Participatory Pedagogical Approaches in Higher Education: Understanding from the Practices in Bangladesh, the UK and the USA

Abstract

Participatory pedagogical approaches stand as the core driving force behind transforming individual student’s learning journeys into more active, enjoyable, and effective ones. Participatory pedagogy motivates students to participate willingly and actively in their learning and to take ownership of their educational journey. This shift in pedagogy impacts students’ enrolment, progress, and retention. The relevance of this shift from teacher-led to student-led practices became particularly evident during the COVID-19 pandemic, which substantially challenged the traditional roles of teachers and students for the first time in recent years, placing teachers aside and allowing students to take agency over their learning. Given this reality, this chapter explores the main facets of participatory pedagogies. It discusses diverse emerging pedagogical approaches being used at the higher education level in the contexts of Bangladesh, the UK, and the USA to develop an understanding of the best practices. This chapter also highlights the process of co-creating knowledge with students during their learning journeys at higher education institutions. After analysing the related literature, it is apparent that incorporating participatory pedagogies into educational practices provides opportunities to nurture teachers’ and students’ critical thinking, creativity, collaboration, communication, problem-solving abilities and lifelong learning. Furthermore, participatory approaches empower individuals to contribute actively to their learning communities.

1. Introduction

The transformation of instructional and pedagogical processes is facilitated, supported, and reformed by the comprehensive utilisation of technological, organisational, and pedagogical drivers in education [1]. The COVID-19 pand-emic, a recent and unprecedented event, can be viewed as a significant catalyst for a shift towards technology-enhanced teaching and learning, with students playing a pivotal role in shaping their education [2, 3, 4]. Consequently, teachers, students, and educational institutions are rapidly transitioning to a new educational paradigm that heavily relies on diverse technologies and innovation to personalise teaching and learning. This transition also demands innovative pedagogical approaches, the cultivation of social, interpersonal, and cognitive skills among students and teachers, and a transformation of institutional structures [5].

In recent years, there has been criticism of teacher-centered pedagogies, while participatory pedagogical approaches have gained global attention for their effectiveness in teaching and learning processes [6]. Participatory pedagogy does not mean that students can do whatever they want without considering how it affects others or their learning [7]. Instead, participatory pedagogy provides opportunities for students to engage in classroom teaching and learning actively [8]. Participatory pedagogy, also known as active learning or student-centred learning approach, is a teaching method that places students at the centre of the learning process, giving them the freedom to learn according to their needs and interests. It encompasses various aspects of teaching and learning, such as engagement and motivation [8, 9], critical thinking and problem-solving [10], ownership of learning [11, 12, 13], diversity and inclusiveness [14, 15], readiness for the real world [16, 17, 18], higher-order thinking abilities [10], promotion of creativity [14], improved communication skills [9, 15], student happiness and satisfaction [8], and lifelong learning [19].

In higher education, participatory pedagogy is critical in nurturing students and making them active, engaged, and empowered [10]. It equips students with the knowledge, skills, and attitudes necessary for academic success and future careers [20]. Over the years, changes in pedagogical practices have been observed for various reasons, including technological advancements, emergency situations, the evolving position of students within the learning ecosystems, innovative pedagogies for better learning outcomes, and market demands [21, 22]. These factors have redefined the roles of teachers and students within the learning environment, shifting it from predominantly teacher-centric approaches to more student-centric ones. During the COVID-19 pandemic, the ‘new normal’ situation has further emphasised the need to study these shifts in pedagogical practices within the higher education arena [23]. Therefore, this chapter aims to explore the participatory pedagogical approaches, uncovering the best practices and their defining features, and critically evaluating the current practices of three distinct countries representing both the Global North and the Global South.

2. Rationale of the exploration

Over time, the conventional notion of pedagogy has undergone a significant transformation, gradually handing over the control of teaching and learning activities to students from teachers, especially in higher education, where the students are quite experienced and come to the classrooms with their perspectives. This transformation happens due to the changing educational philosophies, new teaching and learning methodologies, advancements in educational technology, and a thorough understanding of how students learn [24]. In the past, teacher-centred pedagogical practices were common, where teachers narrated subject matter, and students passively received the information during the whole learning process [25]. Over time, many educationists, philosophers, and psychologists argued for students’ engagement and active role in learning [26] and proposed innovative participatory pedagogical approaches. Despite the persistence of the factory model of schooling from the third Industrial Revolution, the fourth Industrial Revolution in the twenty first century has significantly challenged the traditional role of teachers as the sole authority in the teaching and learning process. Therefore, along with technological advancements, changes in societal needs, and growing recognition of the importance of student engagement in the learning process, the landscape of higher education is evolving rapidly towards learner-centred approaches, as are the pedagogical approaches [27].

Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic emergency made this issue more evident than ever. The world witnessed the prolonged academic institution closure [2, 4, 28] and teachers stayed physically distant while students took ownership of their education and learning [3]. Thus, the teacher’s prime role has become auxiliary and the agency of students learning has changed its direction from teachers to the students. In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, higher education has undergone a profound transformation, impacting institutions across both the Global North and the Global South.

As mentioned earlier, participatory pedagogies in higher education have gained attention across the globe. This exploration focuses on understanding the new-aged participatory pedagogical practices in Bangladesh, the UK, and the USA contexts. Thus, this chapter presents how these pedagogical approaches enhance student engagement, sense of belonging, and learning outcomes. Implementing participatory pedagogies in higher education is considered as an effective approach to bridging the theory-practice gap and promoting active, participatory, and experiential learning [29]. Educators can enhance student engagement and learning outcomes in higher education by understanding the rationale and practices of participatory pedagogies in these diverse contexts.

3. Objectives of the exploration

The investigation presented in this chapter aims to shed light on the main aspects of participatory pedagogical approaches practised in Bangladesh, the UK, and the USA. This chapter also compares and contrasts pedagogical practices in higher education within these three countries and highlights different teaching and learning features. Finally, this chapter presents a comprehensive overview of participatory pedagogies and their potential role or function to improve teaching and learning activities by emphasising students’ active participation and engagement in the process.

4. Contextual understandings of participatory pedagogical approaches

4.1 Participatory pedagogies in higher education

Participatory pedagogy is an educational approach that emphasises active involvement, collaboration, and the co-creation of knowledge by students and teachers [8]. Furthermore, it represents not only a pedagogical method but also a condition for learning environment within educational policy, signifying the aspirations of a liberal society [8]. Participatory pedagogy encompasses a wide array of activities where the participation of students and teachers is mandatory, including pair work, group work, role-play, peer teaching, peer observation, peer assessment, group teaching, panel discussion, brainstorming, debate, recitation, group assignment, project work, report writing, and more, all of which collectively define its key characteristics [30].

The primary objective of participatory pedagogy is to empower students to take an active role in their learning process [31]. It aims to foster critical thinking, problem-solving, and decision-making skills among students, equipping them to tackle real-world challenges. Additionally, participatory pedagogy actively promotes justice, equality, and co-agency within the classroom setting, reflecting and disseminating these values throughout the school community and society [8]. Furthermore, participatory pedagogies encompass diverse learning methods, such as project-based learning, cooperative learning, service learning, inquiry-based learning, collaborative learning, problem-based learning, and experiential learning [32]. These approaches aim to foster a more inclusive and democratic teaching and learning environment where students actively share their experiences and perspectives. In this context, the role of the teacher evolves into that of a facilitator rather than the sole source of knowledge and information. Moreover, participatory pedagogy operates on the premise that knowledge is constantly evolving and emphasises the link between thinking, reflecting and taking action to address societal challenges [14]. In recent years, it has gained recognition as one of the most prominent and effective teaching and learning approaches in education [33].

Freire [25] argued for the empowerment of students and the transformation of the teacher–student relationship into one of subject-to-subject, rather than subject-to-object. Many educators also contend that students should actively control their learning through dialogue, negotiation, critical thinking, reflective action and active participation instead of passively receiving information [34]. In higher education, participatory pedagogies position students and teachers as active collaborators in the teaching and learning process [35]. Within this participatory approach, students take a central role in discovering information, developing skills, and shaping their attitudes. They can showcase their critical thinking, apply their creative abilities, and voice their opinions in the classroom. Thus, participatory pedagogies underscore principles of reciprocity, the co-creation of shared realities, small-scale activities, and the establishment of inclusive learning communities [36]. These pedagogical methods align closely with the concept of active learning, fostering learner-centred, dynamic, meaningful, and engaging environments with multi-directional collaboration and constructive feedback.

In participatory pedagogical approaches, students engage in reading provided learning materials for critical thinking, as it is one of the fundamental components of co-creating knowledge, thus encourage students to actively and critically engage with texts to make meanings for better understanding [37]. Research has consistently demonstrated that participatory pedagogies and active learning strategies significantly improve learning outcomes and cultivate lifelong learning skills [38].

4.2 Digital pedagogy: when technology is a tool for participation in the pedagogical process

Digital pedagogy, as defined, encompasses the integration of technology into the teaching and learning process across various modalities [39]. This approach involves digital tools and resources into instructional design and delivery, aiming to enhance the learning experience for individuals. Digital pedagogies can manifest in different forms, applicable to both face-to-face and distance education settings, including computer-based learning, blended learning, flipped classrooms, online learning, e-learning, and mobile learning [40, 41]. This digital pedagogical approach offers several advantages, such as heightened flexibility, access to a broader range of educational resources, and opportunities for collaboration and engagement.

In the broader sense, digital pedagogies empower students to acquire knowledge more rapidly and conveniently, distinct from traditional methods [42]. Additionally, digitalisation results in significant time savings for teachers and students by enabling them to concurrently manage other responsibilities and efficiently utilise their time to meet individual needs [43]. In today’s digital environment, students and teachers connect through digital platforms or virtual learning environments (VLEs) [44]. For instance, blended learning combines face-to-face instructions with online learning activities. This approach empowers higher education students to learn at their own pace, engage with course materials, and interact with their teachers and peers through various digital channels and tools. Both in-person and distance modalities in flipped classrooms utilise technology to deliver instructional content outside the classroom, freeing up class time for more interactive and collaborative activities such as discussions, problem-solving exercises, and group projects [45].

