortical reorganization. In recent years, a variety of clinical trials bring out modified CIMT, where the unaffected limb is restrained for less than 3 hours a day. Restraint of the nonaffected limb may take several forms, including bivalved casts, a glove, or a sling. Activity programs involve selected tasks that are systematically increased in difficulty, this is often referred to as a shaping process. CIMT improves movement efficiency, performance, and perceived usage of the involved upper extremity hand and arm, the changes retains for 6 months. CIMT is efficacious in improving movement efficiency that was not age-dependent [88, 91–93]. CIMT is based on a concept that is not new but it is still experimental in hemiplegic CP. Further research is essential for its tolerability for children and families and to ensure that it is developmentally appropriate.
\nThe Bimanual training (BIT) provides bimanual training activities, which focus on improving the coordination of both arms using structured tasks in bimanual play and functional activities with intensive practice [94]. Historically, therapists have used a bimanual approach in the management of motor dysfunction in children with hemiplegia, but only recently has an intensive bimanual training program, the hand-arm bimanual intensive training (HABIT) been published to substantiate its effectiveness. This approach is based on motor learning theory (practice specificity, types of practice, and feedback), neuroplasticity (i.e., the potential of the brain to change by repetition, increasing movement complexity, motivation, and reward), and focuses on the equal use of both arms in bimanual tasks. Intensive BIT (e.g., HABIT), was developed with recognition that increased functional independence in the child’s environment requires the combined use of both hands. BIT was developed in response to the limitations of CIMT, with a view to addressing bimanual coordination while maintaining the positive aspects of intensive training of the impaired arm. BIT also focuses on improving coordination of the two hands using structured task practice embedded in bimanual play and functional activities [86, 95, 96]. The lower extremity (LE) is generally less affected than the upper extremity (UE) in children with hemiplegic CP, normally allowing gait. However, impairments are observed in the involved LE ranging from isolated equines in the ankle to hip flexion and adduction with a fixed knee. In standing, children are unable to achieve postural symmetry, presenting an overload on one body side. This leads to limitations in walking abilities. In the past decade, intensive training techniques focusing on the UE (i.e., CIMT, intensive bimanual training) have shown tremendous promise in improving UE function. Hand-arm bimanual intensive therapy including lower extremities (HABIT-ILE) combines upper and lower bilateral extremity training [97, 98]. Frequently used bimanual tasks and activities are gross dexterity, manipulative games and tasks, functional tasks, arts and craft, and virtual reality (wii-fit, kinect). Frequently used bilateral lower extremity tasks are ball sitting, standing, balance board standing, virtual reality (wii-fit, kinect), walking/running, jumping, cycling, and making scooter. Bimanual activities that require trunk and LE postural adaptations are performed at a table of appropriate height (50% of the time) on unstable supports: sitting on fitness balls or standing on balance boards. Both the decreased time and the progressively increasing postural challenge represent the main difference from HABIT. Furthermore, 30% of the time is devoted to activities of daily living where standing and/or walking is required (dressing, brushing teeth, doing one’s hair, transporting objects such as a tray, and household chores such as sweeping and washing dishes). Finally, the remaining time (20%) is spent in gross motor physical activities/play, such as bowling, ball playing, jumping rope, street hockey, use of wii-fit, balance bike (without pedals), scooter use, and wall climbing. These are performed in standing, walking, and running (or jumping) with the LE and simultaneously involving bimanual coordination. These activities are graded toward more demanding tasks for the LE [99].
\nFamily-centered care refers to how healthcare professionals interact and involve children’s family in the care. A family-centered approach is characterized by therapist’s practices that respect to families, where information is exchanged, where there is responsiveness to the family priorities and choices, and where family-therapist partnerships are fundamentally important. The family-centered practice has emphasis on child and family strengths rather than deficits. This approach facilitates family choice and control [100–103]. In this approach, effective intervention is based on collaborative decision making and respect for parents’ understandings of their child’s needs and appreciation of family and child worldviews, values, and preferences. Family-centered service promote the family’s (including the child) self-determination, decision-making capabilities, and self-efficacy [104–107]. The principles underlying family-centered service include recognition of parents as the experts on their child’s needs, the promotion of partnership, and support for the family’s role in decision making for their child. There is evidence that family-centered care is related to physical or health benefits to children and psychosocial benefits for mothers [108]. Collaboration or a partnership between therapists and families has been endorsed as a best approach in the field of early intervention and pediatric rehabilitation [109–111]. Successful parent-therapist collaboration is characterized by the following therapist competencies: (1) ability to listen, share, and learn with families; (2) ability to foster the parental role and expertise; and (3) ability to facilitate parent-centered decision making about what is best for the child [42]. These abilities and behaviors, together, constitute the building blocks of family-centered service, effective help giving, and relationship-based practice [112, 113]. The “family-centred service” is built on three principles: (1) respect that parents know and want the best for their child, (2) every family is unique, and (3) optimal development occurs within a supportive family and a community context [18, 114, 115]. A family-centered service approach offers a perspective in which the child and biological aspects of the child are important but where the needs of the parents and the family are central to incorporate and support. The well-being of the family is essential to the well-being of the child. In many countries, (re)habilitation centers offer multiprofessional services to children with developmental disabilities, and a family-centered service approach is often an important basis in the work with families. Good team collaboration is needed to optimally coordinate services. Key features in this process are good organization and communication and a lucid process in the collaborative decision making when setting goals for therapy [116, 117].
