Open access peer-reviewed chapter - ONLINE FIRST
Abstract
Carbon-based nanocomposites (CNC) with remarkable properties have diverse applications in scientific and technological domains. This review provides an overview of synthesis methods, including chemical vapor deposition, sol-gel synthesis, and self-assembly, also necessitating precise control over composition, structure, and morphology for tailored properties. The review explores the multifunctionality of the CNCs’ in five important areas. In energy storage systems (in supercapacitors and lithium-ion batteries), for improved charge storage capacity and cycling stability. In sensing technologies, CNCs exhibit sensitivity, enhancing the detection of analytes and have been applied in biosensing in medical diagnostics and in environmental monitoring. As catalyst support materials, CNCs enhance efficiency in various catalytic reactions. In nanomedicine, CNCs contribute to drug delivery and imaging with biocompatibility and unique optical properties. Environmental applications of CNCs include water treatment, air purification, and pollutant remediation for sustainable solutions. Critical insights from recent advancements and research studies address challenges and outline future directions have been provided in the review article. In conclusion, this comprehensive review emphasizes CNCs’ transformative impact on energy storage, sensing technologies, catalysis, nanomedicine, and environmental remediation, marking a significant step in addressing contemporary challenges and shaping future technology.
Keywords
- carbon-based nanocomposites
- CNC
- multifunctional applications
- energy storage
- sensing technologies
- environmental remediation
1. Introduction
1.1 Definition and properties of carbon-based nanocomposites (CNCs)
Carbon-based nanocomposites (CNCs) represent a class of advanced materials composed of carbon-based structures with nanoscale dimensions, marking a convergence of nanotechnology and carbon science. This convergence of carbon science and nanotechnology results in materials with exceptional properties and diverse applications. The definition and properties of CNCs are intricately tied to their synthesis methods, which include chemical vapor deposition, sol-gel synthesis, and self-assembly, emphasizing the need for precise control over composition, structure, and morphology for tailored applications [1].
Key properties of CNCs encompass remarkable mechanical strength, high thermal and electrical conductivity, a large surface area, unique optical properties, biocompatibility, and chemical stability. These properties render CNCs versatile across a spectrum of scientific and technological domains [2]. The nanoscale dimensions and carbon-based nature of CNCs make them promising candidates for applications ranging from energy storage systems to the recent biomedical applications. Thus, these composites make themselves promising for transformative applications and underscore their significance as cutting-edge materials with unique characteristics, driving innovation across various scientific and technological domains. The synthesis and utilization of CNCs mark a pivotal frontier in materials science, offering tailored solutions to contemporary challenges [3].
1.2 Composition of carbon-based nanocomposites
The composition of CNCs is a critical aspect influencing their properties and functionalities, and it involves the integration of carbon-based structures with various nanomaterials. The choice and combination of these components play a crucial role in tailoring CNCs for specific applications. Notable among them are the carbon allotropes, such as graphene, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and nanodiamonds, are often combined with other nanomaterials like metal oxides, polymers, or nanoparticles to achieve desired properties [4, 5]. Further, graphene, a single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice, is a common component due to its exceptional electrical conductivity and mechanical strength. CNTs with cylindrical structures of carbon atoms, contribute to the mechanical strength and electrical conductivity of CNCs. Nanodiamonds, with their unique hardness and surface chemistry, enhance the overall properties of CNCs.
It is to be noted that the composition of CNCs is intricately linked to their synthesis methods, such as chemical vapor deposition, sol-gel synthesis, and self-assembly, providing control over the arrangement and distribution of components [6, 7]. The judicious selection and precise combination of carbon-based structures and other nanomaterials enable the customization of CNCs for applications ranging from energy storage to nanomedicine and environmental remediation [8]. Consequently, this comprehensive review provides an in-depth exploration of CNCs, with a focus on synthesis methods, including chemical vapor deposition, sol-gel synthesis, and self-assembly. Emphasis is placed on the necessity of precise control over composition, structure, and morphology for tailoring CNC properties.
