More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
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Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
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“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
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Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
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We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
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Simba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
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IntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
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Since the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\n
Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n
“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\n
Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\n
We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
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\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7271",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Cancer Metastasis",title:"Cancer Metastasis",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Metastasis of cancer cells from primary tumor site to secondary locations is considered a late event in multistep tumorigenesis, and causes most cancer-related mortality. The process from the spreading of cancer cells to the seeding of newly formed tumor colonizations is governed by sequential events, including local invasion, intravasation into stroma and blood vessels, survival in circulation, extravasation, and colonization at secondary tumor sites. Cancer research provides information on the fate of metastatic cancer cells in each sequential movement or heterogeneous tumor microenvironment. However, the complexity of this mechanism remains the most stringent concept of cancer management. This book provides information for cancer researchers on metastatic phenotypes of cancer cells, and diverse promoting factors and molecular mechanisms of metastasis.",isbn:"978-1-78984-633-1",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-632-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-801-2",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74633",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"cancer-metastasis",numberOfPages:152,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"365bb4cd3b255b91815abb7fed5eda01",bookSignature:"Yasemin Basbinar and Gizem Calıbası-Kocal",publishedDate:"December 5th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7271.jpg",numberOfDownloads:9839,numberOfWosCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:20,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 5th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 26th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 27th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 16th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 14th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"242097",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasemin",middleName:null,surname:"Basbinar",slug:"yasemin-basbinar",fullName:"Yasemin Basbinar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242097/images/system/242097.jpg",biography:"Dr.Yasemin Basbinar is a professor at the Department of Translational Oncology, Dokuz Eylul University, Institute of Oncology in Turkey. She graduated from Faculty of Medicine, Ege University, Turkey in 1988. She completed her PhD degrees in Biochemistry as well as Basic Oncology at Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey in 1995 and 2006, respectively. She worked in Danish Centre for Human Genome Research as a visiting researcher. She is, now the head of Personalized Medicine and Pharmacogenomics/Genomics Center and Department of Translational Oncology in Dokuz Eylul University. Her primary research focused on cancer pharmacogenomics and proteomics in terms of predictive medicine. She has been awarded by The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK), Turkish Association for Cancer Research and Control for her achievements. She has more than 70 publications in prestigious journals. She is on review boards of several journals and granting commitees.",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"203396",title:"Dr.",name:"Gizem",middleName:null,surname:"Calibasi Kocal",slug:"gizem-calibasi-kocal",fullName:"Gizem Calibasi Kocal",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/203396/images/6740_n.jpg",biography:"Dr.Gizem CALIBASI-KOCAL, graduated from Ege University, Turkey, holding a bachelor degree in Biochemistry. Then she received her MSc and PhD degrees of Basic Oncology from Dokuz Eylul University, Turkey. From 2013 to 2015, she worked in USA in the field of microfluidic technologies related with cancer metastasis in Harvard University and Stanford University as pre-doctoral research fellow. Her research interest has focused on colorectal cancer in terms of metastasis and cancer metabolism, as well as pharmacogenetic applications in cancer management. She was an advisory board member of Personalized Medicine and Pharmacogenomics/Genomics Center in Dokuz Eylul University. She also serves on editorial board of 2 journals and regularly reviews of for prestigious journals. Her achievements were recognized by several awards and honors from The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK), Turkish Association for Cancer Research and Control, Organization of European Cancer Institutes (OECI), European Federation of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine (EFLM).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1080",title:"Gynecologic Oncology",slug:"medicine-oncology-gynecologic-oncology"}],chapters:[{id:"64303",title:"Introductory Chapter: Cancer Metastasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81914",slug:"introductory-chapter-cancer-metastasis",totalDownloads:984,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Gizem Calibasi-Kocal and Yasemin Basbinar",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64303",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64303",authors:[{id:"242097",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasemin",surname:"Basbinar",slug:"yasemin-basbinar",fullName:"Yasemin Basbinar"}],corrections:null},{id:"62124",title:"Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition in Tumor Microenvironment Induced by Hypoxia",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78717",slug:"epithelial-mesenchymal-transition-in-tumor-microenvironment-induced-by-hypoxia",totalDownloads:1592,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"A tumor microenvironment contains various noncancerous cells including adipocytes, fibroblasts, immune and inflammatory cells, neuroendocrine cells, pericytes, vascular and lymphatic endothelial cells, and the extracellular matrix that surrounds cancerous cells. In the tumor microenvironment, cancer cells interact and cross talk with noncancerous cells and orchestrate different mechanisms of cancer such as tumorigenesis, angiogenesis, and metastasis. Moreover, the expansive nature of cancer cells and chaotic angiogenesis affect microcirculation as well as alter the oxygen concentration progressively. Hypoxia, a key player in the multistep process of cancer metastasis, is important in different regions of the tumor microenvironment. Hypoxia may transform cancer cells to become more aggressive and invasive by triggering overexpression of several hypoxia-related factors that activate epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Herein, the current knowledge of how hypoxia-driven EMT is presented in the tumor microenvironment of solid cancers is discussed.",signatures:"Görkem Eskiizmir and Erdoğan Özgür",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62124",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62124",authors:[{id:"247860",title:"Dr.",name:"Gorkem",surname:"Eskiizmir",slug:"gorkem-eskiizmir",fullName:"Gorkem Eskiizmir"},{id:"247862",title:"Dr.",name:"Erdogan",surname:"Özgür",slug:"erdogan-ozgur",fullName:"Erdogan Özgür"}],corrections:null},{id:"63671",title:"Tumour Microenvironment and Metastasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79319",slug:"tumour-microenvironment-and-metastasis",totalDownloads:994,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In recent years, cancer is more and more severe harm to the health of people in the world. Although tumour diagnosis and therapy have made some progresses, there is little improvement in overall. One of the main reasons is that the pathogenesis of cancer metastasis is still enigmatic. Cancer development and metastasis are a complicated process that depends on the antigenic properties of cancer cells and a favoured environment in organs. Cancer cells metastasis causes more than 90% cancer death in the lungs, liver, brain, and bone, and a primary tumour causes less than 10% death. Therefore, understanding the process of cancer metastasis is essential, and it is convenient to deal with the problem of cancer metastasis and reduce cancer-related thrombosis. It has shown that tumour microenvironment plays a significant role in cancer progression. A variety of carcinoma-associated fibroblasts, and tumour-related macrophages play expanding and critical functions in sustaining cell proliferation, evading growth suppressors, promoting survival, activating invasion and metastasis, and reprogramming energy metabolism, but the purpose of each constituent remains unknown. This chapter will focus on discussing the role of the microenvironment on tumour invasion and metastasis to improve molecular diagnostics and therapeutics.",signatures:"Ke Wang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63671",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63671",authors:[{id:"244215",title:"Dr.",name:"Ke",surname:"Wang",slug:"ke-wang",fullName:"Ke Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"61944",title:"The Landscape of Histone Modification in Cancer Metastasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78383",slug:"the-landscape-of-histone-modification-in-cancer-metastasis",totalDownloads:1581,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Metastasis represents one of the most devastating aspects of cancer. Epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) has been shown to play a critical role in tumorigenic metastasis. During metastatic progression, both genetic and epigenetic modifications endow cancer cells with properties that modulate the capacity for metastatic success. Histone modification is profoundly altered in cancer cells and contributes to cancer metastasis by controlling different metastatic phenotypes. Here, we first review histone modifications and discuss their roles in EMT and metastasis, with a particular focus on histone methylation and acetylation. Second, we review the major histone modification enzymes that control chromatin in cancer metastasis. Third, we discuss the transcriptional regulation concerted by these enzymes with EMT transcription factors at different molecular layers. Finally, we discuss pharmacologic manipulation of histone modification enzymes for metastasis treatment. A comprehensive understanding of histone modification in metastasis will not only provide new insights into our knowledge of cancer progression and metastasis, but also offer a novel approach for the development of innovative therapeutic strategies.",signatures:"Zhaoping Qiu, Jianlin Wang and Yadi Wu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/61944",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/61944",authors:[{id:"121037",title:"Dr.",name:"Yadi",surname:"Wu",slug:"yadi-wu",fullName:"Yadi Wu"},{id:"256631",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhaoping",surname:"Qiu",slug:"zhaoping-qiu",fullName:"Zhaoping Qiu"},{id:"256632",title:"Dr.",name:"Jianlin",surname:"Wang",slug:"jianlin-wang",fullName:"Jianlin Wang"}],corrections:null},{id:"62897",title:"Early Metastasis in Colorectal Cancer Poses an Option for New Diagnostic and Treatment Strategies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79637",slug:"early-metastasis-in-colorectal-cancer-poses-an-option-for-new-diagnostic-and-treatment-strategies",totalDownloads:1e3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Metastasis is the spread of tumor cells from a primary site to a secondary site within the host’s body. It is initiated by the detachment of the tumor cells from the primary tumor followed by invasion into the surrounding tissue. Thereafter the cells migrate across the endothelium and into the blood vessels (intravasation). During the intravasation the cells have to survive the sheer forces and the immune response. Upon arrival to the target organ, the cells leave the circulation and cross the endothelium to reach the host organ. Once there, the tumor cells are greeted with the organ’s local immune cells and with a hostile or inappropriate environment, where they finally have to form proliferating colonies. Metastasis is therefore far from being a straight-forward or efficient process with less than 0.1% of disseminating tumor cells (around 1 × 109 cells per day for a 1 cm size tumor) succeeding in colonizing distal organs. The identification of the involved marker during the early metastasis process will be essential for establishment of new diagnostics tools, as well as development of novel treatment strategies.",signatures:"Hassan Adwan, Dina Elharouni, Danira Habashy, Nadine Banna,\nRania Georges, Asim Pervaiz and Martin R. Berger",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62897",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62897",authors:[{id:"56407",title:"Prof.",name:"Martin",surname:"Berger",slug:"martin-berger",fullName:"Martin Berger"},{id:"72948",title:"Dr.",name:"Rania",surname:"Georges",slug:"rania-georges",fullName:"Rania Georges"},{id:"246582",title:"Prof.",name:"Hassan",surname:"Adwan",slug:"hassan-adwan",fullName:"Hassan Adwan"},{id:"258466",title:"Ms.",name:"Dina",surname:"El Harouni",slug:"dina-el-harouni",fullName:"Dina El Harouni"},{id:"258468",title:"Dr.",name:"Danira",surname:"Habashy",slug:"danira-habashy",fullName:"Danira Habashy"},{id:"258469",title:"Ms.",name:"Nadine",surname:"Banna",slug:"nadine-banna",fullName:"Nadine Banna"}],corrections:null},{id:"63870",title:"Prognostic Biomarkers for Breast Cancer Metastasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80576",slug:"prognostic-biomarkers-for-breast-cancer-metastasis",totalDownloads:1145,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Breast cancer treatment has improved rapidly through the years, starting from surgery, to hormonal therapy, to targeted therapy. Despite this, tumor metastasis remains the highest cause of breast cancer–related death. The current regime to deter metastasis is through adjuvant therapy, but such therapy frequently yields undesirable side effects. As such, prognostic markers for metastasis are important to stratify patients for adjuvant therapy so as to ameliorate the standard of living of patients with low metastatic potential. So far, only a few well-characterized prognostic biomarkers for metastasis are used in clinics. This chapter will cover both established and novel prognostic biomarkers for breast cancer metastasis and metastatic breast cancer prognosis. The potential of using these biomarkers as predictive biomarkers or new targeted therapy will also be discussed.",signatures:"Kwok Kin Lee, Wee Joo Chng and Sudhakar Jha",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63870",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63870",authors:[{id:"190426",title:"Dr.",name:"Sudhakar",surname:"Jha",slug:"sudhakar-jha",fullName:"Sudhakar Jha"}],corrections:null},{id:"63228",title:"Ovarian Clear Cell Carcinoma: Metastatic Pathways",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79759",slug:"ovarian-clear-cell-carcinoma-metastatic-pathways",totalDownloads:1382,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Ovarian carcinoma reflects the biggest challenge among the field of gynecologic oncology. It represents the most common death cause of genital carcinomas throughout years. The major classification consists of epithelial and non-epithelial types. Due to the histologic origin, epithelial types of ovarian carcinoma are