\nApproximately 41% of children with CP display limited walking ability. A typical form of gait training has been performed overground with assistive devices or parallel bars. The treadmill has recently gained more attention as an instrument for gait training and assessment with several advantages over conventional methods. The treadmill can help clinicians overcome space constraints, reduce physical demands, and establish a convenient set-up for gait evaluation [118]. Treadmill training is used for children with CP to help them to improve balance and build strength of their lower limbs so they could walk earlier and more efficiently than those children who did not receive treadmill training [65]. In recent years, there has been increasing interest in partial body weight-supported treadmill training (PBWSTT). In PBWSTT, the child is in a harness that supports their body weight, reducing some of the effort required for walking over the treadmill. The treadmill assists in production of steps while the child is supported in a safe environment. Recent studies have reported the benefits of gait training on a treadmill. Some studies showed that treadmill training helped children with cerebral palsy to walk about 101 days earlier than children who did not train by treadmill. A recent study, which looked at the effects of PBWSTT on endurance, functional gait, and balance, trained children for 30 minutes twice daily for 2 weeks, showed improvements in walking speed and energy efficiency. A recent systematic review of PBWSTT in young children with developmental disability (the majority of whom had CP) concluded that there was no definitive evidence that PBWSTT alone increases ambulatory ability. Although the systematic review did not support the effectiveness of the treatment, the evidence from some of the papers reviewed suggested some positive improvements [119, 120]. Positive effects of treadmill training were found in comparison with overground gait training on static and functional balance. The effects were found after 12 sessions of training at the aerobic threshold without body weight support. The benefits included an improvement in functional performance and greater independence in children with CP [121]. It is suggested that treadmill training may favor proprioceptive feedback, leading to adjustments for adequate postural balance and functional performance [122]. Also, backward walking (BW) training on the treadmill can improve the gross motor function measure, weight-bearing symmetry, and temporospatial gait parameters in individuals with spastic cerebral palsy. The muscles of the legs are active for a longer period during BW training when compared with forward (FW) training, and a longer period of muscle activity can result in greater muscle strength gain than with FW training. Furthermore, training in BW could require higher physiological and perceptual responses than FW at matched speed, as BW is the performance of a novel task for most children with CP. BW treadmill training helps children with spastic CP to improve walking capacity and decrease standing asymmetry of body weight distribution [123]. Treadmill gait training helps such children to repeat task-centered activities while walking; accordingly, they control velocity and develop a proper walking pattern by processing repeated sensory inputs obtained during walking. It is effective for increasing the muscular strength of the knee extensors and flexors as well as enhancing balance activities. Thus, it plays an important role in improving the functional activities of children with cerebral palsy. Enhanced muscular strength in the lower limbs causes adjusting the participants’ posture, improving dynamic postural stability, and ultimately improving walking. Also, improved walking endurance and muscle strength leads to improved gait performance after treadmill training [124].
\nRobot-assisted therapy (RAT) is conducted using robotic devices that enable the patients to perform specific limb movements. The main interest in using robots is to allow the patients to achieve a large amount of movement in a limited time. Additionally, the attractive human-machine interface has the capacity to motivate the child to perform his or her therapy through playful games, such as car races, or to perform exercises that mimic ADLs. Moreover, robotic devices allow the patient to receive visual, auditory, or sensory feedbacks. Finally, the robot gives performance-based assistance to the patients. This assistance can enhance the neuronal plasticity by enabling the patients to initiate and accomplish movements as actively as possible [125–132]. The strength of RAT is based on repetitive, goal-oriented, cognitive engaging tasks, which appear to be particularly interesting in the pediatric age, when the neuroplasticity is recognized to be at its maximum. Robotic therapy might increase functional strength and improve isolated movements. Because consistency of assistance can be maintained, intensity and difficulty can be set according to the patient’s improvement. Several groups reported long-lasting improvements in standing and walking of children with CP. Also, parents and patients report improvements in terms of quality of life [133–135]. A device specifically developed for the locomotion training is the Lokomat (Hocoma, CH), made of two active orthoses, a weight-bearing system and a treadmill. This robotic rehabilitation has been proposed to improve walking and physical fitness [136]. It is reported that the muscular strength of ankle dorsiflexion and plantarflexion increases in children with cerebral palsy who played a block break game and an airplane game using robotics in virtual reality three times per week for 12 weeks [137]. Robotic devices offer children fun and intensive rehabilitation that a human therapist cannot provide. These robots can be easily integrated as a relevant complement to therapy in the clinical setting. Studies have shown that combined passive and active training using a portable robot for children with CP is effective and feasible in a research laboratory and in a clinical setting. A repetitive, goal-directed, biofeedback training through motivating games in the laboratory and in the home environment is feasible. Robot-guided therapy can be an option for a home-based treatment program. The benefits of home-based robot-guided therapy are also similar to those of laboratory-based robot-guided therapy [138].
\nVirtual reality has been defined as the use of interactive simulations created with computer to perform users in virtual environments that appear, sound, and feel similar to real-world objects and events [139, 140]. Users interact with virtual objects by moving and manipulating them. The therapeutic aims of virtual reality and interactive computer play are to provide users with more than just an entertaining experience [141]. The use of virtual reality in pediatric rehabilitation is based on its distinctive attributes that provide ecologically valid opportunities for active learning, which are enjoyable and motivating yet challenging and safe [142, 143]. Due to limitations in mobility and manual ability, children with CP may have fewer opportunities for free play. Without opportunities for self-initiated and spontaneous play, children can develop a learned helplessness and assume that they are unable to perform a task even though they may have the required physical abilities. In contrast to planned structured activities led by an adult, free play is characterized by children’s spontaneous engagement in an activity that is intrinsically motivating and self-regulated [144]. Virtual reality can improve the patient’s motivation and achievement in ADLs. Preliminary data suggest that this type of therapy also improves motor function in the upper and lower extremities that are caused by CP [127, 145]. The dynamic nature of stimulus increases the ability of cognitive and/or motor demands. The automated recording of task outcome enables clinicians to focus on child’s performance within a virtual environment and to observe whether he or she is using effective strategies [146]. Clinicians can now design virtual environments to achieve a variety of therapeutic objectives by varying task complexity, type, and amount of feedback [147, 148]. The significance of virtual reality technology is related to the motivation it provides to perform multiple task-oriented repetitions [149]. Virtual reality is more important in children who are often not compliant in following a conventional exercise program because they find the exercises to be less interesting [150–153]. The technologies differ in both type and technical complexity. There are a variety of technologies that can be used to implement virtual environments. These include the use of standard desktop or laptop computer equipment, camera-based video capture gesture control devices (e.g., Microsoft’s Kinect), Nintendo Wii Fit (http://wiifit.com/) head-mounted displays, haptic and other sensor- and/or actuator-based devices, and large screen immersive systems (e.g., Motek’s CAREN http://www.motekmedical.com/) [153]. It is showed that children with a neurological gait disorder reported higher levels of motivation while gait training during a virtual reality soccer activity compared with training with therapy instruction [154, 155]. Participants’ motivation levels were found to differ based on the type of virtual reality game played. Their motivation levels were less during a virtual reality navigation game than during conventional therapy and greater during virtual reality soccer than during conventional therapy. Finally, participants reported more fun and interest when doing dorsiflexion exercises in the context of GestureTek virtual reality games compared with completing exercises while sitting in a chair with therapist instruction. More specifically, 8 of 10 children increased their median energy expenditure significantly. Parents reported motivation-enabled performance, four participants self-reported feeling motivated, and volition levels were increased. Demonstration of the effectiveness of any virtual reality intervention depends on the degree to which the attained skills transfer to the “real world.” Interactive computer play is one of the hottest areas in neurorehabilitation research, with much of the focus being on individuals with cerebral palsy [4, 156–158].