2. Importance and potential of carbon-based nanocomposites (CNCs)
CNCs have gained widespread attention, as we know, due to their exceptional properties, leading to diverse applications in scientific and technological realms. The importance and potential of CNCs lie in their unique combination of properties, making them versatile materials with applications spanning a wide range of scientific and technological fields. CNCs, which integrate carbon-based structures like graphene, CNTs, or nanodiamonds with other nanomaterials, exhibit extraordinary mechanical strength, high electrical and thermal conductivity, large surface area, and unique optical properties [9, 10].
In the field of energy storage, CNCs have demonstrated significant importance by enhancing charge storage capacity and cycling stability in supercapacitors and lithium-ion batteries [7]. Their remarkable sensitivity in sensing technologies has revolutionized analyte detection in chemical and biosensing applications, thereby advancing medical diagnostics and environmental monitoring. As catalyst support materials, CNCs contribute to improved efficiency in various catalytic reactions, expanding their potential in industrial applications [11]. In nanomedicine, the biocompatibility and unique optical properties of CNCs play a pivotal role in drug delivery and imaging, promising transformative advancements in healthcare [12]. Furthermore, CNCs address environmental challenges, offering sustainable solutions in water treatment, air purification, and pollutant remediation. In the subsequent sections, we will probe the above five key areas that showcase the multifunctionality of CNCs [13], which is the objective of the present review. By drawing insights from recent advancements and research studies, this comprehensive review aims to address challenges in the field while outlining future directions for CNC research. Through an in-depth exploration of their multifaceted applications, we seek to underscore the transformative impact of CNCs on the five important key areas namely, energy storage, sensing technologies, catalysis, nanomedicine, and environmental remediation. This marks a significant stride in addressing contemporary challenges and shaping the trajectory of future CNC technology.
3. Synthesis of CNCs
As stated earlier, the synthesis of CNCs involves various methods, each contributing to the tailored properties of these advanced materials. Herein, we explore key synthesis methods.
3.1 Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
CVD is a widely used method for growing carbon-based structures on substrates. The vacuum liquid-pulse chemical vapor deposition (VLP-CVD) technique was developed to easily prepare, for example, TiO2/porous–carbon nanocomposites, where TiO2 nanoparticles with a diameter of ∼4 nm could be homogeneously deposited inside the pores of meso- or macroporous carbons [14].
In yet another exemplary work, Schutjajew et al. in their studies for sodium storage employed CVD process to develop polymeric carbon nitride (p-C3N4) on hard carbon fibers of both, open and closed microporosity. They have conveyed that high sodium storage capacity at a low potential is only possible, when suitable, sealed pores are present on the substrate [15].
3.2 Sol-gel synthesis
Sol-gel synthesis involves the transformation of a colloidal solution (sol) into a gel, leading to the formation of nanocomposites. In a typical CNC synthesis by sol-gel method, MWCNT-based MWCNT/TiO2 nanocomposites were prepared, which have been shown to have higher photocatalytic activity than single TiO2 photocatalyst for the degradation of MO aqueous solution under ultraviolet light irradiation, which is attributable to the uniform coating of TiO2 nanoparticles and widening of absorption wavelength. The results indicate that the MWCNT supported TiO2 nanocomposites exhibit high photocatalytic activity and stability, showing great potentials in the treatment of wastewater. Nanocomposites exhibit high photocatalytic activity and stability, showing great potentials in the treatment of waste water [16].
3.3 Self-assembly
Researchers often choose a synthesis method based on the desired characteristics and intended use of the nanocomposite [17]. Self-assembly is one such technique that allows for the spontaneous organization of nanomaterials into ordered structures. This method enables precise control over the composition, structure, and morphology of CNCs, crucial for tailoring their properties to specific applications.
Two types of interesting composites have been prepared by Machrafi et al. [18], one by forming alternate layers and the other by forming several layers of a pre-mixed suspension. The thickness, thermal, and electrical conductivity of the composites are measured
Greenhall et al. [19] experimentally measured the mechanical properties of polymer nanocomposite materials, and found that the ultrasound directed self-assembly process results in specimens with aligned CNTs that display a significant increase in ultimate tensile strength, Young’s modulus, and moduli of resilience and toughness, compared to benchmark materials including polymer nanocomposite materials with randomly oriented CNTs, and virgin polymer matrix materials.