Digital teaching and learning, which can be synchronous or asynchronous, allow students to access course materials and participate in discussions at their convenience from anywhere with a device and an internet connection [46]. Digital pedagogies are gaining popularity in education and in-service professional learning both in developing and developed countries, particularly through mobile learning opportunities using various handheld devices [47, 48, 49]. These approaches harness technology to enhance the teaching and learning process. Online distance teaching and learning (ODTL) approaches leverage the ubiquity of mobile devices, providing students with access to course materials and interactive activities on the go [50]. It is important to note that technology is not a panacea, and digital pedagogies must be thoughtfully designed and implemented to ensure their effectiveness and inclusivity for all learners. In higher education, technological integration involves using current tools, equipment, and materials, including electronic media, to enhance learning [51]. This process includes managing instructional resources, selecting appropriate technologies based on students’ learning needs, and teachers’ capacity to integrate them [52, 53].

Pedagogy and technology are intertwined components in modern higher education systems [54]. Pedagogical principles determine the goals, contents, and teaching and learning methods, while technology can facilitate and enhance the implementation of pedagogical strategies and approaches [55, 56, 57]. Technologies can support various pedagogical strategies and approaches, including active learning, collaboration, and personalised learning. The effective integration of technology into teaching and learning necessitates careful consideration of the pedagogical approaches used. Merely understanding of how to use specific hardware and software is insufficient to improve the educational process through technology [58, 59]. It requires knowledge of pedagogical principles specific to the application of technology in educational settings, concerning the content of a particular subject or discipline.

Technology in pedagogy entails the management and coordination of digital teaching materials and resources to enhance learning [60]. It also includes selecting appropriate technology based on students’ learning needs and teachers’ capacity to adapt it to specific learning activities for youth. It requires teachers to select appropriate technology while arranging lessons. Teachers must use appropriate technology to present and assess instruction, as well as for subsequent learning activities. This expansive concept of ‘technologies in education’ assists teachers in developing a coherent approach to pedagogies and technologies [61]. Ultimately, integrating pedagogy and technology improves student engagement and learning outcomes in higher education. However, the effective use of technology with pedagogical understanding also demands high level of professional skills from teachers to maximise its impact on students. Through this process, the effectiveness of technology in educational activities and its suitability for different target groups can be assessed [62].

According to the modern definition, pedagogical technology is not limited to the use of technical teaching aids or devices; rather, it is the identification of principles and the development of techniques for improving the educational process by analysing factors that increase educational efficiency, designing and applying techniques and materials, and evaluating the methods employed [63]. As in higher education, most students are young adults or adults, so guiding their learning through technology and digital space is good for students’ self-paced agentic learning. Teachers who are teaching in higher education institutes are having training on Technological, Pedagogical and Content Knowledge (TPACK), and developing their pedagogical practices using the TPACK model (Figure 1, [64]) within blended, digital, flipped classrooms, which are heavily dependent on technological knowledge.

Figure 1.

Diagrammatic presentation of the technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge framework updated to include context [64].

4.3 Participatory pedagogical approaches and students as co-creators of knowledge

Education as a process has a lot to offer in fostering democratic practices and giving students opportunities and confidence to become decision-makers in shaping their learning journey and deciding their own learning outcomes. Thus, participatory pedagogical approaches are one of the key determinants for providing students with the opportunities to become the co-creators of knowledge and skills they need to meet the demands of the 21st century. In higher education, research and practice using the notion of ‘students as co-creator’ in learning and teaching have gained increasing attention [36, 65, 66]. Although relatively broad, the majority of these studies have been conducted in Australia, Canada, Scandinavian countries, the United Kingdom, and the United States [66], mostly in the Global North.

In pedagogical practices and educational research, student engagement refers to a wide variety of in-class and out-of-class activities that teachers plan to motivate and interest students, as well as the time and effort they invest in meaningful activities [67]. However, the terms ‘partnership’, ‘students as partners’, and ‘co-creator of learning and instruction’ are frequently used interchangeably ([21], p. 1024). The term ‘partnership’ is sometimes resisted by teaching staff of higher education institutes, as some teachers find its radical implications threatening and disengaging. Similarly, the phrase ‘students as partners’ has been criticised for only naming one of the partners [65]. Nevertheless, teachers frequently welcome the opportunity to discuss co-creation in the context of student agency, learner empowerment, shared decision-making, and negotiation of learning and teaching.

In addition, a great deal of diversity in the types of co-creation that are being practised around the world, with a focus on various activities, actors, and goals. Examples include students co-researching university-wide projects and acting as change agents [68], students collaborating with staff in conducting research and scholarship projects [69], and student representatives working with university staff on committees for quality assurance and enhancement purposes [68, 70]. This has been linked to a partnership movement ([65], p. 209), but it is a movement that embraces a variety of emphasis, motivations, methods, values, and outcomes. Ensuring clarity about the nature of co-creation practices being described, researched, and discussed globally is one of the challenges presented by this rich diversity. This clarity is presently crucial for researchers to build on existing data and foster deeper discussions and understandings within the field.

It is important to explore the roles that students take during co-creating knowledge at the higher education level. Bovill et al. [71] developed a typology outlining four roles that students play in co-creation endeavours: representative, consultant, co-researcher, and pedagogical co-designer. Although the roles frequently overlap, this model allows us to distinguish between them. The student representative role, which is typically an elected position involving a small group of students representing a larger group of students. The consultant or intern role, which frequently involves students being selected by staff and is typically paid to collaborate on projects, and the co-researchers and pedagogical co-designer roles, where students may or may not be selected depending on the project’s specifics. On the other hand, Buckley [72] proposes a different classification, dividing student engagement into two main areas of focus: the pedagogical and the political, with the former focusing on learning and teaching and the latter on university governance. This classification includes much partnership and co-creation work. Furthermore, Bryson et al. [73] suggest a third typology that the students who are engaged in partnerships can classify the work that has already been done by students in partnerships. When two models of partnerships are used, model A involves only a small group of students interacting with staff, while model B involves all students enrolled in the curriculum. Nevertheless, Bovill and Woolmer [74] shed light on the topic from two significant dimensions, i.e., co-creation curriculum (co-designing a programme or course, typically before the programme or course begins) and curriculum co-creation (co-design of learning and teaching within a course or programme usually during the course or programme). Therefore, it can be summarised that in participatory pedagogical approaches in higher education, researchers broadly identified the roles of students as co-creators of knowledge, co-researchers, co-curriculum developers and co-governors.

4.4 Whole-class engagement strategies through participatory pedagogy and co-creation of knowledge

Whole-class co-creation in higher education teaching and learning means inviting all students in a face-to-face or online classroom to actively collaborate and negotiate with the instructor and with one another on the different aspects of the learning process. This may involve negotiating the content or subject matter, the purpose of their work, the pedagogical approach, the numerous methods they can use to work and learn together, or their preferred learning style for evaluation. Whole class engagement in learning differs in practices and definitions. Still, it typically entails students in participating, interacting, or contributing mentally or physically to information gathering activities, problem-solving and knowledge reflection. This typically includes activities such as reading, writing, discussion, small-group work, values, and attitude exploration [21]. Formative assessment being a part of the learning process is also included as a strategy to engage the whole class when discussing co-created learning and instruction. Students who are involved in self-assessment, peer assessment, and providing feedback to peers and course teachers are some ways involved in co-creating the assessment system too [75]. The term co-created curriculum is not as widespread and common practice as it should have been because of the lack of agreement over how higher education curriculum is defined and the consequent impact on what students are invited to co-create [74]. Thus, co-creating some of the components of the curriculum is more common in higher education systems than the full curriculum.

In co-creation, the purposes, resources, methods, assessments and outcomes of learning and teaching are jointly negotiated, and there is a shared vision, a shared responsibility for learning that implies greater student agency and empowerment than just active learning. Co-creation involves fostering deeper relationships between students and their teachers and among students themselves [76]. These, in combination, increase active participation for the whole class engagement and quality learning in higher education.

5. Pedagogical approaches in higher education in different countries

5.1 Pedagogical practices in Bangladesh

5.1.1 Background

The primary objective of higher education in Bangladesh, as outlined in the National Education Policy-2010, is to foster the generation of new knowledge, alongside developing a competent workforce in the country. Currently, a total of 169 universities (54 public, 112 private, and 3 international) provide tertiary education (undergraduate and postgraduate studies) to nearly 1.24 million students across the country [77, 78]. The Madrasas, religious education institutions, also offer Fazil and Kamil degrees, which are equivalent to bachelor’s and master’s levels, respectively. Islamic Arabic University, Bangladesh regulates these faith-based higher educational institutions. In 2021, a total of 22,636 Fazil Madrasas and 6739 Kamil Madrashas throughout the country provided tertiary education to nearly 0.8 million students [78].

In the last decade, many studies have been conducted on pedagogical approaches and methods in teaching and learning around the world. However, few studies are found in this regard in the Bangladeshi context. In Bangladesh, where traditional teaching and learning approaches are still prevailing in higher educational institutions [79], the educational arrangements, curriculum, instruction and assessment have been analysed in order to understand how they align with student-centred, participatory, and co-creative pedagogical approaches. In addition to document analysis and empirical research evidence, the authors share their perspectives, given that they have all studied in Bangladeshi higher educational institutions and three of them have direct teaching experience.