\nMany children, adolescents, and adults with CP have reduced cardiorespiratory endurance (the capacity of the body to perform physical activity that depends mainly on the aerobic or oxygen-requiring energy systems), muscle strength, and habitual physical activity participation [58]. Both reduced cardiorespiratory endurance and muscular weakness pose significant risks for negative health outcomes and early, cardiovascular, and all-cause mortality. Because people with CP have lower level muscle strength and cardiorespiratory endurance, they are at higher risk for developing cardiovascular diseases. This has been shown by increased cardiometabolic risk factors, including hypertension, cholesterol, HDL-C, visceral adipose tissue, and obesity in adults with CP [159–166]. Moreover, adults with CP, there were substantially increased estimates of chronic diseases, such as diabetes, asthma, hypertension and other cardiovascular conditions, stroke, joint pain, and arthritis [167]. In studies, the participants exercised at least two to four times per week for minimum 20 minutes and at a moderate intensity of about 60–75% maximum heart rate, 40–80% of heart rate reserve, or 50–65% peak oxygen uptake. The studies reported outcomes in aerobic performance, measured with an arm cranking/cycle test, and shuttle run test and in cardiorespiratory endurance [168–172].
\nCardiorespiratory training can effectively increase cardiorespiratory endurance in children and young adults with CP. Exercise prescription for people with CP should include: (1) a minimum frequency of two to three times per week; (2) an intensity between 60 and 95% of peak heart rate, or between 40 and 80% of the HRR, or between 50 and 65% of VO2peak; and (3) a minimum time of 20 minutes per session, for at least 8 consecutive weeks, when training three times a week or for 16 consecutive weeks when training two times a week. Moreover, a pre-workout warm-up and cool-down could be added to reduce musculoskeletal injury [58]. A program of “functional exercises,” combining aerobic and anaerobic capacity and strength training, in ambulatory children improves physical fitness and quality of life. Training programs on static bicycles or treadmill were beneficial for gait and gross motor development without enhancing spasticity and abnormal movement patterns [171, 173].
\nHippotherapy is a rehabilitation strategy performed with a moving horse, which has demonstrated its potential to improve the mobility of children with CP. This therapy is designed to improve motor functioning and quality of movement in children with CP [174, 175]. The warmth and shape of the horse and the rhythmic, three-dimensional movement of horseback riding improve the flexibility, posture, balance, and mobility of the rider. Hippotherapy can be described as a low frequency, high repetition treatment strategy. Muscle contractions and postural adjustments are required to react to the horse’s movements. A full-sized horse transfers about 110 multidimensional swinging motions to the rider each minute while walking. More specifically, in a 30-minute therapy session, a horse walking at a speed of 100 steps/minute will induce over 3000 steps. In order to maintain vertical alignment and react to these postural challenges, the child must engage their trunk muscles intensively. In most hippotherapy sessions, the child takes various positions (e.g., forward sitting, side sitting, and backward sitting). During the sessions, a therapist and a trained side walker provide support and movement possibilities for the child sitting on the horse. In addition, equine movement induces a scapular and pelvic dissociation in the rider, similar to what is observed in a normal gait pattern with asymmetric arm and pelvis movements [176, 177]. Horseback riding therapy reduces abnormal tone, promoting motor performance, creating symmetric alignment, and improving postural awareness, gait, and mobility. It is a walk practice for the upper body without the use of the legs. One systematic review and two meta-analyses provide evidence that hippotherapy positively affects postural control, balance, and muscle symmetry [178–180]. Session length ranged from 30 minutes to 1 hour with a frequency ranging from one to two sessions per week. According to a recent systematic review, a weekly 45-minute session of hippotherapy for 8–10 weeks was correlated with positive effects on gross motor function in children with CP [181]. The social functioning domain is influenced by various factors, such as education, socioeconomic status, cognition, communication abilities, and motor function [182]. The opportunity to use or practice communication, listening, and language skills during hippotherapy also results in the improvements in social functioning. Hippotherapy enhances the child’s motivation and willingness for participation in an activity [183].