Characterization of the CNCs is usually done employing the following instrumental techniques, nevertheless the details of which does not come under the scope of the present review.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM).
X-ray diffraction (XRD).
Spectroscopic techniques (Raman, FTIR, UV-Vis).
4. Multifunctional applications of CNCs
Various multifunctional applications of CNCs have been represented in Figure 1 [20].
Figure 1.
Multifunctional applications of CNCs [
Nevertheless, for the sake of emerging scientists and researchers, the present review discusses the five key applications, as stated earlier.
4.1 Energy storage and conversion
CNCs have gained significant attention in the realm of energy storage and conversion, presenting innovative solutions to address the growing demand for efficient and sustainable energy technologies. Applications of CNCs in this crucial domain has been detailed below, emphasizing their role in enhancing energy storage capacity, improving conversion efficiency, and contributing to the development of cleaner energy systems [21].
4.1.1 Supercapacitors
CNCs play a pivotal role in advancing supercapacitor technology, offering high surface area and excellent electrical conductivity. The unique structure of CNCs, such as graphene or CNTs, facilitates rapid charge and discharge cycles, leading to enhanced energy storage capacity. The work of Bose et al. [22] highlights the successful integration of CNTs in supercapacitors, resulting in devices with improved power density and cycle stability.
4.1.2 Lithium-ion batteries
CNCs have been extensively explored as components in lithium-ion batteries to address the challenges associated with traditional electrode materials. The study by Fenz et al. [20] and Hwang et al. [23] demonstrates the effectiveness of CNCs in lithium-ion batteries, showcasing their ability to enhance charge storage capacity and cycling stability. The incorporation of CNCs helps mitigate issues like capacity fading, ultimately contributing to the development of more durable and efficient battery systems.
The lightweight and flexible nature of some CNCs make them ideal candidates for energy storage in wearable electronic devices. This application is particularly relevant in the development of flexible supercapacitors and batteries integrated into clothing or accessories. The research conducted by Hwang et al., explores the potential of carbon nanotube-based composites for wearable energy storage solutions [20, 23]. A typical scheme for showcasing the application of CNCs, for example, in Li-ion batteries has been given in Figure 2 [20].
Figure 2.
Application of CNCs in Li-ion batteries [
4.1.3 Fuel cells
CNCs also find applications in fuel cells, playing a crucial role in improving the performance and longevity of these energy conversion devices. The work of Taherian et al. [24] discusses the catalytic applications of CNCs as support materials in fuel cells, enhancing the efficiency of various catalytic reactions. CNCs provide a conductive and stable platform for catalysts, contributing to the overall efficiency of fuel cell systems.
4.1.4 Solar cells
In the field of solar energy conversion, CNCs offer unique properties that can be harnessed to improve the efficiency of solar cells. The exceptional electrical conductivity of CNTs, for instance, has been utilized to enhance charge transport within solar cell devices. This application is discussed in the research by Habisreutinger et al. [25], where CNCs are explored for their potential in improving the performance of organic solar cells.
4.1.5 Thermoelectric devices
CNCs exhibit promising thermoelectric properties, making them suitable for applications in thermoelectric devices that convert heat energy into electrical energy. The study conducted by Wang et al. [26] emphasizes the significance of CNCs in achieving high thermoelectric performance, paving the way for more efficient energy conversion in various applications. Thus, CNCs represent a transformative force in the field of energy storage and conversion. Their unique properties, including high conductivity, large surface area, and versatility in design, make them valuable components for improving the performance of a wide range of energy devices. As research continues to unravel the full potential of CNCs, these nanocomposites are poised to play a pivotal role in shaping the future of clean and efficient energy technologies.
4.2 Sensing and biosensing
CNCs have emerged as versatile materials with exceptional properties, propelling their utilization in the field of sensing and biosensing. An abstract of various applications of biosensors (involving CNCs) has been provided in Figure 3 [28]. The diverse applications of CNCs in sensing technologies has been elaborated in this section, highlighting their sensitivity, selectivity, and unique attributes that make them valuable for detecting a wide range of analytes in various environments [27, 28].