endometrioid, serous-mucinous, and clear cell types. Due to intense metastatic infiltration and rapid tumor spread, clear cell ovarian carcinoma constitutes type of lesion with the most poor prognosis, decreased overall survival, decreased free survival, and poor quality of life of the patient. The metastatic infiltration is strongly accompanied with all significant prognostic factors. All biochemical pathways at the time of the infiltration are correlated with tumor size, lymphatic spread, staging of the lesion, histologic type, and grade of differentiation of the lesion.",signatures:"Chrisostomos Sofoudis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63228",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63228",authors:[{id:"173802",title:"Dr.",name:"Chrisostomos",surname:"Sofoudis",slug:"chrisostomos-sofoudis",fullName:"Chrisostomos Sofoudis"}],corrections:null},{id:"62074",title:"Genetic Mutations and Ubiquitination in Melanoma Growth and Metastasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.78733",slug:"genetic-mutations-and-ubiquitination-in-melanoma-growth-and-metastasis",totalDownloads:1163,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Upon neoplastic transformation, melanoma is intrinsically prone to metastasis, which marks the most dangerous aspect of the disease and dubs it one of the most challenging cancers to treat. BRAF/MEK oncokinase inhibitors and immunotherapies have shown considerable promise in some patients, but the clinical benefits are often short-lived due to rapid development of resistance. Recently, ubiquitination enzymes have emerged as potential therapeutic targets. These enzymes can be targeted to increase expression of tumor suppressors and impede activation of oncogenic signaling pathways mediating cell proliferation and tissue invasion. This chapter describes some of the common genetic mutations in melanoma, ubiquitinating and deubiquitinating enzymes that are linked to melanoma progression, metastasis, and therapeutic resistance.",signatures:"Anushka Dikshit and Jennifer Zhang",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/62074",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/62074",authors:[{id:"250279",title:"Dr.",name:"Jennifer",surname:"Zhang",slug:"jennifer-zhang",fullName:"Jennifer Zhang"},{id:"257271",title:"Dr.",name:"Anushka",surname:"Dikshit",slug:"anushka-dikshit",fullName:"Anushka Dikshit"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5997",title:"Ovarian Cancer",subtitle:"From Pathogenesis to Treatment",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0dfe8201654bd8415c0fe89ebaafdfa8",slug:"ovarian-cancer-from-pathogenesis-to-treatment",bookSignature:"Omer Devaja and Andreas Papadopoulos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5997.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"129074",title:"Dr.",name:"Omer",surname:"Devaja",slug:"omer-devaja",fullName:"Omer Devaja"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"712",title:"Intraepithelial Neoplasia",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a1aa9858b1db54a89329fa086261dfd2",slug:"intraepithelial-neoplasia",bookSignature:"Supriya Srivastava",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/712.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"85273",title:"Dr.",name:"Supriya",surname:"Srivastava",slug:"supriya-srivastava",fullName:"Supriya Srivastava"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6421",title:"Cervical Cancer",subtitle:"Screening, Treatment and Prevention - 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\r\n\tThe goal of this book will be to introduce the current change in ambulatory care affected by the new development of medical knowledge, new technology, and social ethics. The COVID-19 pandemic plays an important role in the acceleration of the adoption of telehealth or telemedicine in medical care. Both patients and medical providers adopt it quickly. The new devices make it possible for remote measuring or monitoring vitals or other physical parameters and communication pathways that provide other tools for medical providers to change the pattern of management of different chronic diseases, like hypertension, diabetes, obesity, congestive heart failure, etc. Some techniques can switch some procedures from the hospital to the patient’s home or clinic so, which will not just make such procedures more convenient for patients but also save expense on medical care. The quality of medical care will improve once both medical providers and patients understand such changes, and cooperate proactively. Medical providers can learn how and what tools they can update and apply for caring for patients. Patients can understand and learn how to proactively engage in their health management.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe quest to ensure a perfect patient safety record is at the heart of the decades-long quest to improve quality, enhance value, and increase trust in our healthcare delivery systems. Beginning with the landmark report, To Err Is Human, the Institute of Medicine set an ambitious agenda for the medical community to reduce the number of patients harmed by healthcare-related errors and preventable adverse events. As a result, large-scale initiatives were initiated, including electronic medical records, trainee work hours restrictions, and the advent of evidence-based care bundles. To help support the effort, various governmental and non-governmental agencies established funding for patient safety research and actively fostered the development of well-defined Patient Safety Goals via the National Quality Forum. Parallel to targeted efforts aimed at reducing human and systemic errors leading to patient harm, legislative efforts resulted in bills intended to increase public reporting of medical errors and a paradigm shift allowing public support of the concept that most patient injuries are a result of system failures and not provider errors. This book will intend to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in patient safety, featuring an easy-to-follow, vignette-based format that focuses on the most important evidence-based developments in this critically important area.
",isbn:"978-1-83768-192-1",printIsbn:"978-1-83768-191-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83768-193-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"fa37d79f81893fd0a9ab346ae1c3e4a9",bookSignature:"Dr. Xin-Nong Li",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/12102.jpg",keywords:"Pandemic, Telehealth, Communication, High Technology, Chronic Disease, Remote, Monitor, Quality, Diabetes, Hypertension, Digital Device, Cardiovascular Disease",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 26th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 23rd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 22nd 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 10th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 9th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Li, MD, graduated from Sun Yat-Sen University of Medical Sciences as an Outstanding Student. He later retrained as a resident in the department of internal medicine at the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center. He gained rich professional experience by working at Basel University, Switzerland, the University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA, and Medical School, the University of California at Davis. He is a Fellow of the American College of Physicians and a member of the American Medical Association.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"345917",title:"Dr.",name:"Xin-Nong",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"xin-nong-li",fullName:"Xin-Nong Li",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/345917/images/system/345917.jpg",biography:"Dr. Xin-Nong Li, MD is an internal medicine specialist in Fair Oaks, CA. Dr. Li completed a residency at U Pittsburgh MC Shadyside. He currently practices at Xin-Nong Li, MD, and is affiliated with Mercy San Juan Medical Center. He accepts multiple insurance plans. Dr. Li is board-certified in Internal Medicine.\r\n\r\nEducation:\r\nU Pittsburgh MC Shadyside, Residency Hospital — 1999\r\nU Pittsburgh MC Shadyside, Internship Hospital — 1997\r\nSun Yat Sen University Med Sci, Medical School — 1982",institutionString:"Sutter Health",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Sutter Health",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"466997",firstName:"Patricia",lastName:"Kerep",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/466997/images/21565_n.jpg",email:"patricia@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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1. Introduction
\n
Wine is a widely consumed alcoholic beverage produced by yeast fermentation of natural sugars contained in grape juice. Wine has been produced and consumed for thousands of years and is thought to have originated from current Georgia where wine stained pottery from circa 6000 BC has been found [1]. Drinking wine daily is common in many cultures ranging from countries with old, well-established wine cultures in Europe and America to rapidly growing wine markets such as China. In some countries, alcoholic beverages, including wine, account for >12% of the daily intake of beverages [2]. Although the per capita consumption of wine by Americans was only 9.42 L per person in 2010, the United States is the single largest wine market in the world due to the large number of American consumers [3]. However, Old World wine countries such as France, Italy, and Portugal had the highest per capita wine consumption in 2010 (45.7, 42.15, and 41.81 L, respectively) out of the selected wine producing countries (Figure 1) [3]. Algeria and Israel had the lowest wine consumption per person of the selected countries at 0.97 L in 2010 [3].
Figure 1.
Per capita wine consumption by country (L per person) in 2007 and 2010 from selected wine-producing countries (Wine Institute, Trade Data and Analysis, 2012).
\n
Although fewer studies have been published on trace metal content in alcoholic beverages compared to elemental analysis of foods such as fish, produce, peanuts, and tea, wines are one of the most studied alcoholic beverages. Most studies have focused on quantification of metals such as As, Ni, Cu, Cr, Cd, Pb, Zn, and others in wines from specific countries such as Spain [4, 5], Italy [6–10], Argentina [11–13], Australia [14], Turkey [15–17], Romania [18], and Croatia [19–21] and/or focused on studying regional variation in mineral content from wine-producing regions and grape varieties within a single country.
\n
Wine has significant economic impact and commercial value in addition to its social importance. Wine production is one of the most important agricultural activities in many regions of the world. Wine has a complex sample matrix that contains various components such as macro- and microelements as well as lanthanides that contribute to its nutritional value. Wine composition also greatly affects its quality. The concentration of metals in wine is of great significance as it affects their conservation and color, in addition to impacting the organoleptic properties of wine, thereby affecting human consumption and the sensory experience [2, 22, 23]. Trace metals affect the organoleptic properties such as aroma, color, flavor, freshness, and taste. Cu, Fe, and Zn, for example, contribute to haze formation and taste effects in wine [24]. However, these minor metals are also favorable for yeast as they are an essential part required for prosthetic group of metalloenzymes that serve as biological catalysts. Other elements such as Ca, K, Mg, and Na are involved in regulating the cellular metabolism of yeasts by helping to maintain adequate ionic balance and pH [25]. Since metal species participate in oxidation-reduction reactions, physical properties of the wine such as color, turbidity, and astringency are largely dependent on metal composition of the wine [23]. Browning, the oxidative spoilage of wine which ultimately results in the loss of aromatic freshness and the appearance of precipitates of condensed phenolic material in the bottled wine, is activated and accelerated by the presence of Fe, Mn, and Cu [2, 22]. The presence and the levels of specific metals can also be used in quality control and the authentication of wines [5, 26]. In addition, metal profile from trace element analysis can act as a fingerprint that may be used to determine the origin, variety, and/or the type of wine and other beverages [27–31]. Therefore, trace element characterization of wine is powerful in fraud detection in commercially sold wines. The trace element composition of wine is influenced by factors such as grape varieties, soil at the vineyard, and viticultural practices [32, 33]. Knowledge of metal concentrations in wine is also of great importance in quality assurance (QA) of branded wines [34].
\n
There are endogenous and exogenous sources of metals in commercial wines. Endogenous metals of natural origin mostly come from the soil on which vines are grown and reach the wine through the harvested grapes [34]. These primary metals make up for the largest part of total metal content in wine [35–37]. Concentrations of these metals are also characteristic of the type of soil at the vineyard, the climate conditions during the growth of the grapes, grape variety, and the maturity of the grapes [38]. The metals of secondary origin are introduced during growth of grapes or at different stages in winemaking starting with harvesting and finishing with storing bottled wine at a cellar. Environmental pollution, addition of fertilizers used in cultivation, as well as application of fungicides and pesticides during the growing season of the grapes increases the amounts of metals such as Cd, Cu, Mn, Pb, and Zn in the finished wine [11, 39–43]. Variation in levels of K, Ca, and Cu in wine may also results from fertilizers applied at the vineyard [44]. The environmental pollution introducing metals into the soil, grapes, and ultimately the wine could be due to nearby industry, waste management practices, traffic, and even mining operations. For example, wines produced at vineyards located near industrial areas or close to major highways often contain higher levels of Cd and Pb due to vehicle exhaust fumes and other emissions to air, water, and/or soil [11, 39, 41, 42]. During winemaking process, the long contact of acidic wine with materials such as aluminum, brass, glass, stainless steel, and wood used in wine-making machinery and pipes, casks, and barrels used for handling and storing wine may also introduce metal contamination to the wine. The steps during the winemaking process often introduce elements such as Al, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, and Zn into the finished wine [11, 35]. Metal wine casks at a Sonoma Valley winery are shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Shows wine storage containers at a Sonoma Valley winery at California (USA).
\n
Many studies have shown that moderate consumption of red wine may improve health and longevity when it is done in combination with a balanced diet [45]. Much attention has been given in the research and medical communities to the properties and activity of polyphenols. Polyphenols have been shown to provide some possible health benefits by acting as antioxidants that helps prevent cell damage. Many of these health benefits of wine are associated with polyphenol antioxidants such as resveratrol (3,5,4’-trihydroxystilbene) that is common in grapes and many other plants [46]. Resveratrol obtained from moderate wine consumption was found to decrease the risk of cardiovascular events and decrease tumor growth in animal models [47, 48]. The powerful antioxidant properties of resveratrol are thought to reduce the oxidation of low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and to inhibit platelet aggregation that is involved in the formation of atherosclerotic lesions [49–51]. However, due to the complex structure, properties, and activity, many of the possible positive effects of polyphenols on animal and human health are not yet fully understood. The structure of resveratrol (3,5,4’-trihydroxystilbene) is shown in Figure 3 as an example of a potent, well-studied organic antioxidant.
Figure 3.
Structure of resveratrol (3,5,4’-trihydroxystilbene), a potent and commonly found polyphenol in red wines with known antioxidant properties.