5.1.2 Lecture-based teaching and learning

Students in Bangladeshi higher educational institutions experience teacher-centric lecture-based teaching and learning processes mostly in social science, humanities and business studies related disciplines compared to the science, technology, and engineering-related disciplines where students get chances to learn through hands-on practices in laboratories and industries [79]. This is a one-way communication in which pupils remain basically passive in class. While the world is observing a shift towards participatory approaches of teaching and learning, these approaches are yet to be implemented in Bangladesh [80]. The lecture method of teaching and learning is becoming ineffective for students in the classroom due to its strict adherence and the dominating role of the teachers in the process. The traditional mindsets of some teachers, high teacher-student ratio, assessment-driven teaching and learning system, content-based curriculum, short class duration, existing fixed classroom stuff, unusual size of the classroom, and the lack of instructional tools and technology are major factors that hinder the effective implementation of these participatory approaches [81].

5.1.3 Pedagogical practices

In the higher education institutions of Bangladesh, various pedagogical practices can be observed and it varies from public universities to private universities and even in university-affiliated postgraduate colleges. Also, as universities offer a wide range of disciplines, applications of different pedagogical approaches are also common and accepted. Majority of the public universities in Bangladesh usually do not use the Learning Management System (LMS) for teaching and learning activities. The lecture hour usually lasts from 1 to 1.5 hours and in most cases, lecture sessions are less interactive and less participatory [82]. Teaching styles, delivery of sessions, and classroom activities largely do not follow any unified or specified approach but depend on individual teachers’ personal choices. Participatory pedagogy appears to be a relatively new phenomenon in Bangladesh and has received insufficient logistical support and attention; hence no research has been done yet [83].

5.1.4 Teacher training

Teacher training is significantly lacking at the higher education level, despite it being recognised as a hurdle in achieving high-quality education [84, 85, 86]. The Graduate Training Institute (GTI) is the only recognised institute to provide pedagogical training to teachers from both public and private universities [83]. Recognising the significance of teacher training in higher education, the University Grants Commission (UGC) has collaborated with the British Council to establish the Centre of Excellence in Teaching and Learning (CoETL) at six public universities [87], as well as several private universities. Other universities, through their Institutional Quality Assurance Cell (IQAC), organise in-house day-long training, seminars and workshops on limited topics for their faculty members on an ad hoc basis.

Early-career university teachers possess a strong grasp of subject matter expertise within their respective fields, but their understanding of effective teaching methods is limited [88]. The university teachers unanimously recognised the importance of a well-structured teacher training programme that equips them with the practical application of pedagogical theories in their specific teaching contexts. Evidence indicates that pedagogical training significantly impacted the fostering of conceptual change, the adoption of a student-centred approach, and the enhancement of self-efficacy beliefs [89].

5.1.5 Interdisciplinary courses

With time, Bangladeshi higher education institutions have acknowledged the need for multidisciplinary research in tackling intricate, practical issues. Multidisciplinary courses generally integrate concepts and approaches from other academic fields to offer a comprehensive and balanced education [90]. The following are some typical interdisciplinary courses offer by Bangladeshi universities: environmental studies, disaster management, digital media studies, business analytics, international relations and diplomacy. Programmes and courses offered by different colleges may vary depending on the faculty’s specialisations and areas of competence [90, 91].

5.1.6 Feedback

The amount of formative evaluation feedback that students receive in Bangladeshi public higher education institutions varies. Some teachers and programmes actively provide it, but this is not always the case. Conversely, private higher education institutions typically keep a closer check on the performance of their faculty members and guarantee regular feedback. A study conducted on five renowned private universities in Bangladesh reported that the concept of feedback is no longer abstract; instead, educators are practising it in the field using a range of methods and a positive outlook [92]. Additionally, both the teachers and students agreed that feedback is essential for fostering engagement and interaction and helping students perform better. Nonetheless, it is important to highlight that not all higher education institutions have a strong feedback culture, and in certain instances, there may not even be a desire to create one. These practices are similar to what Hanefar et al. [93] noticed in their research on formative assessment practices.

5.1.7 Specific contact hours

There is a variance in contact hours between university policies and course delivery methods in Bangladesh. Contact hours at semester-based universities are usually determined by the credit hours allotted to the individual courses. There is a common practice in academia, also prescribed by the Bangladesh Accreditation Council, that 1 credit theory course requires 3 hours lecture while 1 credit practical course requires 2-hours laboratory work in a week of 14 weeks long semester system [94]. Formalising office hours, mentorship, and tutoring is not a common practice in many universities. Nevertheless, to support their students, a lot of university teachers provide unofficial help and advice outside of established lecture times [95]. Bangladesh Open University offers its students in-person tutorial classes in a few carefully chosen centres apart from its main campus [96].

5.1.8 Research and independent inquiry

While Bangladeshi university teachers are expected to engage in ongoing research as a prerequisite for career advancement and tenure extension, their role in some cases extends beyond individual research endeavours to fostering a collaborative environment for knowledge co-creation with students. Although providing students with contemporary, evidence-based education is encouraged, it is not obligatory. Instead, the emphasis lies on encouraging students to engage in more independent research and inquiry during the final years of students’ academic life. In some universities, it is worth noting that specific and intensive research-focused courses for students are not readily accessible, and students face constraints when conducting research and exploring diverse research paradigms, designs, and tools [97]. To promote knowledge co-creation, Bangladeshi universities should prioritise the development of research-oriented curricula and provide students with ample opportunities to collaborate with faculty on research projects.

5.1.9 Internationalised diversity

Bangladesh has become an increasingly attractive destination for international students from South Asia, the Middle East, and African countries, seeking higher education opportunities at the lowest cost, especially in medical science. Both private and public universities in Bangladesh have opened their doors to students from diverse backgrounds, fostering a vibrant and multicultural learning environment. Public universities and medical colleges have students from neighbouring countries. Many private universities have started admitting students from African continents. These international students are drawn to Bangladesh’s educational institutions for their quality academic programmes, affordable tuition fees, lower living cost, and the opportunity to experience a rich cultural tapestry. Their presence enriches not only the academic discourse but also strengthens global connections and collaborations, contributing to a more inclusive and diverse higher education landscape in Bangladesh. A study conducted by Luqman et al. [98] revealed noteworthy challenges faced by international undergraduate and postgraduate students studying in Bangladesh based on their participation in university activities, levels of cultural stress, communication difficulties, and socio-demographic characteristics. The results showed that cultural stress and academic obstacles substantially impact overseas students’ academic success. In order to prepare international students for interaction and a successful life in the host community, the study suggests that institutions set up classes for training in local communication skills.

5.1.10 Assessment method

Regarding assessment in university courses, two-pronged methods are usually used: formative and summative assessments. According to this assessment paradigm, formative assessments typically receive 40% or less of the overall weightage, while summative assessments receive 60%. Assessment methods also vary between the public and private universities, and while some institutions use the UGC’s grading scheme, most of them have their own policies for assessments [99]. Formative assessment in Bangladeshi universities often involves a range of techniques, including class tests, field excursions, projects, quizzes, assignments, presentations, and class participation. The emphasis on formative assessment aligns with the principles of participatory pedagogy, which encourages active engagement and student ownership of the learning process. These techniques are frequently used to assess students’ continuous improvement and comprehension throughout the course. However, summative assessment techniques, which evaluate the total learning results, usually involve written exams, viva voce exams, capstone projects, theses, monographs, project papers, and other such materials. The results of these summative tests are crucial in establishing how well the students have understood the course material overall. In addition to traditional assessment methods, online assessment has gained much attention in Bangladesh, particularly during and after the COVID-19 pandemic [2]. Adopting online assessments has also opened up new possibilities for Bangladeshi universities to incorporate participatory pedagogies into summative assessments, such as collaborative online projects and assignments.

5.1.11 Teacher-centric approach

The implementation of participatory pedagogies in Bangladeshi universities faces significant challenges due to the prevalence of teacher-centred approaches resulting from high student-teacher ratios. Changing the educational method to become more student-centred can be difficult due to the vast quantity of pupils compared to the number of teaching staff. As a result, there are few possibilities for targeted instruction and tailored attention, and instructional approaches and interactions are typically more instructor-driven. Even if there might be initiatives to encourage student involvement and engagement, Bangladesh’s higher education system may find it challenging to completely implement a student-centred strategy due to high teacher-student ratio and resource limitations [100].

5.1.12 Learning management system (LMS)

Adopting Learning Management Systems (LMS) has quickly gained popularity in Bangladeshi higher education as a means of planning and delivering teaching and learning [101]. Several LMSs were widely used in Bangladeshi higher education institutions, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic [102] to increase student attendance and enhance student engagement. The popularity of various LMS platforms may shift over time when new systems are developed. Specifically, popular LMS platforms at the time included Moodle, Blackboard, Canvas, Edmodo, Google Classroom, and customised LMS solutions. Moodle, well-known for its global reach, was liked for its adaptability and open-source nature, and was adopted by several public and private educational institutions in Bangladesh. For example, in order to improve teaching and learning, BRAC University and the University of Liberal Arts (ULAB) devised a system and introduced Moodle [103]. Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Digital University, Bangladesh (BDU), a public university chose Moodle as its Learning Management System. North South University signed an agreement with Canvas, a worldwide acclaimed LMS, in 2021 [104]. The University of Dhaka implemented ‘DUBDLMS’, an LMS software, in 2023, to automate portions of its educational procedures.

5.2 Pedagogical practices in the UK

5.2.1 Small group interactive teaching

Universities in the UK mostly offer small-group face-to-face or remote teaching and learning activities, allowing more interaction between students and teachers. This approach is designed to provide sufficient attention and support to each student by their tutors and ensure their student’s active participation and learning in lectures [105, 106]. The authors argued that it is important to debate on inclusion in the modern UK by pointing out pedagogical problems and taking advantage of the small group teaching philosophy. The universities encourage teachers to incorporate their research into their teaching, which means that students learn from academics that are experts in their field and are up-to-date with the latest developments in their subject area. Students are encouraged to question assumptions, evaluate evidence, and develop their own ideas and opinions. Moreover, lecture sessions include group work, peer work, individual work and several other wide ranges of tasks ensure student active engagement and participation [107]. Such approaches help to develop students’ communication, critical thinking, collaboration, analytical and problem-solving skills, etc. and prepare them for success in their careers.