\nTrust in leader has been discussed in numerous studies and across several disciplines. Trust can be defined as “the belief that something/someone is true or correct, or that you can rely on it” [1]. In current business world, leaders play a major role in the outcomes of organizations. These can be turnover, environmental responsibilities, wellbeing, social image, and market elements. It is widely believed that trust carries a vital importance in the relationship between leader and follower. The higher the extent of trust, the higher the likelihood of positive behavioral and performance outcomes. Sciences such as psychology, behavioral science, neuroscience, education, and politics have noted the aforementioned vitality. To provide a thorough understanding on the linkage of leadership and trust, an array of recent studies have been reviewed. In this sense, different styles of leadership and their impact on trust are highlighted. This provides a pathway for comprehending how trust as a psychological factor is linked to leadership and subsequently, employee and organizational outcomes.
The manner in which businesses are managed, requires leaders to meet high standards by being able to comprehend data, communicate and interact across various media channels, be aware of political situations and changes. Notably, leaders are to provide quality services, and compete with others for achieving organizational success [2]. For leaders, it is imperative that their bonds and linkage with others (staff or clients) are recognized as a prevalence for business conduct. This becomes more explicit in service sectors as human interaction are constant or higher compared to other industries. However, empowering followers, focusing on their wellbeing, and provision of an organizational culture, where resilience is encouraged have become easier to comprehend through development of neuroscience and other relevant fields of psychology and behavior. Emergence of these disciplines have provided a combination of scientific and psychological factors that aid leaders in obtaining higher levels of effectiveness [2]. Making better decisions, finding new solutions, regulating emotions, sense of teamwork, and being more influential on others as well as implementing change more smoothly are among the traits that a leader with scientific knowledge can exhibit [3]. Neuro-leadership has been examined in human services with consideration of issues such as, effect of toxic leadership, turnover, and organizational culture. These are reflections of a leaders’ approach, staff and their engagement with job, and organizational trust [4]. Leader is not a mere title in business but rather a behavioral framework, in which the linkage between leader and their staff is focused [5]. In this sense, there are three fundamental aspects, which are required to exist that are namely, leaders’ commitment, harmonized followers, and a mutual aspiration towards the firms’ vision among all members.
Among the attributes and traits of leaders, trust is a key factor that can lead to emergence of positive behavioral outcomes. Psychologically, trust can lead to employees exhibiting extra role behaviors, volunteer intent, engagement, higher job satisfaction, and performance. Embedded in the premise of leader-member exchange (LMX) theory [6], a two-way relationship between leader and their followers is shaped through trust, emotions, and respect. It is important to note that from psychological perspective, trust is a fundamental element for psychosocial development [7]. In this regard, leaders may treat each individual differently and thus, have high or low quality exchanges, which will lead to varying perceptions and trust degrees among staff. The higher the quality of exchanges between leader and follower, the higher the extent of trust, respect and obligation and vice versa [8]. Based on LMX, leader and follower become acquainted (from not knowing one another) in a process that matures through exchanges and is shaped by support, loyalty, respect, emotions, and trust that are mutually inclusive. This highlights the psychological, and social capabilities of a leader to establish an environment, in which individuals can thrive as their psychology is engaged with the workplace. Therefore, leadership and trust should be taken into consideration from both negative and positive aspects.
As noted, leaders can boost or dampen trust based on their approach and behavior. Toxic leadership can be referred to as traditional, autocratic and against values and ethics of work in a social setting. Toxic leadership leads to negativity in organizational culture with significant effects on work processes, approach towards operations, which become highly vivid in times of difficulty and crises [9]. Leaders, who deploy such approach disregard and diminish social values at work and ethical means of business conduct. A negative culture is cultivated through this approach that comprises fear, which in turn lowers engagement and response. Boldly, toxic approach of a leader can hinder welfare and wellbeing due to excessive stress. Decreased morale, emotional drainage, and lack of trust are among the explicit outcomes of this style which turns to higher rates of turnover and burnout.
The word toxic can be applied not only to leaders, but to management, organizations, and work environments [10]. Albeit, being a toxic leader varies from transactional or ‘hard individual’ [11]. It is interesting to note that only individual characteristics are not determinants of toxic behavior. In this sense, traits (behavioral), and factors such as, culture, climate, and environment can be influential in the extent of toxicity. While personal characteristics (e.g. hard or tough, and authoritarian-directed) are important for understanding and pinpointing toxic leadership, culture has been noted to be significant for thoroughly analyze this behavior [12]. Thus, it can be interpreted that toxic characteristics of a leader can be enhanced through proper organizational culture and environments. Such aspects can be integrated in organizational strategies for further development.
Notably, communication techniques or attitude of a leader are not the predictors of a toxic persona, but rather dynamics of toxicity are derived from negative discouraging effects [13]. Thus, such leaders may prove to be very efficient in their tasks. However, they add fuel to the fire of a climate or culture that subdues wellbeing of followers/staff. In other words, instead of motivating and aspiration, they tend to control others, leaning towards a toxic climate. Turnover, drug or substance abuse, lowered motivation and productivity, and other negative outcomes arise through such approach in the workplace.
In this sense, as trust is a psychological state which incorporates depending on other(s) based on expectations and intentions, and acceptance of being vulnerable [14].
This style is the by-product of praising shared, transformational, and democratic leadership styles, which focus on the leaders’ role as a single player in decision-making, autonomy, an authority. In this sense, empowering leaders inherit foundational frameworks of the aforementioned styles, and reshape it into a different structure. Empowering leadership delegates autonomy and responsibilities of managers among members of the firm, leading to a shared power situation that constantly promotes inner motivation [16]. As empowering leaders delegate responsibilities, they create a sense of involvement, commitment, and support for individuals for improving professional aspect of their lives. Through self-determination theory [17] individuals meet the needs to thrive, develop and psychological wellbeing via autonomy, relatedness, and competence. This leads to high levels of self-satisfaction. Empowering leaders further provide psychological strengthening that is explained through social exchange theory (SET) [18]. This theory states that emotional support, encouragement, and desirable incentives can enhance self-efficacy for carrying out tasks at job. Moreover, SET incorporates the link between empowering leadership and trust. Trust is accumulated through gathering data regarding an individual or via a cognitive evaluation of the bond and experiences with that individual. Being trustworthy is considered to be the most vital virtue of a leader. Honesty of a leader blooms trust in their followers and thus, leaders’ behavior is adjusted accordingly.