\n
While wine when used in moderation may also be a good nutritional source for dietary intake of some essential minerals such as iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) [34, 52], and other metals such as copper (Cu) are considered both an essential and a potentially toxic element. Copper in excess may cause serious health consequences or result in the long-term bioaccumulation and toxicity in the body [53]. Excessive iron intake above the tolerable upper intake level (UL) causes gastrointestinal distress while excess copper intake is likely to result in liver damage. It has been established that even moderate daily consumption of wine contributes significantly to the human nutritional requirements for essential trace elements such as Cr, Co, Fe, Cu, Mn, Mo, Ni, Se, and Zn [54]. The estimated safe intake levels of Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn established by the US and the European Union (EU) are summarized in Table 1 [55–57].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Mineral
\n
\n
USA RDA (mg/day)
\n
USA UL (mg/day)
\n
EU PRI (mg/day)
\n
EU SCF (mg/day)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Cu
\n
Adults
\n
0.9
\n
10
\n
1.1
\n
\n
\n
\n
Fe
\n
Female
\n
18.0
\n
45
\n
\n
15–20
\n
\n
\n
Pregnant female
\n
27.0
\n
45
\n
\n
30
\n
\n
\n
Male and postmenopausal female
\n
8.0
\n
45
\n
\n
8–10
\n
\n
\n
Mn
\n
Female
\n
1.8
\n
11a
\n
\n
1–10b
\n
\n
\n
Male
\n
2.3
\n
11a
\n
\n
1–10b
\n
\n
\n
Zn
\n
Female
\n
8.0
\n
40
\n
7
\n
\n
\n
\n
Male
\n
11.0
\n
40
\n
9.5
\n
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Recommended dietary allowance (RDA) and tolerable upper intake level (UL) of selected trace minerals by the Food and Nutrition Board (Washington DC) [57]. Population reference intake (PRI) recommendations by the European Union. The Scientific Committee on Food (SCF) guidelines by the European Union [56].
a The estimated safe and adequate dietary intake for Mn was reported as 2–5 mg/day for adults [55].
b Scientific Committee on Food of the EU has reported 1–10 mg/day as an acceptable range of Mn intake [56]. The EU does not have a RDA for Mn.
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The World Health Organization and various regulatory agencies have established recommended maximum limits for the concentration of metals in beverages and water utilized in human consumption. In addition, individual countries have rules restricting maximum metal content in wines, which have to be met in order to export wine to these consumer markets. For example, Cu and Zn content must be <5 mg/L by law in wines sold in Australia and Germany [58]. The Office International de la Vigne et du Vin (OIV) sets the limits for Cu at 1 mg/L and Zn at 5 mg/L [58, 59]. Italy has established the following legal levels in wine: 1 mg/mL Br, 1 mg/L Cu, 0.2 mg/L Pb, and 5 mg/L Zn [60]. Wine quality is also greatly affected by their metal content. For example, concentrations of Fe >5 mg/L generally induces haze formation and oxidative spoilage of the wine [2]. Concentration of Cu(II) above 1 µg/mL and Fe(III) ions above 7 µg/mL can give unpleasant, astringent tastes in addition to producing cloudiness in wines that have high pH or high concentration of tannic substances [35, 61]. Typically, the limits on metal concentration imposed for alcoholic beverages are higher than those established for drinking water as the expected intake of alcoholic beverages such as wine is lower [62]. Most of the trace metals are thought to originate from the atmospheric deposition of airborne particulate matter on grapes, composition of the soil, residues of metal containing agrochemical products, transfer of metals from the soil via the roots to the grapes and the wine, vinification methods, and contamination from contact with the metal apparatus during winemaking, production, and packaging processes [2, 54]. For example, some of the copper in finished wine may be due to copper sulfate used for spraying the wines to prevent mildew growth. Most of the iron in wine is determined by the composition of the soil where the grapes for the wine are produced [39]. Elements such as As, Cd, Pb, and Br are considered to be potentially toxic [63].
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The ability for discriminating wines regionally within or between countries based on their trace element profile suggests that the elements mainly originate from their movement from the rock to soil and from the soil to grapes used to produce the commercially sold wine [64, 65]. Ability to determine the region of production for a wine greatly benefits the distributors, producers, as well as the consumers. The denomination origin controlled (DOC) system is used in some wine-producing countries to track the origin, to guarantee the wine quality, and to help eliminate fraud [66, 67]. Chemical characterization of finished wine is one of the key requirements to obtaining DOC certification. Wine authenticity may be examined by quantifying suitable geographic tracers in finished wine. For example, the origin may be tracked by examining the specific content of organic constituents that vary regionally such as anthocyanins, flavanols, flavonols, and organic acids [68, 69], by studying the elemental composition profile of inorganic species and by analysis of variation in selected stable isotopes [70]. Chemometric approaches have been applied to large analytical data sets that are generated during wine composition analysis and authenticity determination [12, 21, 66, 67, 70, 71].
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The multielemental composition profile in soils appears to be strongly affected by the solubility of inorganic species in the soil. This connection between soil composition and that of finished wine has been confirmed in studies where soil and wine samples were systematically characterized. Strong consensus has been demonstrated between soil and wine samples’ element composition while clear differences were shown between the studied regions [70]. In addition to Argentinian wines, statistically significant correlation between vineyard soils and finished Czech wines has been reported [35]. Ultimately, this multielement profile creates a sort of geochemical “fingerprint” that is unique to the vineyard or at least the grape growing region. These regional trace element patterns have been well established in chemical literature using instruments such as inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry, ICP-MS [72–84]. Characterization of the geographic origin of wine is even more accurate when natural isotopic abundance ratio of a key element, such as strontium (87Sr/86Sr) that is independent of the grape variety, is combined with trace element profile analysis [70].
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As described above, concentrations of metals in finished wine are characteristic of the type of soil at the vineyard but are also influenced by the climate conditions during the growth of the grapes, the variety of grapes, and their maturity [38]. An example of a vineyard located in the northern United States will now be described. Figure 4 shows the scenery at Chateau Grand Traverse in northern Michigan. The soil at the vineyard consists of loamy sand/glacial till and has a pH of 7.2–8.0. Chateau Grand Traverse vineyards lie directly on the 45° North Parallel at the elevation of 640–850 feet (or 195–259 m). The climate on the Old Mission Peninsula is also moderated by the surrounding deep waters of the Traverse Bay, helping to prevent frost during the growing season. Growing season at the Old Mission Peninsula is usually 145–160 days and the heat units have a 5-year average = 2260° days (+50°F or +10°C). Five-year average rain fall is 24.69“ (or 62.7 cm) with 80.00“ (or 203.2 cm) average snowfall.
Figure 4.
Shows the scenery at Chateau Grand Traverse, one of the oldest wineries in northern Michigan. The vineyard is located on a narrow peninsula, north of Traverse City on the shores of Lake Michigan.
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The typical composition and properties of wine as a sample matrix for various quantitative analyses will be described in the next section. The sample composition and properties impact important decisions such as what type of sample preparation is needed (if any), should the use of standard addition methods be considered, what is the best instrumental analysis method for characterization of the sample and the quantification of target analytes, etc.
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2. Wine as a sample matrix and winemaking treatments
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The sample matrix is, by definition, everything in the sample of interest other than the analyte being quantified. Wine is a relatively complex aqueous sample matrix for quantitative chemical analysis due to containing about 12–15% ethanol (by percent volume) and mixture of hundreds of different organic compounds (such as polyhydroxyalcohols, polyphenols, organic acids, polysaccharides, peptides, etc.) in addition to various inorganic species (such as selenium, iron, zinc, nickel, copper, etc.). Major metals in wine, Ca, K, Na, and Mg are typically at levels in the range of 10–103 µg/mL [36]. The concentration of K is usually the highest [85]. Al, Cu, Fe, Mn, Rb, Sr, and Zn are called minor metals that are usually found in the range of 0.1–10 µg/mL [34]. Trace metals include Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Li, Ni, Pb, V, and others in the range of 0.1–100 ng/mL or less [34].
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It is also important to note whether or not allowed additives, adjuvants, or fining agents were used in the winemaking process as these do affect the trace-element levels in wine. Ca concentration in wines is often affected by the addition of CaCO3 or CaSO4 during winemaking to deacidify must and wine [11, 43]. Clarifying products such as bentonites are allowed in winemaking. It has been reported that some winemaking treatments such as betonies and yeast hulls can affect the final trace element composition of wine [6]. Bentonite, for example, is a natural highly absorbent clay containing sheet silicates that is widely used in winemaking. Bentonite contains exchangeable cations such as Ca, Mg, and Na. Bentonite, which mostly consists of montmorillonite-type phyllosilicate, acts as a settling aid to clarify wine and to remove amino acids, minerals, polyphenols, and protein, thus minimizing the risk of haze formation in wine. Proteins are depleted in wines due to their adsorption on the surface of the silica layers. Yeast hulls, living and nonliving biomass of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, have also been reported to significantly lower heavy metal content of wines by biosorption [86–88].
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Nicolini et al. quantified changes of several minerals in red and white wines resulting from the addition of bentonites and yeast hulls using inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) and inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry [6]. They studied the changes in trace element composition resulting from Italian wines treated with 10 different types of bentonite at 1 g/L (the highest doses routinely used in winemaking) and two different yeast hulls at doses of 180 and 360 mg/L. The authors found that bentonite fining significantly lowered concentrations of K, Cu, Rb, and Zn [6]. Cu depletion of −43% was observed with bentonite fining. Meanwhile, certain elements such as Ce, Gd, La, Nd, Pr, and Y increased by about one order of magnitude due to bentonite fining that was used. Also, concentrations of Be, Tl, and U increased by about 4–6 times after bentonite fining [6]. Therefore, depending on the specific element, its concentration may increase or decrease in the wine upon treatment with bentonites.
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Nonliving yeast cell walls have also been reported to reduce concentrations of certain cations due to biosorption-involving protein-polysaccharide complexes [89]. Treatment of wine by yeast hulls induced significant decreases of Ce, Cu, Fe, La, Sb, U, V, and Y content in red and white wines as reported in [6]. Higher depletion of the elements was seen at the higher doses of 360 mg/L yeast hulls exposed to wines for 3 h.
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3. Matrix effect and the use of standard addition methods
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Quantification of certain inorganic trace and ultratrace elements such as arsenic, cadmium, and lead in complex sample matrix such as wine is often challenging due to their very low concentrations. Including a preconcentration step prior to quantitative analysis is often necessary for these types of dilute analytes as the analyte concentrations may be below the detection limit of the instrumental analysis technique. The preconcentration step may also help to isolate the analyte of interest from the complex sample matrix, thereby improving selectivity of the detection step and stability of the analyte. Evaporation of some solvent including ethanol and water is usually sufficient to preconcentrate wine samples to a high enough level for quantification of trace elements such as iron, copper, zinc, and manganese by spectroscopy. However, electrolytic deposition is a very efficient method for isolation and preconcentration of many inorganic trace elements prior to quantification using an electrochemical detection method such as stripping voltammetry (SV). Selected examples of spectroscopic and electroanalytical detection methods will be described later in this chapter.
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Matrix effect is a detectable change (i.e., an increase or a decrease) in the analytical signal response caused by sample components other than the analyte. Matrix interferences that are sometimes observed in atomic spectroscopy (AS) are often due to differences between surface tension and viscosity of test solutions that are often used to simulate the samples and real samples undergoing quantification. Standard addition is especially useful when the exact sample composition is not known, the composition varies between samples, or the sample is complex and the sample matrix affects the observed analytical signal. Therefore, standard addition methods are well suited for analyzing complex aqueous samples such as wine in which the likelihood of matrix effects is substantial. In standard addition, all samples undergoing analysis are in the same matrix. The standard being added in standard addition procedures is the same substance as the analyte of interest. For example, a certified reference standard purchased from a chemical company for aqueous Zn at ppm levels will be added into aliquots of wines undergoing quantitative analysis for zinc based on standard addition approach. The additions result in an increased signal response such as an increase in absorbance, which is directly proportional to the amount of zinc standard added. The standard addition methods will now be described in more detail.