5.2.2 Independent learning

The UK’s universities strongly emphasise independent and self-directed learning [108]. Findings from the research of Morris [108] emphasised how crucial it is to seize the chance to develop students’ self-directed learning proficiency in formal educational environments. In the UK universities, students are expected to take responsibility for their own learning and to engage in self-directed study outside of formal class time. Students are encouraged to read and take notes from a list of the mandatory and additional reading lists, which might include books, book chapters, research articles, reports, periodicals and case studies. This approach helps develop students’ research, independent and academic reading, critical reasoning, and time-management skills. By engaging in self-reading and learning, students acquire prior knowledge and understanding of given topics which allows them to meaningfully engage in discussions and debates with their peers and teachers during classroom activities. This approach also helps create a supportive and interactive learning environment that fosters students’ critical thinking and analytical skills. The courses and teaching timetables are also designed in a way that the students get plenty of time for their independent learning and development.

5.2.3 Learning management system (LMS)

The use of the Learning Management System (LMS) in teaching and learning is also very common in the UK universities. The widely used LMS in the UK is ‘Moodle’ which creates a Virtual Learning Environment (VEL) for both teachers and students [103]. There are four major VLEs namely Moodle, Blackboard, Canvas, and Brightspace which higher education institutions use in the UK, and they require first internet connectivity to operate. LMS is a flexible web platform developed and designed to support classroom teaching and activities and currently significantly impacts knowledge acquisition [109]. LMS can contain a vast range of resources and materials that both teachers and students can easily access and use anytime from any location. LMS serves various purposes; for instance, it contains teaching and learning materials, reading materials and instructions for individual learning, announcements and updates for students, and it can also be used for assignment submission, assignment feedback by tutors, etc. Such LMS are popular with teachers and students for its accessibility and efficacy.

5.2.4 Flexible learning environment

Universities in the UK provide a flexible learning environment that allows students to tailor their learning experiences to meet their individual needs. For example, students can choose from a wide range of courses and modules and can also choose to study full-time, part-time, through both face-to-face and online modalities or even entirely distance learning. At undergraduate and postgraduate levels, students often enjoy the opportunity to select course-specific optional modules and additional modules from other disciplines such as language or arts modules for the fulfilment of their respective degrees. Moreover, students also enjoy a ‘change of mind period’ where they can further amend the selected courses and then enrol into their choices of courses. Many universities offer project-based activities or internship opportunities instead of research or dissertation work. Evidence suggests that students also prefer a flexible learning environment [110].

5.2.5 Research-led teaching and students’ involvement in research

Most of the UK universities are known for their research-led teaching and learning. The end goal of many academic programmes is the active participation of students in research. These research projects develop not only the students’ critical thinking skills but also add significantly to the epistemological pool of the UK [111]. This means that students are taught by academics that are actively engaged in research and are experts in their field having contemporary and advanced knowledge. This approach helps to ensure that students are exposed to the latest developments and ideas in their subject area. This method is successfully administered when the courses are holistically merged with the curriculum aimed to achieve a specific goal, divided into a manageable number of themes. One of this method’s salient features is reading before the lecture or seminar session. The lecture sessions are mostly based on a certain theme, and at least half the sessions are dedicated to students’ discussions based on their pre-reading and the lectures. Most of the sessions are interactive, follow participatory approaches and offer plenty of time for students, reflection on the topics. By actively participating in research and the research cultures of their departments and disciplines, students who participate in research-based learning can transform themselves into intellectual producers. As a result, these pedagogies offer the opportunity for a critical and beneficial intervention against certain detrimental trends in educational reform, both in the UK and internationally [112, 113].

5.2.6 Academic writing and construction

The UK’s universities have evidence of offering in-course and external support for developing academic writing and construction [114]. The course-ending with an assignment or a project requires constant development over a semester. Students are supported by instructing them to begin with a small idea and slowly develop it over a planned course of time. The course teachers monitor this process with utmost precision and occasional case extensions. Moreover, multiple out-of-course supports are offered by the university or at the faculty or school or department level to develop academic writing, paper or assignment writing, formatting, idea-development sessions, and writing boot camps. One form of such support is ‘tutorial’ support, where students in a group or sometimes individual students can directly discuss with their tutors, which helps them to deepen their understanding and reduce ambiguity over assignment topics. Additionally, there are provisions of writing and academic consultation support provided by a specialised group of academics or departmental units in most of the universities, undergoing these various modalities of writing development creates a lasting effect on the students’ overall learning. A large number of international students are also heavily benefiting from this method of writing skill development [115].

5.2.7 Tutor-based education

Most of the UK universities have a personal tutor system, which provides students with a dedicated academic advisor who can offer guidance and support throughout their academic journey [116]. The personal tutoring system supports students to settle into their studies and deal with their mental well-being and other additional and need-based issues. The first aspect of the tutoring system is dedicated seminars for individuals who need help with their academic and non-academic issues. As previously mentioned, the traditional lectures accompany heavy loads of reading. The universities arrange formative sessions of supervision and doubt clearance on the thematic readings. Secondly, as the overall goals of the courses end up with a final assessment including assignments or project reports, mostly involving writing, periodical supervision is offered to all the students or small groups of students to ensure their progress. This approach helps to ensure that students receive individual attention and can access support when needed.

5.2.8 Assessment method and feedback

Assessment in UK higher education is typically based on various methods, including essays, exams, presentations, and practical assessments, to ensure that students are assessed in various ways. This allows students to demonstrate their knowledge and skills in a range of contexts and helps to ensure that they are well-rounded in their learning. Students receive regular feedback on their work throughout the academic year, which helps them to improve their performance and achieve their full potential. University mostly provides a student handbook that entails detailed guidelines of assignments, exams, marking criteria etc. along with information on the student code of conduct, academic integrity and so on. After both formative and summative assessments, students get detailed comments from their teachers regarding what they can improve further. This feedback is provided with privacy using online portals where only students can access their own feedback and work on that [117, 118, 119].

5.2.9 Global education

Universities in the UK are considered international higher education institutions with students and faculty members from across the globe. The university encourages its students to develop a global perspective and intercultural communication skills by providing a range of opportunities for students to study abroad and engage in international research projects. This helps teachers to create a diverse and inclusive learning environment that prepares students for the global workforce [115].

5.2.10 Internationalised diversity

Internationalised diversity is one of the salient features of the classrooms in the British higher education institutions. Many students from around the globe join with their own respective backgrounds, contexts, and lenses while making sense of their higher education learning journey. Their socio-economic, political, psychological, and ethnic being bring them as unique contributors within the wider context as they also bring their own perspectives in an ongoing conversation and discourse. The students add invariably new borders to the teaching and learning process, and the contents automatically make them co-creators of knowledge.

5.2.11 Pedagogical approaches

Higher education in the UK primarily employs student-centred pedagogical approaches [120]. Feeding more to the discussion of ensuring students’ participation as co-creators of knowledge, departments undertake pedagogical approaches that support the learning goals. Academics design the instructional materials to put the students at the centre of their learning activities. Teachers remain as facilitators, whereas the students perform all the actions ranging from reading to designing and implementing a project. Moreover, the students are ignited to pursue independent inquiry, and the facilitators monitor them methodically. Critical thinking is one of the most vital characteristics of a student-centred education. The concept of critical thinking is prevalent throughout education, and it is constantly linked to reason, which is seen as the primary goal of education in the Western world [121].

5.2.12 Independent inquiry

Independent inquiry being the key driving force of the Western higher education systems. British universities follow a structure for nurturing students’ questions throughout their academic journey. Even though examinations are popular modalities of assessing students worldwide, writing assignments, term papers or essays are accepted as a standard of assessing the students’ interest in finding answers to their inquiries. A primary example can be the term-ending papers or end of the module assignments, the topic of which is proposed by the students individually. In most cases, the topic is chosen by the individual student at the beginning of the term based on their own interests. The term is divided into different themes, and the students simultaneously continue developing their topical ideas with the relevant learnings from those themes. Their development of ideas and the quest to find answers to respective questions are monitored and supported over time. Secondly, by the end of an academic level, students are expected to submit a dissertation which supposedly has undergone gradual evolution. This dissertation is completely based on the students’ personal inquiries or hypotheses.

Students pursuing post-secondary education in the UK are considered to have proven to possess a certain level of intellectual achievement, capacity, and interest to perform in the scholarly arena. Therefore, their respective institutions treat them as young scholars, and faculty members’ philosophical standing shows that the students are equals. This is not only how the students are addressed but also is reflected in the ratio of participation in academic activities [122, 123]. However, undergraduate students sometimes are treated as students who are still consolidating their area of interest, while postgraduate students are already given the responsibility to join in co-creating knowledge along with the faculty members. This mode of pedagogy became more popular among students after COVID-19 pandemic and the inclusion of blended and online-based asynchronous courses where students progress at their own pace and flexibility [124].

5.2.13 Specific contact hours

In most of the courses, timetables are designed in a way that allows sufficient teacher-student contact hours which include lectures as well as seminars, workshops, lab work activities, etc. For each module, the total duration of lecture and activity hours in a particular semester mostly varies on course credits hours; however, the time span for each day session typically lasts 2–3 hours. Within these face-to-face sessions, teachers plan interactive and participatory activities to deliver the contents and ensure expected learning outcomes. Apart from regular lectures, seminars and other activities, students also get direct group or individual tutorial support. Additionally, students can ask for one-to-one support from tutors if needed. After COVID-19 pandemic, there has been a change in the traditional contact hour rules for university courses. Constraints in resource, time, and space during the pandemic made university leaderships think and come up with more practical solutions like online and blended courses [125, 126].