Sense of security and positivity is created, when trust in leader/manager is developed by staff. This is while stress, burnout, lack of engagement, lowered focus and other negative emotions arise when trust lacks. It is perceived by employees that personal achievements are likely to fail, when trust in leader is absent, which leads to reduced job satisfaction and development of negative attitudes towards the firm, colleagues and leader [16]. It has also been noted that empowering leaders can trigger innovativeness by fostering trust. Through trust leaders are able to exchange knowledge with their followers, which can lead to emergence of new ideas. The mediating effect of trust in leader on creativity and empowering leadership has been noted in the literature [19]. As staff are given power in the company, they are more likely to develop trust, since the organizational climate provides support and respect. Subsequently, staff will tend to be more involved and make an effort to aid the organization. If members have high uncertainty avoidance, empowering leaders should utilize trust as an element for promoting innovativeness. Thus, employees, who trust in their leader are more capable of handling risk and dealing with the unknown [20].
When concern is genuine and is combined with care and emotions, trust in leader is shaped as affect-based [19, 21]. This is reflected in a sincere feeling of empowerment for employees by the leaders’ behavior, which in turn enables the staff to exhibit higher rates of creativity. Self-efficacy is facilitated when leaders are trusted, especially when their guidance is sought by their followers. Empowering leaders show confidence in their followers, which in turn enhances their performance [22]. This is while employees who do not trust their leaders will limit the effectiveness of empowering leaders on self-efficacy, hindering their creative abilities. Thus, this style of leadership is adequate for those with high levels of uncertainty avoidance, and have developed affect-based trust in their leader.
This style of leadership is effective on individual and team levels as well as being applicable in any society [23]. It focuses on improvement on a constant basis through competence of followers and their trust in leader. The extent of trust in leader is among the main predictors of organizational identification and improvement in the firm, which is highly influenced by the behavior of a leader. Transformational leaders are successful in enhancing trust for their employees, making them feel belonged to the organization, and thus, improve performance and outcomes of the company. SET implies that experiences that are shared among individuals lead to exchanges that are embedded with reciprocation. This further shows the vitality of trust in relationships among individuals, and particularly in the bond between a leader and follower. Trust is the glue that holds a linkage between a leader and their followers and is regarded as the risk and vulnerability that are perceived [14]. Individuals in the firm assume trust based on the treatment they receive from the firm and especially, its leader. This treatment has to be fair and desirable so that trust can be built. Moreover, confidentiality, identification with the firm, and safety are important factors for an individual in a company to build his/her trust.
The leader or supervisor of a company is regarded as the agent, which makes them extremely important for creation and establishment of trust. Trust in leader has been linked to a variety of positive outcomes such as, performance, satisfaction, autonomy, extra-role behavior, and creativity and innovation as when employees trust their leader, the workplace environment becomes safe and nurturing. Transformational leaders focus on provision of motivation for their subordinates and push them towards performing beyond the norms. Additionally, they provide meaning and value for the goals that are to be achieved. This enables the transformational leader to meet higher needs of their followers, and aspire self-interest. Idealized influence is among the characteristics of these leaders, which triggers trust as followers can take their leader as a role model [24]. They emphasize on organizational goals prior to their own, which further induces affective trust in their followers. Provision of feedback, variations in tasks, and autonomy in decision-making are among the key factors that a transformational leader uses to facilitate trust. Furthermore, they use their charismatic personality to motivate followers towards seeking organizational goals with higher commitment. This leads to an environment, where trust is fostered as vision is shared and workplace has harmony [25].
Transformational leaders project trustworthiness, which is defined as integrity, benevolence, and ability and is regarded as a major element for followers to trust in their leader. Moreover, these leaders elaborate on company’s vision and goals in a manner that attracts others. This is referred to as inspirational motivation and enables staff to be more focused on their tasks, and in turn have more trust in their leaders. They have high concerns for the needs of their followers and seek to strengthen them through various means. This is referred to as individualized consideration, which shows high levels of genuine care that will lead to followers perceiving their leader as a trustworthy individual. Employees are more likely to exchange information and knowledge, when trust is present [24, 25]. Though means such as, technology, management, and infrastructure aid employees in gaining knowledge and improve their abilities, it is not enough to have a sufficient communication flow. This is where trust shows its importance as personal features such as, reputation and fulfilling promises are factors that facilitate trust. Thus, the role of leader is imperative for establishing a smooth communication process, in which trust can be built. Communication becomes more efficient as trust is built, and knowledge sharing, cooperation, and better interactions are shaped as leaders provide an atmosphere, where employees have necessities for proper interaction. This in turn, leads to higher levels of trust [26].
In the light of what was mentioned, trust in leader is regarded as a psychological process between a transformational leader and his/her followers, which leads to sense of identification with the firm by employees, and allows them to improve on a constant manner. Embedded in the premise of SET, transformational leaders are more effective in establishing trust, when compared to other traditional leadership styles such as, transactional or charismatic. This is due to the fact that transformational leaders develop the workplace through social exchanges and not economic ones. This is the main difference between transactional leadership and transformational in developing trust. Similarly, charismatic leaders are less successful in building trust, when compared to transformational due to their focus on organizational goals. SET explains how reciprocation is the basis of leader-follower linkage. Transformational leadership is more effective in building trust among traditional styles. As followers trust in their leader and exchanges between them grow, the sense of organizational identification and belongingness improves, which positively impacts employee performance. Transformational leadership is known as an antecedent of newer styles such as, servant leadership, and has been known to be of significance in modern contexts of business.