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By following the standard addition approach, sample constituents including the possible matrix effect that may suppress or enhance the signal response should be identical in each case because the standards are prepared in aliquots of the same sample. Standard addition methods are also advantageous when the amount of sample is limited. For example, in clinical laboratory setting, limited sample size could be encountered when blood or urine samples are obtained from premature babies or dehydrated elderly patients. In this scenario, standard additions can be carried out by successive introductions of increments of the standard to a single measured volume of the unknown sample. Signal measurements are then made on the original sample and on the sample plus the standard after each addition. In most cases, the sample matrix is nearly identical after each standard addition, the only difference being the concentration of the analyte that has increased leading to detectable increases in the signal response. For direct metal determination in wines without any pretreatments, the usage of ethanol-containing standards or using the standard addition method is recommended in order to minimize chemical and physical interferences [90–93].
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As described, standard addition method can take several forms. For example, the wine sample may be spiked by adding one or more increments of a standard solution containing known concentration of the trace element analyte, such as Zn2+, to sample aliquots containing identical volumes of wine. The standard being added should ideally be relatively concentrated so that the addition of small volumes is sufficient and the sample matrix is not significantly altered. Each solution is then diluted to a constant total volume using deionized water before measurement of the signal. Figure 5 helps one to visualize stepwise a typical standard addition experiment with constant total volume. This procedure is sometimes called a graphic procedure for standard addition. This graphic procedure is necessary when the analysis method such as atomic spectroscopy consumes some of the prepared solution during the quantification step. Flame atomic absorption, for example, may consume 2–5 mL of the prepared solution when multiple absorbances are obtained in order to determine a more representative mean absorbance value. The sample introduction and atomization steps in flame-atomic absorption spectroscopy (flame-AAS) are very wasteful as the aerosol containing the analyte reaching the flame contains only about 5% of the initial sample. The excess liquid drawn from the sample solution through a capillary tube flows out to drain and ultimately a waste container.
Figure 5.
Standard addition procedure shows the addition of equal volume aliquots of the unknown sample (wine) to be quantified to five identical containers, the addition of progressively larger volumes of standard of known concentration and composition (middle layer), and finally, filling the flasks to the same total volume using deionized water prior to the quantitative analysis. Ultimately, all samples undergoing quantitative analysis are in the same sample matrix.
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The signal response is determined and recorded for each resulting solution to help quantify the analyte or analytes of interest. It is critical in quantitative analysis, regardless of the detection method chosen, that the signal response to the added analyte is linear. Ideally, each aliquot of added standard in a graphic standard addition procedure should increase the signal by a factor of 1.5–3. The quantification by this procedure usually involves the following steps:
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Calculate the concentration of added standard for each flask as measured after dilution.
Plot analytical signal versus concentration of added standard on a xy graph.
Add a linear regression line and the equation for the line.
The equation for the line (y = mx + b) will be used to find the concentration of the analyte in flask 1 by setting y-value equal to zero, and solving for x (x = −b/m). The magnitude (absolute value) of the x-axis intercept is the original concentration of the unknown (in units matching the x-axis).
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An example of a standard addition plot obtained using graphical standard addition treatment is shown in Figure 6 for the quantification of Zn in a white wine using flame-atomic absorption spectroscopy. The increases is mean absorbance were proportional to the aliquots of Zn standard added, allowing the reliable determination of Zn in the original wine using linear regression. Each standard addition increased the absorbance signal by a factor of 1.8.
Figure 6.
Graphical treatment of standard addition data in quantification of zinc. Concentration of Zn in a white wine from Golan Heights in Israel was determined using 0, 2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 mL additions 10 ppm zinc standard (from PerkinElmer) to 50 mL volumetric flasks already containing the white wine samples. The first flask with mean absorbance of 0.017 only contained the wine sample and deionized water. Based on the standard addition experiment, this Vintage 2012 Galilee wine from Golan Heights (Israel) contained 1.16 mg/L or ppm of zinc.
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\n
4. Common analytical methods for trace element analysis
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Various analytical techniques have been used for metal analysis in water, foods, and beverages. The electroanalytical methods include stripping voltammetry and stripping polarography [4, 10, 94–97]. Other analysis methods include X-ray fluorescence [98, 99] and near-IR spectroscopy [14, 29, 30]. Ion chromatography and capillary zone electrophoresis can also be applied to the analysis of metal cations in wines [5, 100, 101].
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Atomic absorption and emission spectroscopy methods such as inductively coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy, inductively coupled plasma-mass spectroscopy, graphite furnace-atomic absorption spectroscopy (GF-AAS), and flame-atomic absorption spectroscopy are the most commonly used techniques in the determination of metal concentrations due to their high sensitivity and rapid results [7, 14, 30, 58, 102–107]. Figure 7 shows an F-AAS by PerkinElmer, which is very affordable and reliable for quantification of many trace elements using standard addition methods.
Figure 7.
Flame-atomic absorption spectrometer (F-AAS), type AAnalyst 200 by PerkinElmer is shown.
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Despite wine being a relatively complex aqueous sample matrix for chemical analysis due to containing ethanol and hundreds of different larger organic compounds (such as polyhydroxyalcohols, organic acids, polyphenols, polysaccharides, peptides, etc.) in addition to various inorganic species, very few of these compounds actually interfere with atomic spectroscopy due to the high temperatures involved in the sample atomization steps [58]. Also, AAS, the official method of analysis for determination of elements such as Fe and Zn by the European Union Regulation [108], and recommended by the OIV and the American Society of Enologists, is affordable, selective, highly sensitive, often capable of direct measurements, and relatively easy to operate. Fe, Cu, Zn, and Mn, for example, are relatively simple to quantify using F-AAS. These four elements have significant impact on wine quality by contributing to haze formation and leading to undesirable changes in wine taste and aroma [23]. These elements may also impact human health via contributing to total dietary intake (in addition to other sources such as multivitamin supplements, food, and other beverages) and ultimately possible bioaccumulation and toxicity in the event of excessive intake [23]. The most common fuel/oxidant combination for quantification of trace elements such as Cu, Fe, Mn, and Zn by F-AAS in aqueous sample matrix is acetylene/air.
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Quantitative analysis by atomic spectroscopy consists of an atomization step where the solid sample components are broken into atoms at high temperature (2000–8000 K) flame, furnace, or plasma after liquid portion of the sample has already evaporated. The inorganic analyte species is quantified based on absorption or emission of monochromatic ultraviolet or visible electromagnetic radiation of characteristic wavelength by the gas-phase analyte. The analytes are typically at parts per million (µg/g) to parts per trillion (pg/g) levels for AS.
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In ICP-MS, the analyte trace elements are ionized by collisions with excited Ar+ or energetic electrons in plasma. ICP-MS has detection limits that are 5–7 orders of magnitude lower than atomic spectroscopy based on F-AAS. In addition, the linear range for ICP-MS is 108 versus 102 for F-AAS. The sample throughput for ICP-MS is greater as most elements may be analyzed in one run and the sample volumes required for analysis are also less. ICP-MS outperforms even other multielement techniques in element analysis due to its extremely low detection limits. However, the purchase cost and maintenance cost of an ICP-MS system is substantially higher and the instrument requires a skilled operator. ICP-MS has been utilized by many especially as an instrumental tool for characterizing wines according to their geographical origin [72–80, 109].
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Stripping voltammetry is a very sensitive, low cost, and a popular electroanalytical chemistry method due to incorporating an electrolytic preconcentration step prior to the analysis of trace concentrations of electroactive species in solution. Multiple elements such as Cd and Cu may also sometimes be quantified from the same sample using SV during the same experiment. Extremely low detection limits for metal ions at sub-ppb (or 10-10–10−11 M) concentrations have been reported for SV. There are three parts in a stripping experiment: deposition, quiet time, and stripping. During the deposition step, the analyte of interest is accumulated onto the working electrode that may have been chemically modified previously. Deposition of the target species may be increased by forced convection such as stirring the solution, rotation of the working electrode, or creating flow conditions during the deposition step. The required deposition time (of typically 1–10 min) depends on the concentration of the analyte species in the sample. In anodic stripping voltammetry (ASV), the working electrode is held at a potential at least 0.4 V cathodic to the standard potential of the least easily reduced ion being quantified. The stirring is stopped and the system is allowed to reach equilibrium during a quiet time of about 10–15 s. Finally, the accumulated material is reduced or oxidized back into the solution during the stripping step. Change in electrochemical response (i.e., signal) during the stripping step is proportional to the concentration of the analyte that was in or on the working electrode. Anodic stripping voltammetry involves the reduction of a metal ion analyte from the sample during the preconcentration step. SV method for trace metal analysis in dry wines will be described briefly below as an example of sample preparation, solution conditions, and time required for electroanaytical quantification.
\n
Brainina et al. [96] developed and reported a method for quantification of cadmium, copper, lead, and zinc in dry wines by stripping voltammetry with a thick-film modified graphite-containing electrode (TFMGE). The reported method has an advantage of not requiring acid digestion of the wine samples or any other sample preparation approaches for the destruction of organic substances. Supporting electrolyte of 0.5 M HCl was for Cu, Pb, and Cd, and 0.1 M acetate buffer (pH 5.5) and 0.35 M NaCl for Zn. The deposition potentials were −0.8 V for Cu, −1.2 V for Pb and Cd, and −1.4 V for Zn. The wine samples were diluted with the supporting electrolyte prior to deposition step. The deposition times were 30–60 s for Cu, 120 s for Pb and Cd, and 10–30 s for Zn. Results obtained by the TFMGE analysis were compared with quantification of the selected elements in the same samples done using ICP-MS. Of note, the fast and simple analysis method with TFMGE actually provided better reproducibility than methods involving wine decomposition prior to analysis. More recently, Burmakina et al. [110] developed a procedure for determining manganese(II) in wines by SV on a graphite electrode. The detection limit of manganese(II) was 50 µg/L with a linear range 0.1–3 mg/L [110].
\n
\n
5. Conclusions
\n
Wine is a common beverage that has immense economic impact on certain regions of the world. The theory, advantages and disadvantages, experimental considerations and set up of various sensitive atomic spectroscopy, and electroanalytical quantification methods were described in this chapter. Examples of quantification methods suitable for essential trace element as well as the determination of toxic elements generally found at considerably lower concentrations in wine were provided throughout the chapter. Many inorganic elements have been found to affect the properties of wine, how well it stores, as well as the sensory perception of the wine consumer. The unique trace element profile may also be used as a fingerprint to identify the authenticity of the wine if a fraud is suspected or provide information about the growing region of the grapes and the location of the vineyard. The complexity of wine as a sample matrix for quantification of inorganic elements and the use of standard addition methods to improve the reliability of the selected detection methods were described. Examples of common methods, the common origins of the inorganic elements in the finished wine, and reported levels of trace elements in wines were heavily referenced throughout the chapter.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The author thanks Benedictine University for financial support of her work.
\n
\n',keywords:"trace element determination, atomic spectroscopy, electroanalytical methods, wine, standard addition methods, stripping voltammetry",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/52026.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/52026.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/52026",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/52026",totalDownloads:1994,totalViews:506,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,impactScore:0,impactScorePercentile:14,impactScoreQuartile:1,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 15th 2015",dateReviewed:"July 18th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 19th 2016",dateFinished:"August 13th 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The chapter will outline the basic theory, advantages and disadvantages, experimental considerations and set up of various atomic spectroscopy, and electroanalytical quantification methods and their specific application to trace element determination in wines. The reader will gain an introduction to most popular elemental analysis methods used in beverage analysis. Copper, iron, manganese, and zinc will be used as examples of essential trace elements throughout the chapter that at high levels may affect the properties of wine as well as the sensory experience of the consumer. Furthermore, special considerations that should be given to wine as a sample matrix for quantitative analysis of inorganic elements and the use of standard addition methods will be described.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/52026",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/52026",book:{id:"5253",slug:"grape-and-wine-biotechnology"},signatures:"Niina J. Ronkainen",authors:[{id:"182161",title:"Dr.",name:"Niina",middleName:"J",surname:"Ronkainen",fullName:"Niina Ronkainen",slug:"niina-ronkainen",email:"nronkainen@ben.edu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"Benedictine University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Wine as a sample matrix and winemaking treatments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Matrix effect and the use of standard addition methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Common analytical methods for trace element analysis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Keys, D. (28 December 2003). “Now that’s what you call a real vintage: professor unearths 8,000-year-old wine.” The Independent (London).'},{id:"B2",body:'Pyrzyńska, K. (2004). 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Journal of Analytical Chemistry, 71(1), 71–76.'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Niina J. Ronkainen",address:"nronkainen@ben.edu",affiliation:'
Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Benedictine University, Lisle, Illinois, USA
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1. Introduction
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is defined as the presence of an abnormality in kidney structure or function persisting for more than 3 months [1]. This includes one or more of the following: (1) estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) less than 60 mL/min/1.73 m2; (2) urine albumin ≥30 mg per 24 h or urine albumin-to-creatinine ratio (UACR) ≥30 mg/g; (3) abnormalities in urine sediment, histology, or imaging suggestive of kidney damage; (4) renal tubular disorders; or (5) history of kidney transplantation [2]. Stages of CKD are based on UACR and eGFR and predict risk of progression to end-stage kidney disease (ESKD), defined as the requirement for renal replacement with chronic dialysis or kidney transplantation.