5.2.14 Students’ feedback

Getting feedback from students is one of the key features of the UK higher education system in terms of the course, teacher evaluation and curriculum development. In UK educational institutions, students’ feedback is deemed valuable and is taken into consideration to evaluate the course contents, curriculum and assessment process, teachers’ support and performance, etc. After the end of each core or optional module, feedback from the students is collected mostly electronically to assess overall efficacy and draw recommendations to improve students’ experience and satisfaction. In some universities, most of the courses have either selected or elected course representatives who act as the voice of all students and gather feedback from students to present in quarterly review and assessment meetings. Based on this feedback, necessary revisions and amendments are taken in terms of content and curriculum, teaching and learning activities, teacher’s support and assessment process etc. [127].

5.2.15 Cross-disciplinary classrooms

One distinctive feature of the UK higher education institutes is that it offers a multi-disciplinary approach to learning. While designing the curricula, related cross disciplinary contents are considered to introduce students to a wide realm of knowledge and enable them to learn and think from different perspectives. Students are offered with different optional and cross-disciplinary modules that they can study along with the core modules. Also, while delivering such modules or contents, teachers from other disciplines collaborate and the collaboration is not often limited within the same university but goes beyond different cities or even regions [128].

5.3 Pedagogical practices in the USA

5.3.1 Focus of higher education

The focus of the higher education system in the United States is multifaceted. The country has sought to make higher education more accountable by focusing more on students’ learning outcomes. The professional training programme for future teachers is also a focus of the higher education system in the United States. The country has a massive enterprise in higher education, defined by both excellent and dubious providers, broad inclusion, and steep inequality. The United States higher education system has been at the forefront of international education [129]. In current practice, vocationalism or employability is deeply embedded in the USA higher education system. Reform efforts need to focus on ways to integrate vocational purposes with broader goals of civic engagement, intellectual development, and moral reasoning [87, 130, 131, 132, 133]. In the USA, teachers in higher education follow various pedagogical approaches depending on modality, discipline, and students’ backgrounds. Nevertheless, one of the main goals of formal higher education is to develop critical thinking among students, which is done through the classroom engagement of students.

5.3.2 Open curriculum

The higher education system of the USA is known for its open curriculum for its students. Kelly [134] defined an ‘open curriculum’ as a flexible educational approach where students can accommodate their learning needs based on their future aspirations by acknowledging their previously acquired relevant education and skills. From undergraduate level programmes to the highest degrees offered in the universities the flexibility might vary, but along with teacher-created traditional curricula, the students are also responsible for co-designing curriculum along the course which is termed as co-creation of curriculum in some cases [74]. This process helps the teaching and learning process by focusing on students’ learning needs and improving their learning experiences. The flexibility in course selection and self-paced learning also forces the students to communicate with their course teachers and other students in the programme who help them to figure out their own pathway to reach their expected goals. This process keeps the students more invested and engaged in their own learning process [35]. The teaching process in the USA universities has many unique qualities. One of them is co-creating the course syllabus. Even though the faculties develop the course syllabi, in many cases, students can provide input in the process [135]. Most of the syllabus can add students’ interest areas relevant to the topics. The faculties discuss their syllabus in the first class and then discuss students’ expectations from the course before finalising their syllabi. This also empowers students to contribute to their own learning process and motivates them to engage critically. This practice is more common in graduate-level courses.

5.3.3 Students as co-creators of knowledge

The co-creation of knowledge is seen as a way to enhance student learning and engagement and promote innovation and collaboration [136]. This approach involves students and teachers working together to create new knowledge and solve problems. This philosophy shapes their pedagogy and the process of engaging students in class as scholarly colleagues of their teachers. This philosophy also invites students to have a dialogue with their classmates and teachers. This process not only empowers students as new scholars but also forces them to think critically about the topic and their understanding of the topic.

The universities in the USA believe that students are co-creators of knowledge instead of knowledge replicators or consumers. The co-creation of knowledge is a growing trend in higher education in the USA. Many universities in the USA have implemented programmes that encourage the co-creation of knowledge. For example, some universities have established undergraduate and postgraduate research programmes that allow students to work with their teachers on research projects. These programmes provide students with hands-on experience in research and allow them to contribute to creating new knowledge [21]. Another example of the co-creation of knowledge in the USA is using service-learning programmes. These programmes allow students to apply their knowledge and skills to real-world problems to gain experience, and learn from the communities they serve. Service-learning programmes are seen as a way to promote civic engagement and social responsibility, while also enhancing student learning from real-life experience.

Overall, co-creating knowledge is becoming an increasingly important focus in higher education in the USA. By involving students in creating new knowledge, universities promote innovation, collaboration, and engagement while also preparing students for success in their future careers.

5.3.4 Student engagement and participation

Student engagement and their active participation are crucial aspects of the higher education experience in the United States. Engaged students are more likely to be successful academically, graduate on time, and find fulfilling careers. Participation in classroom discussions, group projects, and extracurricular activities can help students to develop critical thinking, communication, and teamwork skills [137]. Instead of merely talking in class about the discussion topic, it requires preparation for thoughtful contributions to the learning process and the learning community, in this case, classroom learning. The small group approach, group discussion, and then sharing that discussion with the bigger group and answering questions to clarify the discussion points. It not only develop students’ cognition processes but also make them realise the importance of disseminating ideas for scrutiny. This kind of classroom practice shifts the classroom ecology from authoritarian to democratic practices [138].

5.3.5 Research and fieldwork for co-creating knowledge

Like many renowned universities across the globe, adding research and experience relevant to the topic is also highly encouraged in higher education institutions in the USA. The faculties not only talk about their own experiences but also bring in experts from different fields to provide a better understanding of that research area. These shared experiences encourage the students to ask questions and interact with the experts in that field and try to attain diversity and justice in the research arena [139]. It also helps the diverse students in the higher education institutions to be updated about the relevant research in the field. In some cases, they are offered to take part in various fieldwork projects as research assistants based on their areas of interest to gain some field experience.

5.3.6 Critical thinking and independent study

All the students are expected to complete the readings (such as books, book chapters, papers, blogs, etc.) assigned for each week based on the topics that will be discussed in class. The pre-sessional reading also guides them to ask critical questions related to on going discussion and the content of the topic. The discussion not only assists the students in learning better but also provides in-depth knowledge about the fieldwork [140].

Higher education in the USA also promotes self-regulation. The students are provided with the resources and constantly encouraged to think about how to use these resources best to develop knowledge and understanding in their interest areas. The contents or theories discussed in courses are often required to be used for classroom activities and are encouraged to connect them with the student’s topic of interest to explore deeply. As a part of the co-creation of the syllabus, students in some courses have the liberty to choose their own readings in addition to the required ones and bring those to the class for discussion. These critical reading and independent study practices aim to prepare students for critical thinking and make them take charge of their learning [141, 142].

5.3.7 Learning resources and support for students

The higher education system of the USA not only provides various learning resources to students through physical library facilities, but also assist and support them to use those resources. The universities also offer digital or distance library facilities where students can access books, articles, book chapters, etc. through digital libraries. Faculty members now also suggest study materials which are not typical textbooks but rather open educational resources (OER) which students can access without spending money [143]. Moreover, students can request the library to buy books and articles if they cannot find what they want in the current library repository. One very interesting programme of these libraries is that they offer students to borrow books from other libraries, called inter-library loans. So, for urgent use, students can check the books they want through an online portal from other universities and request for borrowing them through their home university. Along with students, teachers are also encouraged to participate in various workshops and courses, to improve and share their pedagogical knowledge and practices with each other. There are some resources where teachers can seek support for learning, teaching and research. These additional supports with study materials and resources help students engage in participatory pedagogy in their courses. Research indicates that having free and open educational resources, library resources help students to achieve learning outcomes better [143].

The universities also offer writing resources for students. They provide with various online resources, i.e., how to write undergraduate and graduate scholarly pieces and provide support in specific areas of writing, for example, writing structures for essay writing, dissertation writing, and creative writing. Apart from this, for the non-English speaking international students, there are tutoring centres where they work with the tutors to improve their English writing skills. Also, they assist in reviewing write-ups for assignments and scholarly writing. Students can send their scholarly piece through an online portal to the writing tutors and they provide feedback on the writing structure, grammar, coherence of the content and other areas of writing. The tutors also provide guidelines for different referencing styles, like APA, Harvard, Chicago, etc. based on the preference of the student’s affiliated department. These resources and support from the university help to increase students’ self-efficacy and proficiency in writing [32].

5.3.8 Learning management systems (LMS) and digital tools

The universities use learning management systems (LMS) (e.g., Canvas, Google Classroom, Blackboard, etc.) to distribute learning materials and support the students to be up-to-date with the course work and their assignments. The virtual environment helps the learners to communicate with the course teachers and other students. Teachers use LMS to provide the course resources like syllabus, reading documents, and links. The students can also provide their assignments through this same platform. One of the unique features of LMS is the link to similarity or plagiarism detection tools, such as Turnitin, iThenticate. Students can check their work for plagiarism through LMS and work on it to reduce similarity and improve their work before final submission [144, 145].

One of the other resources the universities provide is the software or digital tools that enhance students’ learning. Writing software like MS Office, referencing software for their scholarly writing like, Endnote, Mendeley, Zotero, data analysis software like SPSS, STATA, SAS, R, and many more. Moreover, the university provides tutorials and training to use these software. Providing these software not only enhances students’ scholarly work but also helps students to explore various software to use in their work which in turn makes them more tech savvy and develops their skills for their future employment. The university also provides virtual desktop support. The software that cannot be used outside of the university network for safety or licencing issues, can be accessed through a virtual desktop from the student’s home.