This style of leadership as the name shows, focuses on serving others. In this sense, servant leaders tend to serve their followers’ needs and wants before their own [27]. The theoretical foundation and nexus of servant leadership can be found in chaos theory, where decentralization, differentiation of tasks, collaboration, flexibility and adaptability of structures and processes, participation, and autonomy are focused [28]. In the premise of chaos theory, it is important to recognize the difference between unpredictability and complexity, and randomness. While the former have causes whether known or unknown at the time of occurrence, the latter refers to events that have no cause. Chaotic systems comprise
From an individual perspective, servant leaders constantly seek skilled followers and value their input and ideas. This is a means for establishing trust between leader and followers. Moreover, responsibility of failure or negative results is taken by the servant leader, which further promotes trust. From a cultural perspective, servant leaders affectively facilitate a learning environment through role model behavior, training, and initiatives that enhances the atmosphere of work. As they create personal bonds with their followers, collaboration, value and accountability are promoted and learning is motivated. Furthermore, servant leaders exhibit high levels of integrity, which further established the notion of trust [30, 31].
Servant leaders are employee-oriented [30, 31], with significant influence on positive outcomes in different sectors and industries, and levels (personal, team, and organizational). As these leaders are people-centric, their effect in service industry has been note to be significant as they focus on others’ wellbeing and serving their needs, which goes beyond the organization, and to the society. Through personal and close bonds with followers, servant leaders are able to facilitate higher qualities of relationships, which in turn can be seen in performance of their followers. Early works on servant leadership indicates a number of dimensions that are namely, listening, empathy, healing, conceptualization, awareness, persuasion, stewardship, building community, foresight, and high commitment [32]. In this sense, servant leadership and transformational leadership share features of vision, being influential, and trust. Servant leaders distinguish themselves from transformational, transactional and charismatic leaders with their emphasis on development and wellbeing of others around them. With altruism, servant leaders tend to their followers’ needs and goals prior to their own, or the organizations’ goals. This behavior puts the attention and focus on others and their progress rather than making the leader a sole importance.
Characteristics of a servant leader predict various behavioral outcomes such as, trust. They can further enhance trust in organization as they act as stewards of the firm. Due to the fact that trust plays a major role in the relationship between a leader and his/her followers, interpersonal trust, communication, harmonization, and integrity of the leader become vivid elements. Notably, trust and its existence provides a stable climate within the organization, which leads to positive results. Servant leaders foster trust by being role- models and serving others. Long-lasting relationships with their followers, trusting their peers and strong personal bonds distinguish servant leaders from traditional styles. Regardless of philosophy of the firm, servant leaders focus on provision of care to others and exhibition of trustworthiness behavior [33]. Via open communication, honesty, moral integrity, and empathy, servant leaders create an atmosphere, where trust can shine and commitment is promoted. As followers perceive care for their wellbeing, and support for their professional and personal development, they are more likely to trust in servant leaders [27].
This style merges the science of brain with leadership for better motivation, influence and adjusting changes while promoting engagement with the staff to comprehend their responses [34]. Various circumstances trigger reactions in the brain that can be linked to marketing, economics, and leadership. Leaders and leadership can benefit from the emergence of neuroscience and its bond with psychology to better grasp the factors that influence behavior unconsciously. Leaders with knowledge of biology can deploy their awareness towards enhancing performance of those, who work with/for them. Considering the recency of this area, it has been argued that neuro-leaders can generate trust as they understand the mechanisms of brain and implement this understanding in their strategies. In turn, they can shape a climate at workplace that fosters wellbeing, retention, productivity, effectiveness, and more energy for work [34, 35]. Neuro-leaders are to exhibit vulnerability, humility, and integrity alongside being optimist, present, and actively engaging with their subordinates.
Linked to transformational leadership model, an atmosphere of positivity is shaped in the organizational culture that leads to better performance levels. Usage of influence and authenticity for bonds between leader and follower is shared in neuro and transformational leadership styles. Furthermore, servant leadership emphasizes on serving others that fosters positive relationships and promotes appreciative, engaging and integrated behavior from the leader. Organizational trust has been noted to be shaped through
Trust factor | Leadership trait |
---|---|
Ovation | Recognition of excellence and expect logical performance |
Yield | Discretion in task completion, and encouragement |
Openness | Communication, listening and sharing |
Caring | Authentic relationship creation with intent |
Invest | Facilitate growth for individuals |
Natural | Authentic leadership, integrity, being humble and vulnerable |
Trust factors and leadership traits – derived from Zak [35].
Neuro-leaders can emphasize on trust through their knowledge of science and psychology, leading the firm towards a higher level of change acceptance, resilience, and retention of talent. When trust is highly embedded in a company, productivity increases, collaboration develops, and relationships among members last longer, when compared to firms in which trust is lower. As trust is a psychological and vital factor, wellbeing and quality of life are affected by its level. For instance, chronic stress can be lowered, which adds to the overall healthiness of individuals. Leaders commonly understand this crucial factor and tend to focus on development of trust in their firms. However, neuro-leaders possess the know-how of enabling trust to grow. Having purpose can release oxytocin similar to sense of trust on a mutually inclusive manner. Work becomes joyous when it is combined with purpose and a trustworthy environment. Thus, neuro-leaders focus on stimulating oxytocin to increase engagement, wellbeing, performance, and other positive elements in the workplace [34, 35].
Neuro-leaders can reshape organizational culture through building factors, situations and practices that trigger oxytocin for individuals in the company.
The environment of work has changed as the technological advances reshape our world. Virtual or online platforms now allow people to carry out their work from a laptop regardless of their location. Communication has evolved from its traditional form and individuals can work together without having met each other in person. Accordingly, the context of leadership and management has adjusted to this new business environment [36]. This virtual era has aided firms to become more resilient, and flexible to meet the demands of market and thus, a leadership style that is adequate for this instance is referred to as E-leadership or virtual leadership. The concept can be explained as a means of being influential on behavior, attitude, thoughts and feelings, and performance of workforce through the medium of technology [37]. E-leaders have to overcome the challenges of this modern and advanced working environment. In this sense, both traditional challenges of handling teams and virtual management become apparent.