The prevalence of CKD in people with diabetes is approximately 20%, while it is 10% in those with prediabetes [1]. Because it is the leading cause of CKD, optimal screening and treatment of diabetes is essential in preventing CKD progression. This includes screening for proteinuria, optimizing glucose levels, and reducing cardiovascular morbidity and mortality [3].
Pharmacotherapy is a mainstay in the treatment of CKD for controlling blood pressure, glucose levels, and preventing CKD progression. Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEI) and angiotensin receptor blockers (ARB) demonstrated benefit for diabetic nephropathy decades ago. In 1993, The Collaborative Study Group Captopril Trial showed that in participants with insulin-dependent diabetes and proteinuria, captopril reduced the risk of serum creatinine doubling by 48%, and the composite risk of death, dialysis, and transplantation by 50% [4]. In 2001, The Irbesartan Diabetic Nephropathy Trial (IDNT) showed that irbesartan reduced disease progression in participants with diabetic nephropathy (32.6% vs. 39.0%; RR 0.8; p = 0.02), independent of its antihypertensive effects [5]. In 2001, The Reduction in End Points in NIDDM with the Angiotensin II Antagonist Losartan (RENAAL) study showed that losartan reduced progression to ESKD (19.6% vs. 25.5%; relative risk (RR) 0.72; p = 0.002) and serum creatinine doubling (21.6% vs. 26.0%; RR 0.75; p = 0.006) in participants with diabetic nephropathy [5].
Aside from ACEI/ARBs for CKD treatment, novel pharmacotherapies include sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2Is), glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 RAs), and finerenone. SGLT2Is are recommended for diabetic kidney disease to prevent CKD progression and cardiovascular events [6]. GLP-1 RAs are recommended for those with diabetic kidney disease who have not achieved glycemic targets with metformin and SGLT2Is [7]. Finerenone (a nonsteroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist [MRA]) has been shown to reduce CKD progression and cardiovascular events [8].
2. Evidence
2.1 Sodium-glucose Cotransporter-2 Inhibitors
SGLT2Is reduce renal tubular glucose reabsorption, lowering blood glucose without stimulating insulin release. Several trials (CANVAS, CREDENCE, DAPA-CKD) have shown that SGLT2Is may reduce CKD progression (Table 1). The proposed mechanisms are: (1) reduction of glomerular hyperfiltration via increased delivery of sodium to the macula densa and afferent arteriolar constriction, which lowers intraglomerular pressure and reduces albuminuria, (2) reduction of tubular workload due to decreased SGLT2 co-transporter activity, and (3) reduced renal inflammation due to reduced albuminuria, tubular cell glucose, and induction of inflammatory cytokines and fibrotic mediators [9].
CANVAS
CREDENCE
DAPA-CKD
Study Design
Double-blind RCT
Double-blind RCT
Double-blind RCT
Participants
10,142
4401
4304
Inclusion Criteria
DM2, high CV risk
DM2, albuminuria
CKD, albuminuria, with or without DM2
Exclusion Criteria
DM1, DKA history
DM1, dialysis, transplant, non-DM kidney disease
DM1, PCKD, lupus nephritis, vasculitis, transplant history
Baseline Therapy
Antihyperglycemic agents or no therapy
ACEI/ARB therapy
Maximum ACEI/ARB therapy
Intervention
Canagliflozin (300 mg daily vs.100 mg daily) vs. placebo
Canagliflozin (100 mg daily) vs. placebo
Dapagliflozin (10 mg daily) vs. placebo
Outcomes
CV mortality, nonfatal MI, or nonfatal stroke: 26.9 vs. 31.5 participants per 1000 pt-yrs; HR 0.86; 95% CI 0.75–0.97
ESKD, Cr doubling, or renal/CV mortality: 43.2 vs. 61.2 events per 1000 pt-yrs; HR 0.70; 95% CI 0.59–0.82
Reduction in eGFR >50%, new ESKD, or renal/CV mortality: 9.2% vs. 14.5%; HR 0.61; 95% CI 0.51–0.72
Albuminuria increase >30%: 89.4 vs. 128.7 participants per 1000 pt-yrs; HR 0.73; 95% CI 0.67–0.79
Cr doubling: 20.7 vs. 33.8 events per 1000 pt-yrs; HR 0.60; 95% CI 0.48–0.76
Reduction in eGFR >50%: 5.2% vs. 9.3%; HR 0–53; 95% CI 0.42–0.67
Reduction in eGFR>40%, renal replacement or renal death: 5.5 vs. 9.0 participants per 1000 pt-yrs; HR 0.60; 95% CI 0.47–0.77
ESKD: 20.4 vs. 29.4 events per 1000 pt-yrs; HR 0.68; 95% CI 0.54–0.86
New ESKD: 5.1% vs. 7.5%; HR 0.64; 95% CI 0.50–0.82
Adverse Events
Mycotic genital infection, amputation risk (both higher in canagliflozin group)
Mycotic genital infection, DKA (higher in canagliflozin group).
Volume depletion (higher in dapagliflozin group)
Limitations
Few patients with baseline CKD
Statin use not controlled
Trial stopped early due to benefits; underpowering of less common endpoints
The CANagliflozin cardioVascular Assessment Study (CANVAS) involved two multicenter, randomized, placebo-controlled trials with 10,142 participants in 30 countries [10]. It was an intention-to-treat analysis that enrolled participants from 2009 to 2013 and followed participants for a median of 126 weeks, and it included those with type 2 diabetes with hemoglobin A1C (HbA1C) between 7% and 10.5% not currently on antihyperglycemic therapy. Progression of albuminuria, defined as >30% increase in UACR, and progression of CKD, defined as >40% reduction in eGFR, were lower in the canagliflozin group (hazard ratio [HR] 0.73; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.67–0.79; and HR 0.60; 95% CI 0.47–0.77, respectively). Canagliflozin lowered the primary cardiovascular outcome, which included cardiovascular mortality, nonfatal myocardial infarction, and nonfatal stroke (HR 0.86, 95% CI 0.75–0.97) [10]. Significant adverse events included: risk of amputation, genital infections, and osmotic diuresis.
CANVAS has been criticized for having too few participants with baseline CKD, and so these results may not be generalizable to the population with CKD. Overall, these were novel results because previous medications such as insulin, sulfonylureas, and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitors had not been associated with improvements in cardiovascular outcomes or survival. This study was the first to show that SLGT2Is may reduce kidney disease progression.
2.1.2 CREDENCE
The Canagliflozin and Renal Events in Diabetes with Established Nephropathy Clinical Evaluation (CREDENCE) trial was a prospective, double-blind randomized controlled trial with 4401 participants across 690 sites in 34 countries [11]. It was an intention-to-treat analysis that enrolled participants from 2014 to 2017, and followed them for a median of 2.6 years. The study included 4401 participants with type 2 diabetes (HbA1C 6.5–12.0%) and CKD stage G2-G3/A3 (baseline eGFR 30 to <90 mL/min/1.73m2 and UACR>300 to 5000 mg/24 h) taking ACEI or ARB therapy. Those randomized to canagliflozin had a lower risk of developing the primary composite kidney outcome of doubling of serum creatinine, ESKD, or death from a kidney or cardiovascular cause, compared with those randomized to placebo (HR 0.70; 95% CI 0.59–0.82; p < 0.01). Significant adverse events included genital mycotic infection and diabetic ketoacidosis. A criticism of this study was that statin use was not universal in this trial and could have confounding effects since statins have been shown to prevent cardiovascular events [12].
2.1.3 DAPA-CKD
The Dapagliflozin And Prevention of Adverse Outcomes in Chronic Kidney Disease (DAPA-CKD) trial was a multicenter, double-blind, randomized placebo controlled trial with 4304 participants enrolled from 2017 to 2018 in 450 sites from 20 countries [13]. It was an intention-to-treat analysis with a mean follow-up of 2.4 years. Participants had eGFR between 25 and 75 mL/min/1.73 m2, UACR between 200 and 5000 mg/g, and were already on maximum ACEI/ARB therapy. This study found reduced primary outcome of eGFR decline >50%, new ESKD, or kidney or CVD mortality in the dapagliflozin group (9.2% vs. 14.5%, HR 0.61, 95% CI 0.51–0.72). A subgroup analysis revealed that in participants without diabetes, dapagliflozin reduced the primary outcome (HR 0.50; CI 0.35–0.72).
2.1.4 EMPA-KIDNEY
The EMPAgliflozin Once Daily to Assess Cardiorenal Outcome in Patients with Chronic KIDNEY Disease (EMPA-KIDNEY) trial was designed to investigate the effect of empagliflozin on kidney outcomes and cardiovascular death in people with CKD [14]. It began in 2019 and is estimated to be completed near the end of 2022. This trial will shed light on whether SGLT2Is benefit people with proteinuria regardless of diabetes status.
2.2 Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists
Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 RAs) stimulate glucose-dependent insulin secretion. They are thought of as a “satiety peptide” that promotes release of insulin when glucose is elevated, while also decreasing prandial glucagon and delaying gastric emptying. GLP-1 RAs have the added benefit of promoting weight loss. Because they have shown to improve cardiovascular outcomes in the LEADER and REWIND trials among others, the American Diabetes Association (ADA) recommends GLP-1 RAs in people with type 2 diabetes with cardiovascular disease (Table 2) [7]. However, in a meta-analysis, GLP-1 RAs did not significantly decrease the risk of kidney events (RR 0.86 [0.72–1.03]) [15]. There has not been substantial evidence to date that GLP-1 agonists slow CKD progression, as there has not been a published GLP-1 RA trial with primary endpoint of kidney events. Existing data on kidney outcomes have been provided by cardiovascular outcomes trials.
LEADER
REWIND
Study design
Double-blind RCT
Double-blind RCT
Participants
9340
9901
Inclusion Criteria
DM2
DM2, CV risk factors
Exclusion Criteria
DM1, previous use of GLP-1 RA, ESKD, prior transplant
eGFR<15 ml/min/1.73 m2, life expectancy<1 yr, severe hypoglycemia in previous yr
Baseline Therapy
Antihyperglycemic agents or no therapy
Antihyperglycemic agents or no therapy
Intervention
Liraglutide (1.8 mg daily) vs. placebo
Dulaglutide (1.5 mg daily) vs. placebo
Outcomes
Nonfatal MI, nonfatal stroke, or CV mortality: 13.0% vs. 14.9%; HR 0.87; 95% CI 0.78–0.97
Nonfatal MI, nonfatal stroke, or CV mortality: 12.0% vs. 13.4%; HR 0.88; 95% CI 0.79–0.99
All-cause mortality: 8.3% vs. 9.6%; HR 0.78; 95% CI 0.74–0.97
New albuminuria>300 mg/g, reduction in eGFR>30%, or need for renal replacement: 17.1% vs. 19.6%; HR 0.85; 95% CI 0.77–0.93
New or persistent albuminuria, Cr doubling, CRRT need, or renal death: 5.7% vs. 7.2%; HR 0.78; 95% CI 0.67–0.92
Adverse Events
Severe hypoglycemia (higher in placebo group), acute gallstone disease (higher in liraglutide group)
GI adverse events (higher in dulaglutide group)
Limitations
Unequal statin use between groups
>25% participants were not taking study drug at last visit
Table 2.
Clinical trials involving GLP-1 RAs.
Abbreviations: GLP-1 RAs—Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists; LEADER—Liraglutide Effect and Action in Diabetes: Evaluation of Cardiovascular Outcome Results; REWIND—Researching Cardiovascular Outcomes with a Weekly Incretin in Diabetes; RCT—randomized controlled trial; DM2—type 2 diabetes mellitus; CV—cardiovascular; DM1—type 1 diabetes mellitus; ESKD—end-stage kidney disease; eGFR—estimated glomerular filtration rate; yr.—year; mg—milligrams; MI—myocardial infarction; HR—hazard ratio; CI—confidence interval; Cr—creatinine; CRRT—continuous renal replacement therapy; mg/g—milligrams per gram; GI—gastrointestinal.