5.3.9 Interdisciplinarity and cross-disciplinarity courses

Cross-disciplinary learning is one of the prominent features of the USA’s universities. In most courses students from different (relevant) multiple disciplines are enrolled in the course. That ensures a curriculum that would cater to all of them within the boundary of the course’s aim. In this process, the course can also provide a more holistic perspective to the students. These inter and cross-disciplinary courses also encourage discussions in class, and students can explore the topics from the perspective of different disciplines. This overview helps the students to engage critically in the course as well [146].

5.3.10 Learning assessment

The USA universities use both formative and summative assessments to assess students in higher education [147]. A big percentage of assessment is dedicated to formative assessment, through students’ weekly reflective journals or posts, regular graded homework based on the weekly readings that may later be a part of a bigger summative assignment, and critical engagement in class and on the online discussion boards. In many courses, students are expected to review their peers’ work based on rubrics which helps the students to reflect critically on their peer’s papers and provide feedback to improve their work before submitting that to the teachers [148]. Once submitted, the teachers provide regular and timely feedback for each component to improve students’ understanding of the coursework and expectations. The rest are part of summative assignments where students are expected to demonstrate their understanding of the course through developing scholarly papers, research proposals or projects. Self-assessment is an essential part of many courses. Along with assignments and homework, students are expected to write a paragraph assessing their own work. They grade their own work and reflect on what they have done and what could help them to improve their work. This self-assessment or grading mostly reflects on teachers’ grading and feedback.

5.3.11 Contact hour

Universities have specified contact hours for each course depending on their credit hours [149, 150]. Based on that, each course is designed and planned. Most of the courses have 2.5-to-3-hour contact hours per week which is mandatory to attend. On top of mandatory in-person sessions, every week teachers have specified office hours when students can go to meet course teacher with or without a prior appointment and discuss any issues or ask any questions they might regarding the course.

5.3.12 Students’ involvement in teaching and learning evaluation

Teacher evaluation is essential to quality assurance in the USA’s universities (U.S. Department of Education, 2010). It is regarded as a very important part of a student’s responsibilities. It can be used as a process and outcome of university and college-level courses. It is also a process to acknowledge the performance of the instructor and guide future plans for the course. This process not only guides the faculties to understand what is working but also points out the shortcomings of the course. This helps the institutions to check if the course goals are being achieved and align with expected outcomes from students’ perspectives. In many courses, the faculties keep open space for adding new relevant topics based on students’ interests and expectations that align with the goal of the course based on previous evaluation. This middle- and end-of-course evaluation is a good way to be involved in transforming pedagogies by students.

6. Comparative analysis of pedagogical approaches used in different countries

See Table 1.

Criteria	Bangladesh	UK	USA
Nature of the curriculum	Bangladesh Accreditation Council (BAC) has prepared a common curriculum development guideline promoting the Outcome Based Education (OBE) curriculum at the university level. Programme curriculum consists of different types of major and non-major, theoretical and practical courses. A designated curriculum development committee approved by the Academic Council of the university is responsible for curriculum development. The committee includes experts from academia, research organisations, and industries. The curriculum can be revised after 3 years if the curriculum development committee feels the urge to. Curriculums are rigid and created traditionally by teachers, and learning outcomes are based on practices of outcome-based education (OBE). In public universities, the curriculum is fixed, whereas in private universities, there is some flexibility to modify the syllabus by the course teacher if needed.	Curriculums are developed from modern, multi-disciplinary and global perspectives. Course curricula consist of different core and optional modules, and students have the authority to choose their modules. The curriculum is fixed, with some flexibility to choose from available alternatives by the students. Universities often take curriculum redesign programmes to remain up-to-date and provide students with the best learning experiences. Some universities have a 5-year life cycle of modules they offer.	A mix of both traditional teacher- created curriculum and co-created curriculum exists in the USA universities [74] Students determine their curriculum by choosing the courses that are offered by the university.
Teaching and learning methods	Traditional ways with almost no democratic decision-making or innovative efforts in using teaching and learning methods. Teachers mostly follow the traditional teaching and learning process in classrooms. Students have less scope to participate and engage in the teaching and learning process actively. Students are not co-creators of knowledge along with their teachers. Teachers do not engage students in discussion, debate, and exploring new subject matters.	Highly participatory and interactive to make students independent learners. Teachers demonstrate different styles of teaching based on course topics as well as their expertise. Teachers engage students in discussion, debate and exploration of new subject matters. Students are co-creators of knowledge along with their teachers.	Teachers take a whole class co-creating teaching and learning approaches with collaborative decision-making [21]. Teachers follow participatory teaching and learning method. Students are in control of their learning.
Types of interactions	There are face-to-face interactions in classrooms and labs, and few online and almost no blended programmes or courses. Recently introducing blended learning modality by including online and face-to-face classes in the same curriculum. Students are receivers of knowledge in most cases and the interaction is rigid and formal. Teacher-student interaction is limited for both online and offline platforms. For blended platforms, students and teachers are not comfortable.	There are provations for both face-to-face and need based blended interaction in the same course. Reciprocal interaction is core at the centre of lecture sessions. Active participation and interaction among teachers and peers are ensured through seminar activities, peer works, group works, etc. Open interaction with teachers and sharing knowledge with teachers are accepted and expected.	Teacher-student interaction in classrooms, research labs and meetings is expected as the main learning approach. Programmes and courses are designed for both face-to-face, online and blended platforms. Interaction is more open and students are treated as colleagues who can provide critical inputs than to only receivers of knowledge.
Training	Every university in the country has established an Institutional Quality Assurance Cell (IQAC) suggested by the University Grants Commission (UGC) of Bangladesh. The IQAC organises different capacity development training sessions for teachers and staff. Few in-service and in-house faculty development training from the university; some mandatory training from UGC’s projects.	Universities provide support for the teachers to improve their skills.	Universities and other higher education institutes have in-service faculty development programmes and teaching assistant training programmes (Tekir, 2021).
Technology	Minimum use of technology is observed. Technologies are mostly used in resource sharing (providing class notes and using digital libraries). But not much in pedagogy.	Use of technology is highly prevalent. Use of LMS and other EdTech applications such as Mendeley, Endnote, Padlet, Mentimeter, Turnitin, University online libraries, and search engines (NU search), etc. are widely used. Options available for students to participate in entirely distance course and learning. Faculties often use technology in teaching and learning including applications like LMS, Padlet, blog writing, and Mentimeter are used for classroom interaction.	Mobile and cloud-based modern information communication technologies and artificial intelligence have been used in teaching, learning and assessment. The use of digital technology in US universities is very high. Using technology in pedagogy (applications like Padlet, blog writing, Mentimeter, Kahoot) is common. Resource sharing and communication through virtual platforms is expected.
Learning Management System (LMS) or Virtual Learning Environment (VLE)	Some private universities have started to use LMS to share resources and grades. Public universities mostly use Google Classroom to share resources, participate in online discussions, share class announcements, and receive feedback and grades. Only a few public universities have their own LMS.	Almost all institutions use specific LMS. Both students and faculties are required to use the LMS regularly. LMS is used for sharing resources, participating in online discussions, submitting assignments, sharing class announcements, and receiving feedback and grades. Popular LMS are Moodle, Canvas, Blackboard.	Commonly used LMS are Canvas, Blackboard, Google Classroom. The use of LMS is compulsory to share resources, submit assignments, share class announcements, participate in online discussions, receive feedback and grades as well as share teacher evaluations.
Assessment	Course-specific formative and summative assessments are normal practice. In most cases, a weightage distribution of 40% for formative assessment and 60% for summative assessment contributes to the total score. Class participation, class tests, quizzes, assignments, presentations, projects, field trips, etc. are the most commonly used methods for formative assessment. Written tests, viva voce, capstone project, theses, monographs, project papers, etc. are the commonly used summative assessment methods.	Course-specific formative and summative assessments are normal practice. Assessments include essay, exams, presentations, reflective-log, lab experiments and project reports. Individual, peer, and group assessments. Students receive several tutorial support and feedback for assessments.	Both formative and summative assignments during and after the courses. Quiz, tests, take-home tests, lab experiments, presentations, and capstone projects all are forms of assessment. Students received feedback for most of the assignments to improve their work.
Feedback	In some cases, students of public universities receive feedback on formative assessment, though it varies from teacher to teacher, programme to programme. In many cases, it is practised in private universities as teachers’ performance is rigorously monitored. Providing feedback is not practised highly, especially in public universities. Providing feedback is not practised for both teachers and students. Providing explicit feedback to students, either verbal or written, is very rare in public universities.	Feedback is welcomed and both teachers and students are encouraged to reflect on it. Feedback sessions are often arranged with faculties and student group representatives. Faculties share individual feedback with each assessment.	Receiving feedback from faculty members and peers is a common practice. Detailed feedback helps students in learning. Teachers also provide feedback for ungraded tasks as well to develop students’ understanding and expectations from each task.
Research	Faculties are expected to conduct research regularly for their promotion and continuation of tenure. They are encouraged but not bound to equip students with modern and evidence-based learning. Specific and intensive research-based courses are not available. There are limitations for students to do research and use different research paradigms, designs, and tools.	Faculties are expected to research to equip students with modern and evidence-based learning. Specific and intensive research-based courses are available. Students are encouraged to learn and use different research paradigms, designs and tools. Students are encouraged to attend seminars and conferences to learn about current research trends and findings.	Research in STEM fields and other fields like social science and arts are happening in higher education institutions. One of the major responsibilities of the faculties is research. Almost all the faculties are involved with research teams and they recruit graduate students in those teams. The students are offered various research workshops and training and are encouraged to attend conferences.
Contact Hours	Contact hour varies in universities’ policy and course providing system in Bangladesh. Universities, which have a semester system, calculate contact hours according to the credit hours of the provided courses. Tutoring, mentoring, and office hours are not formalised in many universities. However, informal help and guidelines are provided by university teachers out of their class hours.	Contact hours are specified as per course credits and vary across different programmes. Semester and timetables are designed considering programme duration and careful balance among lectures, seminars, lab works, etc. are ensured. Emphasised on students having required contact hours with teachers for learning and development.	Contact hours are calculated according to the credit hour system, varies in programmes and courses. Faculties are also offered office hours when students can go and discuss their challenges and issues regarding course topics or other relevant tasks.
Tutorial Support	The universities do not provide tutorial support. Some universities have provided the opportunity to access the writing centre for academic purposes. There is no Teaching Assistant and Personal Tutor role in Bangladeshi universities.	Tutorial supports are embedded, tailored to students’ needs. Each student gets a ‘Personal Tutor’ who provide several tutorials and personal well-being supports. Students receive various individual and group tutorials for course works, assessment, etc.	Tutorial support is given by Teaching Assistants and peer groups. Students also have access to the writing centres that can help them in their academic writing for various courses and preparing manuscripts for publishing internally or externally.
Exceptional /Innovative /Strengths	Most of the teachers of Bangladeshi universities have further degrees from overseas universities and that impacted their pedagogical approaches and practices. Further, the COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted the higher education system and in turn the education system developed its resiliency. IQAC has been playing a significant role in universities not only to get accredited by the BAC but also to develop the capacity of teachers, staff and students.	In the UK, there are other bodies support universities for carrying out research such as, EU framework programmes, UK Research Councils, and the Higher Education Funding Council for England (HEFCE).	Public-private partnership increases the research funds and scopes.