The role of these leaders are vital as the virtual workplace does not provide constant in-person interaction. It has been noted that leading the virtual workplace is reliant on both transformational and transactional leadership [38]. Efficiency of teams can be enhanced through the aforementioned styles as they can facilitate uncertainty and where trust is not present. Efficiency of online/virtual teams incorporate both satisfaction of employees and the extent of their performance. In such environment, communication can vary from distance to face-to-face depending on the work itself and thus, conflict management becomes more difficult to handle. Due to varying communications, interactions differ from standard and members can grow apart as they do not interact physically. As such, e-leaders face issues regarding coordination, trust building, conflict management, and shared mental settings in their teams. Comparably, this is much more complex than having a traditional organizational format [39].
Accordingly, various levels of work require leaders to have strategies and measurements for each construct. Team level consists of global, shared, and configural constructs [40]. Global construct explains a team-level setting that does not include individual elements [39]. In other words, global features of team are not based on individual characteristics. Shared construct refers to a collective situation, where members share perception (e.g. quality or extent of cooperation and coordination to task completion among tem members). Experiences, attitudes, perception, values, cognitions, and behaviors that are common among the members are referred to as the shared construct [40]. Cohesion of the team, its norms, climate, and mental models are among the shared constructs. Similar to shared construct, configural features of a team reside in the characteristics of individual team members. This construct includes pattern, variations and array of each members’ characteristics such as, interpersonal network density of the team, its personality composition, and diversity (e.g. age).
E-leaders are aware of the abovementioned constructs and utilize this understanding to overcome challenges of lack of social presence among team members. This lack leads to decreased trust, which e-leaders must control through collective identity and proper communication means for their teams. Thus, e-leaders endeavor to establish a common meaning and perspective so that trust is enhanced [37]. In this sense, a number of factors are influential on trust in virtual teams such as, time, culture, geographical proximity and interactions that can be both online and face-to-face. As virtual systems are temporary, trust in such systems is also not permanent. This is mainly due to lack of direct management. Therefore, trust has been noted to be instant in a virtual setting. As virtual teams are vulnerable, trust becomes more important and difficult to establish. Hence, the strength of transformational leadership has been proven to be significant in this case, more than transactional. Both styles are linked to virtual settings and their effectiveness in establishing collective trust has been shown. Through expression of concern for needs of members, a transformational leader can generate trust, and exhibition of will to achieve the goals of the group. This is while transactional leader establishes trust through maintaining their promises and showing respect and fairness. It is imperative that trust is built so that a virtual team can obtain its goals and remain efficient. As interactions are coordinated, existence of trust enhances performance and increases satisfaction for the individuals in the team.
Leaders use different means of technology to provide feedback, signals and messages through an integrated format and tailored tones for each individual in the team. This is referred to as media richness that is a moderating factor for e-leaders in online settings of work, and its efficiency that is based on trust and cohesion [37].
Especially in the occurrence of global pandemic, virtual leaders have become more crucial for organizations. These leaders can aid the business to survive and avoid bankruptcy. E-leaders operate remotely and maintain virtual interactions with more emphasis on those, who might have issues with the technology and thus, are less likely to trust and communicate through virtual settings [41]. Ethical issues, cultural differences, and communication means are main challenges of building trust for e-leaders alongside usage of technology in a manner that will keep the leader effective. In this sense, e-leaders rely on education, training, and development practices to build trust for their followers, and they endeavor to maintain a high standard of communication, and coordinating tasks among team members.
Leaders can deploy different aspects of highlighted models in this chapter so that their approaches are enhanced and developed. While some characteristics are deeply embedded in individuals, recent studies show that organizational elements, culture, environment, and psychological dimensions such as, coping mechanisms, burnout, and wellbeing are influential. This suggests a pathway for leaders to adjust their styles with current demands of business in the modern world, especially during and after global pandemic of Covid-19, which has drastically changed work environment. Resilience, flexibility, and change are essential for leaders to maintain competitiveness in markets. Thus, regardless of its difficulty or uncertainty, leaders should endeavor to effectively lead their firms towards sustainable advantages, and higher levels of productivity. Leaders can adjust their approach towards their followers, considering various elements that can boost trust. In turn, this will lead to better performance and a positive workplace, leading to organizational achievements.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
The authors would like to show appreciation and gratitude to Mr. Mark Unwin, and Ms. Marjaneh Arasteh.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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Only bioactive glass possesses osteogenic property that stimulates proliferation and differentiation of osteoprogenitor cells and in some cases influencing the fibroblastic properties. But, this material has also some disadvantages such as short-term and low mechanical strength along with decreased fracture resistance; but, this was further minimised by ion doping that positively enhanced new bone formation. There are many metal ions such as magnesium (Mg), strontium (Sr), manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), silver (Ag) and some rare earths that have been doped successfully into bioactive glass to enhance their mechanical and biological properties. In some of the cases, mesoporous bioactive glass materials with or without such doping have also been employed (with homogeneous distribution of pores in the size ranging between 2 and 50 nm). These biomaterials can be served as scaffold for bone regeneration with adequate mechanical properties to restore bone defects and facilitate healing process by regeneration of soft tissues as well. This chapter encompasses the use of bioactive glass in bulk and mesoporous form with doped therapeutic ions, their role in bone tissue regeneration, use as delivery of growth factors as well as coating material for orthopaedic implants.",book:{id:"5164",slug:"advanced-techniques-in-bone-regeneration",title:"Advanced Techniques in Bone Regeneration",fullTitle:"Advanced Techniques in Bone Regeneration"},signatures:"Samit Kumar Nandi, Arnab Mahato, Biswanath Kundu and Prasenjit\nMukherjee",authors:[{id:"60514",title:"Dr.",name:"Samit",middleName:null,surname:"Nandi",slug:"samit-nandi",fullName:"Samit Nandi"}]},{id:"37120",doi:"10.5772/29607",title:"Trigeminocardiac Reflex in Neurosurgery - Current Knowledge and Prospects",slug:"the-trigeminocardiac-reflex-in-neurosurgery-current-knowledge-and-prospects",totalDownloads:3423,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:null,book:{id:"749",slug:"explicative-cases-of-controversial-issues-in-neurosurgery",title:"Explicative Cases of Controversial Issues in Neurosurgery",fullTitle:"Explicative Cases of Controversial Issues in Neurosurgery"},signatures:"Amr Abdulazim, Martin N. 