2.2.1 LEADER
In the Liraglutide Effect and Action in Diabetes: Evaluation of Cardiovascular Outcome Results (LEADER) trial, liraglutide was found to reduce cardiovascular events compared to placebo in participants with diabetes at risk for cardiovascular disease [16]. This study was a multicenter, randomized, controlled trial that evaluated 9340 participants with type 2 diabetes at 410 sites in 32 countries. Participants had diabetes and cardiovascular diseases, including peripheral vascular disease, CKD, symptomatic congestive heart failure, or hypertension with left ventricular hypertrophy, among others. This intention-to-treat analysis enrolled participants from 2010 to 2012 and followed them up for a median of 3.8 years. The primary outcome was a composite of nonfatal myocardial infarction, nonfatal stroke, and cardiovascular mortality. Those who received liraglutide had a lower primary outcome compared to placebo (13.0% vs. 14.9%, HR 0.87, 95% CI 0.78–0.97). Those in the liraglutide group also had lower all-cause mortality (8.2% vs. 9.6%, HR 0.78, 95% CI 0.74–0.97, p = 0.02), and a lower rate of the kidney composite endpoint of new or persistent UACR>300 mg/g, doubling of serum creatinine and eGFR<45 ml/min/1.73m2, need for continuous renal replacement therapy, or death due to kidney disease (5.7% vs. 7.2%, HR 0.78, 95% CI 0.67–0.92, p = 0.003).
2.2.2 REWIND
The Researching Cardiovascular Outcomes with a Weekly Incretin in Diabetes (REWIND) trial was a multicenter randomized, double-blind controlled trial spanning 371 sites in 24 countries [17, 18]. It examined participants with type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular risk factors, and eGFR>15. The primary composite outcome included non-fatal MI, non-fatal stroke, or death from cardiovascular causes. Compared to placebo, those in the dulaglutide group had fewer primary outcome events (12.0% vs. 13.4%, HR 0.88, 95% CI 0.79–0.99; p = 0.026). However, all-cause mortality was not significantly different between the groups (10.8% vs. 12.0%, HR 0.90, 95% CI 0.80–1.01; p = 0.067).
The kidney outcome evaluated was a composite of new albuminuria>300 mg/g, decline in eGFR 30% or more from baseline, or need for renal replacement therapy. Fewer in the dulaglutide group exhibited the composite kidney outcome (17.1% vs. 19.6%; HR 0.85; 95% CI 0.77–0.93; p = 0.0004). The most prominent effect was reduction of albuminuria (HR 0.77; 95% CI 0.68–0.87; p < 0.0001).
2.2.3 FLOW
The Effect of Semaglutide Versus Placebo on the Progression of Renal Impairment in Subjects With Type 2 Diabetes and Chronic Kidney Disease (FLOW) trial was the first kidney outcome trial involving GLP-1 RAs, and it sought to determine the effects of semaglutide on kidney outcomes in people with type 2 diabetes [19, 20]. It began in 2019 and is estimated to be completed in 2024.
2.3 Finerenone
Finerenone is a nonsteroidal, selective mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist. It has been studied recently in two trials (FIDELIO-DKD and FIGARO-DKD) to determine its effect on cardiovascular and kidney outcomes (Table 3). Its proposed mechanism is through decreased mineralocorticoid receptor activation, and subsequent reduction in inflammation, fibrosis, and reactive oxygen species [21].
FIDELIO-DKD
FIGARO-DKD
Study Design
Double-blind RCT
Double-blind RCT
Participants
5734
7437
Inclusion Criteria
DM2, CKD
DM2, CKD, albuminuria
Exclusion Criteria
Non-diabetic kidney disease, already on MRA, kidney transplant
Reduction in eGFR > 40%, kidney failure, or death from kidney causes: 17.8 vs. 21.1%; HR 0.82; 95% CI 0.73–0.93
CV death, nonfatal MI, nonfatal stroke, or heart failure hospitalization: 12.4% vs. 14.2%; HR 0.87; 95% CI 0.76–0.98
CV death, nonfatal myocardial infarction, nonfatal stroke, or heart failure hospitalization: 13.0% vs. 14.8%; HR 0.86; 95% CI 0.75–0.99
Reduction in eGFR>40%, kidney failure, or death from kidney causes: 9.5% vs. 10.8%; HR 0.87; 95% CI 0.76–1.01
Adverse Events
Hyperkalemia (higher in finerenone group)
Hyperkalemia (higher in finerenone group)
Limitations
Most patients had advanced CKD; only 4.7% Black patients
Only 3.5% Black patients
Table 3.
Clinical trials involving Finerenone.
Abbreviations: FIDELIO-DKD—FInerenone in reducing kiDnEy faiLure and dIsease prOgression in Diabetic Kidney Disease; FIGARO-DKD—Finerenone in Subjects With Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and the Clinical Diagnosis of Diabetic Kidney Disease; RCT—randomized controlled trial; DM2—type 2 diabetes mellitus; CKD—chronic kidney disease; MRA—mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist; HFrEF—heart failure with reduced ejection fraction; UACR—urine albumin-creatinine ratio; mg/g—milligrams per gram; ACEI—angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor; ARB—angiotensin receptor blocker; mg—milligrams; eGFR—estimated glomerular filtration rate; HR—hazard ratio; CI—confidence interval; CV—cardiovascular; MI—myocardial infarction; CKD—chronic kidney disease.
2.3.1 FIDELIO-DKD
The FInerenone in reducing kiDnEy faiLure and dIsease prOgression in Diabetic Kidney Disease (FIDELIO-DKD) trial was a double-blinded randomized trial that showed in participants with CKD and type 2 diabetes, finerenone may lower risk of CKD progression and cardiovascular events [22]. The primary outcome was a composite of a sustained decrease of >40% in eGFR from baseline over a period of >4 weeks, or death from kidney causes. The secondary outcome event was a composite of death from cardiovascular causes, nonfatal myocardial infarction, nonfatal stroke, or hospitalization for heart failure. The primary and secondary outcomes occurred less in the finerenone group (17.8% vs. 21.1%; HR 0.82; 95% CI 0.73–0.93 for the primary outcome; 13.0% vs. 14.8%; HR 0.86; 95% CI 0.75–0.99 for the secondary outcome). Hyperkalemia-related trial discontinuation was higher in the finerenone group vs. placebo (2.3% and 0.9%, respectively).
Finerenone may also reduce new-onset atrial fibrillation/flutter in people with CKD and type 2 diabetes [23]. In this study, new onset atrial fibrillation was lower in the finerenone group compared to placebo (3.2% vs. 4.5%, p = 0.016).
2.3.2 FIGARO-DKD
The Finerenone in Subjects With Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and the Clinical Diagnosis of Diabetic Kidney Disease (FIGARO-DKD) trial was a double-blind randomized trial that finerenone may reduce new onset heart failure and heart failure hospitalization rate among people with CKD and type 2 diabetes [8]. In this study of 7437 participants, 3686 were given finerenone, while there were 3666 in the placebo group. The primary outcome was a composite of cardiovascular death, nonfatal MI, nonfatal stroke, or heart failure hospitalization. This primary outcome event occurred in 12.4% in the finerenone group, and in 14.2% of the placebo group (HR 0.87; 95% CI 0.76–0.98).
Most of the benefit of finerenone was found to be from heart failure hospitalization (HR 0.71). The secondary outcome was a composite of kidney failure, defined as a sustained decrease in eGFR from baseline of at least 40%, or death from kidney causes. This event occurred in 9.5% of the finerenone group and 10.8% of the placebo group (HR 0.87; 95% CI 0.76–1.01). Of note, hyperkalemia-related discontinuation of the trial regimen was higher in the finerenone group (1.2% vs. 0.4%).
3. Discussion
3.1 Summary of kidney outcomes
In people with type 2 diabetes, canagliflozin may reduce albuminuria progression, and the composite outcome of doubling of serum creatinine, ESKD, or kidney or cardiovascular mortality [10, 11]. In people with CKD, dapagliflozin may reduce the composite outcome of eGFR decline >50%, new ESKD, or kidney or CVD mortality, independent of diabetes status [13]. In people with diabetes at risk for cardiovascular disease, liraglutide may reduce all-cause mortality, and the composite outcome of new or persistent albuminuria, doubling of serum creatinine and eGFR<45 ml/min/1.73 m2, need for continuous renal replacement therapy, or death due to kidney disease [16]. In people with diabetes and cardiovascular risk factors, dulaglutide may reduce the composite outcome of new albuminuria > 300 mg/g, decline in eGFR 30% or more from baseline, or need for renal replacement therapy [18]. In people with CKD and type 2 diabetes, finerenone may lower the composite outcome of sustained decrease of at least 40% in the eGFR, or death from kidney causes [8, 22].
3.2 Comparison of newer therapies to established therapies
It is important to note that the reduction in kidney events was higher in general for ACEI/ARBs compared to SGLT2Is or finerenone, although these therapies have not been directly compared [5, 10, 11, 22]. In the SGLT2I and finerenone trials, participants were also on ACEI/ARB therapies. Thus ACEI/ARB are still first line for treatment of kidney disease with albuminuria. Studies have not compared SGLT2Is to finerenone. The effects of combined SGLT2I and finerenone therapy on kidney outcomes are unknown. Both SGLT2Is and finerenone cause adverse events, which must also be considered along with their benefits [24].
3.3 Approach to therapy along the continuum of diabetic kidney disease
All people with CKD should follow lifestyle modifications (increased exercise, low sodium diet, protein restriction, and reduced dietary acid loads) to manage blood pressure and glucose levels, and to reduce cardiovascular risk (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
DKD treatment continuum. This illustrates therapeutic approaches that may reduce DKD progression, and the associated eGFRs for which they have been studied. Listed underneath each drug class are the benefits and side effects. Abbreviations: DKD—diabetic kidney disease; eGFR—estimated glomerular filtration rate; CKD—chronic kidney disease; ACEI—angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor; ARB—angiotensin receptor blocker; CV—cardiovascular; GFR—glomerular filtration rate; SGLT2Is—sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors; DKA—diabetic ketoacidosis; GLP-1 RAs—glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists; GI—gastrointestinal.
*SGLT2Is may be continued for eGFR < 30 mL/min/1.73 m2 given that they were initiated when eGFR > 30 mL/min/1.73 m2, and they may be continued until a person is on dialysis.
ACEI/ARB therapy is recommended for treatment in people with CKD (diabetic or non-diabetic), with urine albumin excretion>30 mg/day. They can also be used as initial pharmacotherapy to treat hypertension. These medications should be held in the setting of acute kidney injury and should be discontinued if associated with hyperkalemia that cannot be controlled with dietary restriction or potassium binders [24].
SGLT2Is should be initiated in people with type 2 diabetes and CKD with eGFR≥30 mL/min/1.73 m2. They have not been studied in people with eGFR <30 ml/min/1.73 m2, thus they should not be initiated in people with CKD stages 4–5. Studies have shown that if they are started when eGFR is above 30 mL/min/1.73 m2, they can be continued until the individual is on dialysis and then stopped [25, 26]. However, they likely have benefit in people with eGFR<30 mL/min/1.73 m2 based on a pooled analysis of phase 3 randomized controlled trials [27]. Dapagliflozin may benefit people who have albuminuria who do not have diabetes [13]. The DAPA-CKD study excluded patients with type 1 diabetes and specific kidney conditions including polycystic kidney disease, lupus nephritis, vasculitis, and history of organ transplantation [13]. Therefore, outcomes of SGLT2Is in these specific populations are unknown. SGLT2Is should be used with caution in people with a prior lower extremity amputation or threat of amputation. Adverse effects include polyuria, hyperkalemia, a higher risk for genital mycotic infections, diabetic ketoacidosis, bony fractures, and the need for lower limb amputations.
GLP-1 RAs may be used in people with type 2 diabetes and diabetic kidney disease, after metformin and SGLT2Is have not shown improved glycemic control. Studies have shown that liraglutide and dulaglutide improved kidney outcomes, although most of the trials involving GLP-agonists focused on improved cardiovascular outcomes as the primary endpoint. In REWIND, dulaglutide was studied in people with eGFR>15 mL/min/1.73 m2, thus it may be used for Stage 4 CKD. Adverse effects include diarrhea, nausea, headache, and hypoglycemia.