Table 1.

Characteristics of higher education systems in Bangladesh, the United Kingdom and the United State of America.

7. Discussion

7.1 Teacher’s pedagogical understanding

Teachers play crucial roles in the process of developing human capabilities and shaping a nation’s future citizens [151]. They can assist young people in achieving their full potential and preparing them for their future. The professional values that teachers uphold are the foundation of these human resource development and nation building roles. For instance, teachers recognise that knowledge is not confined to books but must be made relevant to the students’ individual experiences. It is best learned through action and communication with others and is continuously developed through personal reflection and collaboration [152]. In contrast, traditional didactic teaching assumes that knowledge can be transferred from the teacher to the students through rote learning and repetition. Still, research shows that this approach is limited in developing the student’s potential [153]. Effective teacher training is based on approaches that start with the students’ current understanding and foster learning through activity and participation, peer interaction, and creative thinking [135]. Therefore, teachers must have proper understanding about the pedagogical approaches, philosophy behind them and the right way to engage students in the learning process. Thus, teacher education and training programmes are necessary to become a competent and helpful teacher.

Teaching is a highly skilled profession that requires proper training. This training should combine the knowledge of theories and the best understanding of teaching and learning processes with practical experience. Besides, the focus of teacher education and training is to strengthen the content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge of teachers [154, 155]. Teacher education programmes can be planned and provided to pre-service and in-service teachers through formal higher educational institutes like colleges and universities. Additionally, professional development training can be offered to in-service teachers, and it can also be a great opportunity for lifelong learning for teachers. However, teacher education and PD training are critical educational challenges faced by many countries for the twenty first century, especially in the Global South. The situation is more critical for countries like Bangladesh, where ‘one in five teachers have no teaching qualification’ ([156], p. 94). That means these teachers of Bangladesh neither had formal teacher education degrees nor had any PD training. They need access to formal teacher training courses and continuous professional development (CPD) training to improve their pedagogical skills.

The development of teacher expertise relies on the acquisition of skills in various areas, which can be broadly categorised as: professional knowledge (what the teacher knows about their profession), professional practice (what the teacher does), and professional values (what the teacher believes). Professional knowledge is often subdivided into three categories namely subject knowledge, contextual knowledge, and pedagogical knowledge [157]. Subject knowledge is about a particular academic subject or discipline that the teacher intends students to understand and develop. Pedagogic knowledge is the knowledge of how to teach [158]. Besides developing generic skills, techniques and activities, the teachers also develop knowledge in teaching particular subjects [159]. Teachers know the ways of introducing a new topic to arouse students’ interest, how to break down a topic into learnable segments and the best order to present those segments in their progressively focussing teaching and learning activities. Finally, teachers need to have a very strong command of the curriculum, which outlines the essential information about the curriculum as prescribed.

The curriculum for teacher education and CPD training programmes needs to include issues like teachers’ challenges related to pedagogy, curriculum implementation, content delivery, integration of technology and students’ assessment, etc. [160]. In addition to content and technological knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) should also be given importance during teacher education and CPD programmes. PCK is a sort of knowledge that is specialised to teach since it blends subject-specific expertise with knowledge on how to teach that subject to students effectively. It entails comprehending how children learn, identifying misconceptions, and modifying instructional tactics to meet these shortcomings. PCK also incorporates knowledge of excellent teaching methods and tactics for assisting pupils in learning. PCK also covers values and attitudes about teaching and learning in addition to knowledge and skills. These beliefs include the teacher’s position, the necessity of establishing a positive learning environment, and the need to be attentive to individual student needs and variances [161]. Shulman and Sykes [162] also claim that PCK is an important component of good teaching and that to be successful in the classroom, and teachers must have a thorough understanding of both subject matter and teaching methods.

By engaging in reflective inquiry, the teachers can learn theory in context as well as adapt it according to the needs of the children in rural, suburban and urban contexts, to create truly inclusive classrooms. For example, the developmental stages of learning in early year’s education [163] are only meaningful for the teacher if they are allowed to observe different age groups of children interacting with each other, the teacher, and the learning materials. These interactions will vary according to the context, culture, and values practised by the teacher and the surrounding community.

The concept of ‘teachers as facilitators of learning’ implies that teachers can actively shape an inclusive learning environment that enables all students to develop an ownership of learning [164]. For example, exploratory activities based on specific learning outcomes can enhance a group of students understandings of a subject area through personal and collective experiences of constructing knowledge. The teacher’s role in this process remains that of a guide or a facilitator who provides appropriate instructions to scaffold learning. This is not an easy task as the teacher is a learner in such contexts who is continuously building on past experience to investigate better ways of learning [165, 166]. At the same time, this is also an opportunity for the teacher to gain insights into understanding each student’s needs, interests, and learning style, which arise from individual differences and factors of gender, ability, disability, ethnicity, culture, language, and socio-economic background. In the context of Bangladesh, where class sizes are large and lack of space and resources are common realities, experiences have shown that adopting this approach can be challenging, but certainly possible.

7.2 Comparison in pedagogical practice in the Global North and Global South

Before 2020, the global higher education sector began a radical shift, prioritising the creation of sustainable institutions and incorporating the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) into its practices. Due to the enormous disparities between the global North and South, it is challenging to compare pedagogical approaches in higher education across the regions in detail. Nevertheless, here are some broad comparisons in some key aspects of pedagogical practices.

7.2.1 Global North

7.2.1.1 Focuses on critical thinking

Critical thinking, analysis, and problem-solving abilities are stressed more in the twenty first century at many higher education institutions in the Global North [167]. Students are frequently urged to challenge authority figures and exercise independent thought through writing and presentations. As a part of writing reflection assignments and developing presentations, students are asked to criticise the limitations of established theories, practices, and policies. Students are also encouraged to develop innovative ideas to solve scientific and social problems. This critical analysis in science, social science, and the business field helps students to develop intellectually and shapes them as individuals who are good at problem-solving skills rather than following the orders of authority. In other words, students are encouraged to work with their classmates and are given more responsibility for their own learning. Student-centred learning encourages students to take responsibility for their own learning and motivates them to engage in the learning process critically. These pedagogical practices enhance students’ decision-making ability, communication skills, adaptability and flexibility, research literacy, and ethical reasoning.

7.2.1.2 Technology-enhanced learning

In the Global North, technology is used extensively in higher education. Online multimedia tools, digital resources, and online learning platforms are frequently used in the teaching and learning process. Using technology to provide resources and enhance engagement in class and in the assessment, process enhances students’ learning experiences [168].

In the USA and the UK, using student ambassadors as positive role models has been explored to promote STEM subjects and careers among underrepresented groups [169]. The participatory approach, which involves collaboration with students as co-researchers, has been found to empower students’ sense of meaning and belonging, reducing dropout rates [170].

7.2.2 Global South

7.2.2.1 Rote learning and memorisation

In some higher education institutions in the Global South, memorisation and rote learning are still valued. This implies that the fundamental principles are not always understood, yet students are still expected to memorise facts and information [171]. The curriculum indicates that teachers should apply the relevant pedagogical approaches to teach the content of different subjects.

7.2.2.2 Insufficient teaching capacity development opportunities

Teachers cannot apply relevant and appropriate pedagogical approaches in the classroom as they are not properly trained in learner-centred pedagogy. The concerned authority arranges several training sessions for school teachers as part of teachers’ professional development. Still, they are not aware of integrating modern teaching approaches into their training packages [151]. Moreover, teacher educators are not properly trained in pedagogical practices. They usually train novice teachers about pedagogical issues using lecture methods. It is also observed that when teacher educators act as mentors, they are not quite confident and skilled enough to support classroom teachers when they face challenges in teaching. That is why there is a gap between theories and practices, eventually affecting students’ learning.

Teachers become skilled and confident in applying modern teaching and learning approaches when they have ample opportunities to practise hands-on activities during professional training [172]. In the short training and long training courses for primary, secondary and tertiary teachers, it is found that there is limited scope for school placements and practice for applying the theories in the classroom. Besides, the teachers do not get proper pedagogical support from their mentors during practicum. Due to this insufficient practicum experience, the teachers are not confident enough to effectively use modern pedagogical approaches in their daily teaching.