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Liposuction is a procedure to improve the body contour and not a surgery to reduce weight, although recently people who have failed in their plans to lose weight look at liposuction as a means to contour their body figure. Tumescent liposuction of large volumes requires a meticulous selection of each patient; their preoperative evaluation and perioperative management are essential to obtain the expected results. The various techniques of general anesthesia are the most recommended and should be monitored in the usual way, as well as monitoring the total doses of infiltrated local anesthetics to avoid systemic toxicity. The management of intravenous fluids is controversial, but the current trend is the restricted use of hydrosaline solutions. The most feared complications are deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary thromboembolism, fat embolism, lung edema, hypothermia, infections and even death. The adherence to the management guidelines and prophylaxis of venous thrombosis/thromboembolism is mandatory.",book:{id:"6221",slug:"anesthesia-topics-for-plastic-and-reconstructive-surgery",title:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery",fullTitle:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery"},signatures:"Sergio Granados-Tinajero, Carlos Buenrostro-Vásquez, Cecilia\nCárdenas-Maytorena and Marcela Contreras-López",authors:[{id:"273532",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio Octavio",middleName:null,surname:"Granados Tinajero",slug:"sergio-octavio-granados-tinajero",fullName:"Sergio Octavio Granados Tinajero"}]},{id:"42855",title:"Critical Care Issues After Major Hepatic Surgery",slug:"critical-care-issues-after-major-hepatic-surgery",totalDownloads:8909,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"3164",slug:"hepatic-surgery",title:"Hepatic Surgery",fullTitle:"Hepatic Surgery"},signatures:"Ashok Thorat and Wei-Chen Lee",authors:[{id:"52360",title:"Prof.",name:"Wei-Chen",middleName:null,surname:"Lee",slug:"wei-chen-lee",fullName:"Wei-Chen Lee"},{id:"157213",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashok",middleName:null,surname:"Thorat",slug:"ashok-thorat",fullName:"Ashok Thorat"}]},{id:"72175",title:"Fontan Operation: A Comprehensive Review",slug:"fontan-operation-a-comprehensive-review",totalDownloads:1252,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Since the first description of the Fontan operation in the early 1970s, a number of modifications have been introduced and currently staged, total cavopulmonary connection with fenestration has become the most commonly used multistage surgery in diverting the vena caval blood flow into the lungs. The existing ventricle, whether it is left or right, is utilized to supply systemic circuit. During Stage I, palliative surgery is performed, usually at presentation in the neonatal period/early infancy, on the basis of pathophysiology of the cardiac defect. During Stage II, a bidirectional Glenn procedure is undertaken in which the superior vena caval flow is diverted into the lungs at an approximate age of 6 months. During Stage IIIA, the blood flow from the inferior vena cava (IVC) is rerouted into the pulmonary arteries, typically by an extra-cardiac conduit along with a fenestration, generally around 2 years of age. During Stage IIIB, the fenestration is closed by transcatheter methodology 6–12 months after Stage IIIA. The evolution of Fontan concepts, the indications for Fontan surgery, and the results of old and current types of Fontan operation form the focus of this review.",book:{id:"9585",slug:"advances-in-complex-valvular-disease",title:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease",fullTitle:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease"},signatures:"P. Syamasundar Rao",authors:[{id:"68531",title:"Dr.",name:"P. Syamasundar",middleName:null,surname:"Rao",slug:"p.-syamasundar-rao",fullName:"P. 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Interventions meant to correct these conditions are commonly based on symmetrical models of appearance and do not take into account asymmetric organ weight distribution, asymmetries of respiratory mechanics, and dominant movement patterns that are reinforced in daily functional activities. A model of innate, human asymmetry derived from the theoretical framework of the Postural Restoration Institute® (PRI) explicitly describes the physiological, biomechanical, and respiratory components of human asymmetry. This model is important because it gives an accurate baseline for understanding predisposing factors for the development of postural disorders, which, without intervention, will likely progress to structural dysfunction. Clinical tests to evaluate tri-planar musculoskeletal relationships and function, developed by PRI, are based on this asymmetric model. These tests are valuable for assessing patient’s status in the context of human asymmetry and in guiding appropriate exercise prescription and progression. Balancing musculoskeletal asymmetry is the aim of PRI treatment. Restoration of relative balance decreases pain, restores improved alignment, and strengthens appropriate muscle function. It can also halt the progression of dysfunction and improve respiration, quality of life, and appearance. PRI’s extensive body of targeted exercise progressions are highly effective due to their basis in the tri-planar asymmetric human model.",book:{id:"5816",slug:"innovations-in-spinal-deformities-and-postural-disorders",title:"Innovations in Spinal Deformities and Postural Disorders",fullTitle:"Innovations in Spinal Deformities and Postural Disorders"},signatures:"Susan Henning, Lisa C. Mangino and Jean Massé",authors:[{id:"204825",title:"Dr.",name:"Susan",middleName:null,surname:"Henning",slug:"susan-henning",fullName:"Susan Henning"},{id:"206242",title:"Dr.",name:"Lisa C",middleName:null,surname:"Mangino",slug:"lisa-c-mangino",fullName:"Lisa C Mangino"},{id:"206245",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Massé",slug:"jean-masse",fullName:"Jean Massé"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"202",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. 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In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 28th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:317,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/100121",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"100121"},fullPath:"/profiles/100121",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()