Finerenone may be used in people with type 2 diabetes and diabetic kidney disease, with eGFR≥25 mL/min/1.73 m2. It has not been studied among people with eGFR<25 mL/min/1.73 m2. The risk of hyperkalemia may be higher among people on concurrent finerenone and ACEI/ARB therapy [28]. Caution is advised among people with hepatic impairment and those taking strong CYP3A4 inhibitors, because finerenone is a sensitive CPY3A4 substrate and its effects may be increased through CYP3A4 inhibition [29].
3.4 Approaches to develop therapeutics for CKD progression
The rising global burden of CKD requires comprehensive educational campaigns, screening for early CKD, and novel therapeutics to mitigate progression to ESKD and the need for dialysis [30]. Coordination between scientists, policymakers, physicians, pharmaceutical companies, insurance companies, governments, and other key players is paramount in advancing therapies from bench to bedside. The relationship between CVD and CKD is complex—it is known that CVD is a common complication in people with CKD, yet there are limited evidence and therapies to prevent CVD in people with CKD [31]. Blood pressure control, statin use, and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone axis blockade have improved cardiovascular outcomes, however excess mortality remains in people with CKD compared with the general population [3]. There is also an increasing incidence of CKD resulting from unknown causes in certain “hotspots” that exacerbates this problem [32].
Pollock et al. outlined four major goals towards establishing and validating novel therapeutic targets to reduce CKD progression [33]. The first goal is to improve identification of therapeutic targets. This requires use of biomarkers, −omics data, and cross-disciplinary research to identify pathophysiologic mechanisms. For example, what we learn about the physiological mechanism of kidney fibrosis may be useful in informing drug mechanistic approaches to prevent fibrosis leading to CKD. Acute kidney injury (AKI) is associated with CKD development, and understanding the multifactorial relationship between the two is crucial [34].
The second goal is to enhance preclinical and early clinical development. This requires improving clinical networks for CKD populations to facilitate trial recruitment, developing infrastructure to study human tissue to better understand CKD progression, improving collaboration between academic research scientists and the biotechnology company researchers, and rewarding academic career development when involved with industry to develop therapeutics.
The third goal is to increase availability of novel therapeutic approaches. This entails evaluating opportunities for repurposing drugs to find treatments for CKD and its complications, as well as improving access to costly drugs and biologics in low- and middle-income countries.
The fourth goal—encouraging investment in CKD therapeutics—is crucial to the overall global mission to reduce CKD progression. This includes marketing economic opportunity and developing business cases, lobbying for funding from governments and industry, and documenting differences in CKD treatment practice patterns and the therapeutic needs of different countries. Therapeutics in development for CKD include those mentioned in this article as well as drugs that reduce inflammation and mitigate oxidative injury [35].
4. Conclusion
ACEI/ARBs have been the mainstay for preventing CKD progression for the last several decades [36]. SGLT2Is and finerenone are newer therapies that may prevent disease progression in those with diabetic kidney disease, while GLP-1 RAs are useful in preventing cardiovascular disease in those with diabetes and cardiovascular risk factors. GLP-1 RAs have shown promise in preventing kidney outcomes through primary cardiovascular outcomes trials, but they have not directly been tested for kidney outcomes as a primary endpoint.
As the global burden of CKD rises, it is essential to improve the therapeutic development process from all perspectives, including academic research and industry. The scientific process of advancing basic and clinical biological research to identify therapeutic targets is just as critical as creating avenues for investment in CKD research, global collaboration in implementing clinical trials and information sharing, and improving access to costly drugs. To arrive at a comprehensive solution for CKD, many more advances in the basic science and genetics of kidney disease are essential. The increasing need to serve people with CKD will hopefully engender an era of evidence-based therapeutics that will revolutionize CKD care such that reaching ESKD will be a rarity.
Conflicts of interest and sources of funding
No conflicts of interest or funding sources are reported.
Chronic kidney disease, defined as abnormal kidney function for more than 3 months, affects roughly 15% of the US, and approximately 40% of people with chronic kidney disease have type 2 diabetes. In the last decade, pharmacotherapies have been approved that may reduce chronic kidney disease progression and its complications. Sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2Is) are recommended for diabetic kidney disease as they may reduce chronic kidney disease progression and cardiovascular events. Glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 RAs) are recommended for those with diabetic kidney disease who have not achieved glycemic targets with metformin and SGLT2Is. Finerenone (a nonsteroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist [MRA]) may reduce chronic kidney disease progression and cardiovascular events. This chapter will review the evidence for these pharmacotherapies for diabetic kidney disease.
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Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Evidence",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Sodium-glucose Cotransporter-2 Inhibitors",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1 CANVAS",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2 CREDENCE",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.3 DAPA-CKD",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.1.4 EMPA-KIDNEY",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.2 Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.2.1 LEADER",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.2.2 REWIND",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.2.3 FLOW",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"2.3 Finerenone",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.3.1 FIDELIO-DKD",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"2.3.2 FIGARO-DKD",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15",title:"3. Discussion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"3.1 Summary of kidney outcomes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"3.2 Comparison of newer therapies to established therapies",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"3.3 Approach to therapy along the continuum of diabetic kidney disease",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"3.4 Approaches to develop therapeutics for CKD progression",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"4. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"Conflicts of interest and sources of funding",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'CDC Surveillance System: CKD Prevalence by Diabetes Mellitus Status. 2022. Available from: https://nccd.cdc.gov/ckd/detail.aspx?Qnum=Q702'},{id:"B2",body:'Chen TK, Knicely DH, Grams ME. Chronic kidney disease diagnosis and management. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2019;322:1294-1304'},{id:"B3",body:'Kalantar-Zadeh K, Jafar TH, Nitsch D, Neuen BL, Perkovic V. Chronic kidney disease. 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JAMA Cardiology. 2017;2:464'},{id:"B13",body:'Heerspink HJL, Stefánsson BV, Correa-Rotter R, Chertow GM, Greene T, Hou F-F, et al. Dapagliflozin in patients with chronic kidney disease. The New England Journal of Medicine. 2020;383:1436-1446'},{id:"B14",body:'B Ingelheim. A Multicentre International Randomized Parallel Group Double-blind Placebo-controlled Clinical Trial of EMPAgliflozin Once Daily to Assess Cardio-renal Outcomes in Patients With Chronic KIDNEY Disease. clinicaltrials.gov; 2022 Mar. Report No.: NCT03594110. Available from: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03594110'},{id:"B15",body:'Yamada T, Wakabayashi M, Bhalla A, Chopra N, Miyashita H, Mikami T, et al. Cardiovascular and renal outcomes with SGLT-2 inhibitors versus GLP-1 receptor agonists in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and chronic kidney disease: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. Cardiovascular Diabetology. 2021;20:14'},{id:"B16",body:'Mann JFE, Ørsted DD, Brown-Frandsen K, Marso SP, Poulter NR, Rasmussen S, et al. Liraglutide and renal outcomes in type 2 diabetes. The New England Journal of Medicine Massachusetts Medical Society. 2017;377:839-848'},{id:"B17",body:'Gerstein HC, Colhoun HM, Dagenais GR, Diaz R, Lakshmanan M, Pais P, et al. Dulaglutide and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes (REWIND): A double-blind, randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet London England. 2019;394:121-130'},{id:"B18",body:'Gerstein HC, Colhoun HM, Dagenais GR, Diaz R, Lakshmanan M, Pais P, et al. Dulaglutide and renal outcomes in type 2 diabetes: An exploratory analysis of the REWIND randomised, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet London England. 2019;394:131-138'},{id:"B19",body:'Mosenzon O, Schechter M, Leibowitz G. Kidney outcomes with glucagon-like Peptide-1 receptor agonists in patients with type 2 diabetes. 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Effects of the sodium-glucose co-transporter 2 inhibitor dapagliflozin in patients with type 2 diabetes and stages 3b-4 chronic kidney disease. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation. 2018;33:2005-2011'},{id:"B28",body:'Rakugi H, Yamakawa S, Sugimoto K. Management of hyperkalemia during treatment with mineralocorticoid receptor blockers: Findings from esaxerenone. Hypertension Research, Nature Publishing Group. 2021;44:371-385'},{id:"B29",body:'Heinig R, Gerisch M, Engelen A, Nagelschmitz J, Loewen S. Pharmacokinetics of the novel, selective, non-steroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist Finerenone in healthy volunteers: Results from an absolute bioavailability study and drug–drug interaction studies In vitro and In vivo. European Journal of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics. 2018;43:715-727'},{id:"B30",body:'Alebiosu CO, Ayodele OE. The global burden of chronic kidney disease and the way forward. Ethnicity & Disease. 2005;15:418-423'},{id:"B31",body:'Vallianou NG, Mitesh S, Gkogkou A, Geladari E. Chronic kidney disease and cardiovascular disease: Is there any relationship? Current Cardiology Reviews. 2019;15:55-63'},{id:"B32",body:'Obrador GT, Levin A. CKD hotspots: Challenges and areas of opportunity. Seminars in Nephrology. 2019;39:308-314'},{id:"B33",body:'Pollock C, Zuk A, Anders H-J, Ganji MR, Johnson DW, Kasiske B, et al. The establishment and validation of novel therapeutic targets to retard progression of chronic kidney disease. Kidney International. Supplement. 2017;7:130-137'},{id:"B34",body:'Sato Y, Takahashi M, Yanagita M. Pathophysiology of AKI to CKD progression. Seminars in Nephrology. 2020;40:206-215'},{id:"B35",body:'Breyer MD, Susztak K. Developing treatments for chronic kidney disease in the 21st century. Seminars in Nephrology. 2016;36:436-447'},{id:"B36",body:'Murphy DP, Drawz PE, Foley RN. Trends in angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor and angiotensin II receptor blocker use among those with impaired kidney function in the United States. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 2019;30:1314-1321'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Nidharshan S. Anandasivam",address:null,affiliation:'
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He became Full Professor of Reproductive Biotechnology at the Dept of Obstetrics & Gynecology (now Division of Reproduction), SLU, in 1991 (Dept Head 2004-2006), until moving to his current position in 2010. Doctor of Science (Spain 1994) and Diplomate of the European College of Animal Reproduction (ECAR) since 1999, he has been intensively involved in undergraduate and graduate education, at national (Vice-Dean of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, SLU, undergraduate education 1999-2001, research and postgraduate education 2002-2003) and international levels (past-vice-President and member of the Joint Education Committee of the European Association of Establishments of Veterinary Education, EAEVE, Brussels, 2003-2006 and member of the Examination Committee and Executive Board of ECAR 2001-2007). Expert visitor and officer for European (TAIEX, EAEVE) and international agencies (IAEA), he has been Director of Mobility and Research Programs with Canada (EU/1997-2000), Japan (STINT/1997-2002), Indonesia and Thailand (EU/2002-2006). Active researcher in reproductive biotechnology, diagnostic andrology and cryobiology, he has a genuine interest in sperm-tubal-oocyte interactions, well documented with a profuse track-record (authored more than 400 original papers and reviews). Prof Rodriguez-Martinez has tutored 46 graduate students to degree and serves as international reviewer for many non-Swedish granting agencies. He also acts as Editor-in-Chief of “Reproduction in Domestic Animals” (Wiley-Blackwell) since 2000. He is a member of several Academies and learned societies (Royal Academy of Medicine, Murcia Spain 2005, Royal Swedish Academy of Forestry and Agriculture (KSLA), Stockholm 2006, Royal Academy of Veterinary Sciences, Madrid, Spain 2008, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland 2009 and Honorary Member of the Japan Society for Animal Science, Tokyo, Japan 2009).",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Linköping University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{id:"31235",title:"Cryopreservation of Porcine Gametes, Embryos and Genital Tissues: State of the Art",slug:"cryopreservation-of-pig-spermatozoa-oocytes-and-embryos-state-of-the-art",abstract:null,signatures:"Heriberto Rodriguez-Martinez",authors:[{id:"100102",title:"Prof.",name:"Heriberto",surname:"Rodriguez-Martinez",fullName:"Heriberto Rodriguez-Martinez",slug:"heriberto-rodriguez-martinez",email:"heriberto.rodriguez-martinez@liu.se"}],book:{id:"1494",title:"Current Frontiers in Cryobiology",slug:"current-frontiers-in-cryobiology",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"31461",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",surname:"Katkov",slug:"igor-katkov",fullName:"Igor Katkov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31461/images/system/31461.jpg",biography:"Igor I. Katkov, PhD, is a 'seasoned” cryobiologist with more than 30 years of experience in the field. He received his MSc and PhD diplomas in Kharkov, Ukraine. He has collaborated with many prominent cryobiologists, including P. Mazur, F. Ostashko, V. Grischenko, the Isachenkos, and many others. Dr Katkov has more than 130 publications and is actively working in the fields of hyper-fast kinetic vitrification, osmotic modeling, cryopreservation of adherent cells, and many other fields related to fundamental cryobiology, assisted reproduction and regenerative medicine. Igor Ivanovich is a renowned scientist and a member of Editorial Boards of the 'Cryo Letters” and 'Problems of Cryobiology and Cryomedicine” journals. 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We believe financial barriers should not prevent researchers from publishing their findings. With the need to make scientific research more publicly available and support the benefits of Open Access, more and more institutions and funders are dedicating resources to assist faculty members and researchers cover Open Access Publishing Fees (OAPFs). In addition, IntechOpen provides several further options presented below, all of which are available to researchers, and could secure the financing of your Open Access publication.