7.2.2.3 Teacher-centred learning

The classic lecture style is still common in many higher education institutions in the Global South. This approach places the teacher at the centre of the classroom, where they assume their role as the knowledge provider, and students are viewed as passive recipients of information [173]. The traditional teacher-centred approach, which focuses on transmitting knowledge from the teacher to the student, is no longer effective today. However, this method has faced criticism due to its limitations in fostering critical thinking, problem-solving skills, and active engagement among students. Research supports the notion that teacher-centred teaching and learning hinders the development of higher-order thinking skills among higher-education students [174]. This study found that students often displayed a lack of initiative, independence, and creativity in their learning process. This can be attributed to the dominance of the teacher in the classroom, which limits students’ opportunities to explore, question, and construct knowledge independently. While the teacher-centred teaching and learning approach may have some merits, higher education institutions in the Global South must embrace student-centred pedagogies to enhance the overall learning experience. By shifting the focus from the teacher to the students, educators can create an environment that nurtures students’ creativity, critical thinking, and problem-solving skills [175].

In some countries in the Global South, like Bangladesh, the higher education sector has undergone significant changes, and understanding the emerging realities is crucial for educational researchers [176]. However, it is important to note that these observations are generalisations and that both the Global North and the Global South exhibit significant diversity in higher education policy and practice. Additionally, both geographies have many instances of creative and successful teaching and learning practices.

7.3 Culturally relevant pedagogies and contextual understanding for adoption

Another important inclusion in the pedagogical practices in higher education is the cultural relevant pedagogies (CRP). Landson-Billings [177], an expert in CRP pointed out three key tenets for culturally relevant pedagogy, which are students’ learning, cultural competence-fully acquiring students’ own culture and critical consciousness of teachers. By definition, culturally responsive pedagogy facilitates and supports all students’ achievement regardless of their cultural background. In a culturally responsive classroom, effective teaching and learning occur in a culturally supported, learner-centred context, whereby the strength students bring to their learning are identified and nurtured and utilised to promote student achievement. In the twenty first century, because of heavy migration, the class population is becoming more and more diverse. As more and more students from diverse socio-economic backgrounds are populating the classroom, teachers need effective methods to teach diverse students. According to Zekarias and Zhao [178], today’s classroom demands teachers to educate students who differ in language, culture, ability, and various other factors. Thus, along with content and pedagogical knowledge, teachers need to be knowledgeable about classroom diversity. For most of the students, school-appropriate behaviour like sitting steady, raising hands before talking, and speaking when called heavily contrast with home culture and linguistic practices. Furthermore, a culturally responsive educational setting reduces students’ alienation as they attempt to acclimatise to a new ‘world’ of schooling [179]. CRP comprises three dimensions: institutional, personal, and instructional. The institutional dimension reflects administrative, logistical, policies, administrational, and values. Personal dimension refers to the cognitive and emotional process teachers engage in to become culturally responsive. The last instructional dimension refers to materials, strategies, and activities forming culturally relevant pedagogy. Institutional, personal and instructional dimensions interact with the teaching and learning process and are critical to understanding the effectiveness of culturally responsive pedagogy.

Self-reflection by teachers is a crucial aspect of the personal and professional dimension of teaching. Teachers can uncover the reasons why they are, who they are, and overcome prejudices that have shaped their sense of morality by honestly assessing their attitudes and beliefs regarding themselves and others [180]. Teachers must overcome negative attitudes towards cultural, linguistic, or racial backgrounds since their values influence connections with students and their families. Teachers are frequently averse to the idea that their ideals may reflect prejudices or even bigotry towards specific populations. When teachers can overcome such biases, they contribute to the creation of an atmosphere of trust and acceptance for children and their families, resulting in increased opportunities for student achievement.

Exploration is another key part of the personal and professional dimension of teaching. Teachers must investigate their own back stories and situations, as well as their pupils’ and families’ past and current experiences. Knowledge leads to a better understanding of oneself and others and a deeper appreciation for diversity. Teachers can better respond to the needs of all their students when they are neutral in their instruction and educated about themselves and their students. When the instructional materials (i.e., books, teaching methods, and activities) are incompatible with the students’ cultural experiences, there is a high likelihood of disengagement from their learning [181]. For some students, giving up learning may take the shape of just underachieving; for others, rejection of the formal education system may vary from not performing at all to dropping out entirely. Culturally responsive pedagogy acknowledges and incorporates students’ culture and language into training, eventually respecting students’ personal and community identities.

Recognising differences and similarities among the students within a cohort is vital for teachers to identify their students’ shared ideas and practices, it is also necessary for teachers to recognise their students’ individual distinctions. Culture and language may influence student behaviours and attitudes. Certain cultures, for example, prevent children from making direct eye contact with adults; consequently, when these youngsters refuse to look at the teacher, they are not being disobedient but following their culture. Teachers who attribute specific attributes to a student merely because of his or her ethnic or racial group, on the other hand, exhibit just as much prejudice as expecting all students to conform to mainstream cultural customs. Furthermore, because each student is unique, their learning requirements will vary. Understanding these distinctions improves the teacher’s capacity to address the particular requirements of the students. The goal is to respond to each student individually, based on his or her identified skills and shortcomings, rather than on preconceived notions about the student’s group affiliation [182].

Classroom practices and instructional materials validate students’ cultural identities. To the greatest extent possible, teachers should use culturally supportive texts, create bulletin boards, and perform classroom activities. When school-assigned textbooks and other instructional materials reinforce stereotypes (e.g., African Americans portrayed as athletes) or fail to adequately represent diverse groups (e.g., books with no images or perspectives of Native Americans, Latinos(as), and other non-Anglo Saxons), teachers must supplement instruction with resources rich in diversity and sensitive in portraying individuals from different backgrounds. Teachers can leverage on students’ strengths by using imagery and techniques they are familiar with. The more students are exposed to familiar instructional approaches and are allowed to think differently, the greater their sense of inclusion and the likelihood of success. In certain communities, for example, members collaborate in a supportive manner to do numerous chores in their everyday lives. Incorporating these home practices in educational approaches, such as cooperative learning [183], boosts these students’ chances to success.

Culturally relevant pedagogy (CRP) and culturally responsive teaching (CRT) are two frameworks for teaching and learning that focus on incorporating students’ cultural backgrounds into the learning process. Both approaches seek to create a more inclusive and equitable learning environment for all students, but they differ in some key ways. According to Ladson-Billings [184], culturally relevant pedagogy emphasises the integration of students’ cultural backgrounds into experiences, values, and perspectives. This approach fosters student engagement and the curriculum, acknowledging the importance of incorporating students’ cultural meaningful doing well academically and who come from more privileged communities. Ultimately, the best approach to teaching is the one that is most effective for the specific students in a particular classroom. Teachers should use a combination of CRP and CRT and other approaches to create an inclusive and equitable learning by connecting academic content to students’ lived experiences. In contrast, Gay [185] suggests that culturally responsive pedagogy focuses on building positive relationships between teachers and students and creating an inclusive classroom environment. It prioritises understanding students’ cultural identities and creating learning experiences that resonate with their backgrounds. Both pedagogical approaches share the common goal of promoting equity and inclusivity by valuing students’ cultural identities. However, the difference lies in the specific emphasis placed on curriculum integration in culturally relevant pedagogy and relationship building in culturally responsive pedagogy.

Both CRP and CRT are effective approaches to teaching. However, CRP may be more appropriate for students struggling academically or from marginalised communities. CRT may be more appropriate for students who are already doing well academically and who come from more privileged communities. Ultimately, the best approach to teaching is the one that is most effective for the specific students in a particular classroom. Teachers should use a combination of CRP and CRT and other approaches to create an inclusive and equitable learning environment for all higher education students. Both CRP and CRT will give students agency to contribute in learning at higher education level.

7.4 Students as co-creators of knowledge in higher education

The concept of students as co-creators of knowledge in higher education emphasises on the active collaboration between students and teachers in the teaching and learning process. This approach re-envisions the traditional roles of students and teachers, promoting a reciprocal partnership where students have an equal or even greater voice in shaping their educational experiences [36]. The literature highlights the importance of creating inclusive learning communities and providing opportunities for small-scale, extracurricular partnership activities that enhance teaching and learning [36]. Motivating students to engage in co-creation involves strategies such as participation, cognitive engagement, university affiliation, and emotional engagement [186]. This approach recognises the value of students’ perspectives, experiences, and contributions in shaping the educational process, leading to more meaningful and effective learning outcomes.

8. Conclusion

Pedagogical approaches not only guide the teaching and learning process but also impact on the learning outcomes of students. These approaches also guide the design process of the learning experience and assist in defining the role of teachers and students in this process. They also directly impact the learning continuation, growth and completion of individual students. Furthermore, shifting teachers’ roles from instructor to facilitator reduces teachers’ workload. However, pedagogical approaches are based on available resources, teachers’ teaching philosophy and understanding of the contexts, students, content and instructions, as teachers plan and design the teaching and learning activities. Globally, evidence showed that students’ participation in the pedagogical process significantly increased over the years and teachers’ teaching style shifted from teacher-centric to students-centric.

The higher education curriculum, resources, LMS, and pedagogy of the UK and the USA have a broader scope regarding students’ participation and engagement in the teaching and learning compared to Bangladesh. Thus, by learning the best practices and effective lessons, Bangladesh and countries of similar contexts can take necessary measures to revise their higher education curricula, incorporating the participatory pedagogical approaches, setting-up collaborative learning facilities, ensuring students’ active engagement as co-creators of knowledge and preparing students for the demands of the 21st-century workforce. Besides, low-resourced countries can follow Bangladeshi higher educational institutions’ transformation in the last few years, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. Integrating participatory pedagogies into teaching and learning activities will provide opportunities to foster critical thinking, creativity, collaboration, and problem-solving skills in students and also enable them to become active contributors to society and agents of positive change.