",metaTitle:"Waiver Policy",metaDescription:"We feel that financial barriers should never prevent researchers from publishing their research. With the need to make scientific research more publically available and support the benefits of Open Access, more institutions and funders have dedicated funds to assist their faculty members and researchers cover the APCs associated with publishing in Open Access. Below we have outlined several options available to secure financing for your Open Access publication.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/waiver-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"
Paying the OAPF
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Please consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
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IntechOpen Waivers in Action
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For Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
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While providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
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The application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
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Note: All data represented above was collected by IntechOpen from 2013 to 2017.
At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
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The first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
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However, as Open Access becomes a more commonly used publishing option for the dissemination of scientific and scholarly content, in addition to institutions, there are a growing number of funders who allow the use of grants for covering OA publication costs, or have established separate funds for the same purpose.
\n\n
Please consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
\n\n
IntechOpen Waivers in Action
\n\n
For Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
\n\n
Our mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\n\n
While providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
\n\n
How to Apply for a Waiver
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The application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
Feel free to contact us at funders@intechopen.com if you have any questions about Funding options or our Waiver program. If you have already begun the process and require further assistance, please contact your Author Service Manager, who is there to assist you!
\n\n
Note: All data represented above was collected by IntechOpen from 2013 to 2017.
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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Liposuction is a procedure to improve the body contour and not a surgery to reduce weight, although recently people who have failed in their plans to lose weight look at liposuction as a means to contour their body figure. Tumescent liposuction of large volumes requires a meticulous selection of each patient; their preoperative evaluation and perioperative management are essential to obtain the expected results. The various techniques of general anesthesia are the most recommended and should be monitored in the usual way, as well as monitoring the total doses of infiltrated local anesthetics to avoid systemic toxicity. The management of intravenous fluids is controversial, but the current trend is the restricted use of hydrosaline solutions. The most feared complications are deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary thromboembolism, fat embolism, lung edema, hypothermia, infections and even death. The adherence to the management guidelines and prophylaxis of venous thrombosis/thromboembolism is mandatory.",book:{id:"6221",slug:"anesthesia-topics-for-plastic-and-reconstructive-surgery",title:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery",fullTitle:"Anesthesia Topics for Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery"},signatures:"Sergio Granados-Tinajero, Carlos Buenrostro-Vásquez, Cecilia\nCárdenas-Maytorena and Marcela Contreras-López",authors:[{id:"273532",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio Octavio",middleName:null,surname:"Granados Tinajero",slug:"sergio-octavio-granados-tinajero",fullName:"Sergio Octavio Granados Tinajero"}]},{id:"30178",title:"Chest Mobilization Techniques for Improving Ventilation and Gas Exchange in Chronic Lung Disease",slug:"chest-mobilization-techniques-for-improving-ventilation-and-gas-exchange-in-chronic-lung-disease",totalDownloads:31193,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:null,book:{id:"648",slug:"chronic-obstructive-pulmonary-disease-current-concepts-and-practice",title:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease",fullTitle:"Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease - Current Concepts and Practice"},signatures:"Donrawee Leelarungrayub",authors:[{id:"73709",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jirakrit",middleName:null,surname:"Leelarungrayub",slug:"jirakrit-leelarungrayub",fullName:"Jirakrit Leelarungrayub"}]},{id:"46082",title:"Fecal Incontinence",slug:"fecal-incontinence",totalDownloads:3717,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:null,book:{id:"3835",slug:"fecal-incontinence-causes-management-and-outcome",title:"Fecal Incontinence",fullTitle:"Fecal Incontinence - Causes, Management and Outcome"},signatures:"Arzu Ilce",authors:[{id:"30672",title:"Dr.",name:"Arzu",middleName:null,surname:"Ilce",slug:"arzu-ilce",fullName:"Arzu Ilce"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"16",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82444",title:"Epigenomics in Malignant Pleural Mesothelioma",slug:"epigenomics-in-malignant-pleural-mesothelioma",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105408",abstract:"Malignant pleural mesothelioma (MPM) is a tumor with a relatively low incidence, but whose carcinogenesis, for the most part, involves epigenetic factors that keep its heterogeneity and sometimes are a therapeutic target or an obstacle to the effectiveness of the newest treatments. This chapter summarizes the principal epigenetic dysregulation mechanisms involved in the MPM pathogenesis. The most studied mechanism is hypermethylation mediated by DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) in different tumor suppressor genes, and the relation with asbestos fiber exposure, which represents the main risk factor. Physiopathology is related to chronic inflammation mediated by free radicals that produce chromosomal alterations, genomic instability, increased angiogenesis, and tumor invasion factors like EGFR, FGFR, TGF-B, and PDGF. Additionally, independent methylation pathways that produce gene silencing such as polycomb complex and SWI/SNF mutation are reviewed. Finally, other mechanisms are described such as hypomethylation with imprint loss and pro-oncogenic gene activation that induce immunological responses, as well as acetylation, deacetylation, and demethylation in the chromatin and histone context.",book:{id:"10831",title:"Mesothelioma - Diagnostics, Treatment and Basic Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10831.jpg"},signatures:"Aldo Manuel Alvarez Moran, Pablo Alejandro Ávila Sánchez, Jorge Alejandro Torres Ríos and Lorena Vega Castillo"},{id:"82383",title:"The Role of Immune Checkpoints in Cancer Progression",slug:"the-role-of-immune-checkpoints-in-cancer-progression",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105628",abstract:"Immune checkpoint proteins are like two-faced swords that first act as gatekeepers of the immune system to protect the host from tissue damage. In contrast, these proteins can corroborate cancer progression by inhibiting tumor-specific immune responses. Here, we summarized the regulation and signaling cascade of immune checkpoints molecules (PD-1/PD-L1, CTLA-4, TIM3, TIGIT, LAG3, and BTLA), including their role in providing co-inhibitory signals for regulating T-cell response. The involvement of immune checkpoint molecules to drive cancer growth is elaborated with explanations about various anticancer strategies, such as (1) the overexpression of immune checkpoints in cancer cells, immune cells, or the surrounding environment leading to incapabilities of the tumor-specific immune response, (2) immune checkpoints interference to metabolic pathways then deplete nutrients needed by immune cells, (3) the interaction between immune checkpoints and regulatory T cells. Lastly, future challenges of immune checkpoint inhibitors are discussed briefly to get insight into their applicability in the clinical setting.",book:{id:"11278",title:"Regulatory T Cells",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11278.jpg"},signatures:"Rahmad Aji Prasetya and Devyani Diah Wulansari"},{id:"82331",title:"Diseases of Medicinal Plants Cultivated in Karnataka and Their Management",slug:"diseases-of-medicinal-plants-cultivated-in-karnataka-and-their-management",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104632",abstract:"A broad spectrum of fungal diseases infecting selected 10 medicinal plants surveyed in Karnataka, India, was studied in the present research. We present a detailed review on previously reported as well as our present investigation’s details of fungal diseases, etiology, symptoms, and its management. Some of the commonly observed diseases are Anthracnose disease, Blight disease, Leaf spot, Root rot, Powdery mildew, Downy mildew, and Wilt disease. The detailed analysis of medicinal plants revealed that the medicinal plants are susceptible to diverse fungal phytopathogens. Therefore, sustainable management of the diseases is necessary for the successful cultivation of disease-free medicinal plants.",book:{id:"11299",title:"Medicinal Plants",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11299.jpg"},signatures:"P. Swetha and R. Sundararaj"},{id:"82446",title:"Possibility of Using a VR System as an Action Observation Therapeutical Technique",slug:"possibility-of-using-a-vr-system-as-an-action-observation-therapeutical-technique",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105579",abstract:"In recent years, 3D virtual reality (VR) systems are increasingly finding their way into biomedical applications. Nevertheless, in most cases a 3D VR is being used as an interactive system (such as Xbox Kinect or Playstation VR). These interactive systems, however effective they may have proven, not only limit use of 3D VR in patients incapable to engage in these systems due to their physical or mental disability, but also put significant requirements on medical institutions for an equipment, medical personal, and therefore institutional budget. In this article, we are proposing a 3D VR as an stand-alone action observation training device, which could limit requirements associated with abovementioned interactive systems due to its capability to stimulate a mirror neuron system of human brain, while adding minimal demands on both patient and medical facility. Research studies that confirm activity in the motor cortex will be described. We focus on the literature that describes theories, models, and experimental studies dealing with the effects of motion observations that are involved in the control and final performance of motor skills.",book:{id:"11832",title:"Neurorehabilitation and Physical Therapy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11832.jpg"},signatures:"Jaroslav Langer, Monika Šorfová and David Ravnik"},{id:"82430",title:"Hepatocellular Carcinoma",slug:"hepatocellular-carcinoma",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105473",abstract:"Over 1 million cases of liver cancer are estimated to occur by 2025, making it a global health challenge. In almost 90% of cases of liver cancer, it is hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The main risk factors for HCC development are infection with hepatitis B and C viruses, although nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) associated with metabolic syndrome or diabetes mellitus is becoming more prevalent in the West. The molecular pathogenesis of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis-associated HCC is unique. A quarter of all HCCs present with mutations that are potentially actionable but have not yet been translated into clinical practice. In the advanced stages of the disease, systemic therapy is expected to be administered 50–60% of the time to HCC patients. In phase III trials, six systemic therapies have been approved (atezolizumab plus bevacizumab, sorafenib, lenvatinib, regorafenib, cabozantinib, and ramucirumab), and new trials are evaluating combination therapies, such as checkpoint inhibitors and tyrosine kinase inhibitors or anti-VEGF therapies. The findings of these clinical trials are expected to alter the landscape of managing HCC at all stages of the disease.",book:{id:"11265",title:"Hepatotoxicity",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11265.jpg"},signatures:"Rahmat Adetutu Adisa and Lateef Adegboyega Sulaimon"},{id:"82038",title:"Role of Skin Substitutes in Burn Wound Reconstruction",slug:"role-of-skin-substitutes-in-burn-wound-reconstruction",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105179",abstract:"Skin substitutes have modernised burn wound reconstruction since their use was first pioneered by Burke and Yannas in the 1980s. Skin substitutes offer a solution to the problem of insufficient autologous skin graft availability in major burn wound closure. A growing body of evidence supports the role of skin substitutes in both acute major burns and secondary burn scar resurfacing. Classification of skin substitutes has become increasingly complex given the large variety of synthetic and biologic dermal matrices now available as the result of ongoing advances in regenerative medicine techniques. Classification systems are required to assist clinicians with selection and comparison of outcomes across a wide diversity of skin substitutes. Professor John Greenwood, invented, designed and developed one such dermal substitute, \\'Biodegradable Temporising Matrix\\', which is approved for use across the globe for reconstruction of major burns and complex wounds. This chapter provides a review of available classification systems for skin substitutes with a summary of the latest evidence in relation to their role and impact on burn wound outcomes. Future developments toward the elusive ‘ideal’ skin substitute may be possible through ongoing research efforts focused on clinical translation of modern skin tissue engineering techniques for burn wound reconstruction.",book:{id:"11723",title:"Wound Healing - Recent Advances and Future Opportunities",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11723.jpg"},signatures:"Elizabeth Concannon, Lindsay Damkat-Thomas, Patrick Coghlan and John E. Greenwood"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:714},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:105,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",slug:"ana-isabel-flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",slug:"christian-palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",slug:"azhar-rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",slug:"sergey-sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. 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He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). 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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:229,paginationItems:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",middleName:null,surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318170/images/system/318170.png",biography:"Dr. Aneesa Moolla has extensive experience in the diverse fields of health care having previously worked in dental private practice, at the Red Cross Flying Doctors association, and in healthcare corporate settings. She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Univeristy of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. 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