Figure 3.
Applications of biosensors [
4.2.1 Chemical sensing
CNCs, such as graphene and carbon CNTs, exhibit remarkable sensitivity to changes in their surroundings, making them highly effective in chemical sensing applications. The large surface area and excellent electrical conductivity of CNCs contribute to their ability to interact with different chemical species. Yin F et al. [29] have demonstrated the application of CNCs in chemical sensing, showcasing enhanced detection capabilities for gases and volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
4.2.2 Biosensing
The integration of CNCs in biosensing has revolutionized medical diagnostics and environmental monitoring greatly. Biosensors based on CNCs offer a highly sensitive and selective platform for detecting biological molecules. The biocompatibility and unique surface properties of CNCs contribute to their success in biosensing applications. For instance, Malhotra et al. [30] have explored the use of CNTs in biosensors, illustrating their effectiveness in detecting biomolecules with high specificity.
4.2.3 Medical diagnostics
In medical diagnostics, CNCs have shown promise in detecting biomarkers associated with various diseases. Graphene-based nanocomposites, due to their exceptional conductivity and surface functionalization capabilities, have been employed in the development of electrochemical biosensors for precise and rapid diagnostics. This application has been researched by He et al. [31] where CNCs contribute to the sensitive detection of specific biomolecules indicative of diseases such as cancer.
4.2.4 Environmental monitoring
CNCs play a crucial role in environmental monitoring by enabling the detection of pollutants and contaminants in air and water. The study conducted by Wang et al. [16] exemplifies the use of CNCs in environmental sensing applications. The nanocomposites enhance the sensitivity and selectivity of sensors, making them effective tools for monitoring air quality and water pollution [33].
4.2.5 Wearable sensors
As we know, the flexibility and lightweight nature of some CNCs make them ideal candidates for wearable sensors. These sensors can be integrated into clothing or accessories, providing real-time monitoring of various analytes. Jeong et al. [34] explored the use of carbon nanotube-based composites for wearable sensors, demonstrating their potential for continuous monitoring in applications such as healthcare and fitness.
Thus, it is certain that carbon-based nanocomposites have established themselves as integral components in sensing and biosensing technologies. Their unique combination of properties, including high conductivity, large surface area, and biocompatibility, positions CNCs as valuable tools for detecting and monitoring diverse analytes. The ongoing research and development in this field continue to unlock new possibilities, further solidifying the role of CNCs in advancing sensing technologies for improved healthcare, environmental monitoring, and beyond.
4.3 Catalysts and catalysis
Catalysts play a pivotal role in accelerating chemical reactions and facilitating the production of various materials crucial to industry and daily life. CNCs have emerged as highly effective catalysts, offering unique properties that enhance catalytic performance. This section explores the applications of CNCs in catalysis, emphasizing their role in driving efficient and sustainable chemical transformations [32, 33].
4.3.1 Catalytic support materials
CNCs serve as excellent support materials for catalysts due to their high surface area, tunable porosity, and remarkable conductivity. The work of Rodriguez et al. highlights the use of CNCs as catalyst supports, contributing to increased efficiency in various catalytic reactions. The incorporation of CNCs enhances the stability and dispersion of catalysts, leading to improved catalytic activity and selectivity [34].
4.3.2 Heterogeneous catalysis
Heterogeneous catalysis involves the use of catalysts that exist in a different phase than the reactants. CNCs, particularly graphene and CNTs, exhibit outstanding heterogeneity, making them ideal candidates for heterogeneous catalytic applications. The large surface area and functional groups on CNCs provide active sites for catalytic reactions. Studies by Wang et al. have demonstrated the effectiveness of CNCs in promoting heterogeneous catalysis for applications ranging from organic synthesis to environmental remediation [35].
4.3.3 Photocatalysis
CNCs have also found applications in photocatalysis, a process that utilizes light to drive catalytic reactions. Graphene-based CNCs, with their excellent electrical conductivity and photoactive properties, have been explored for photocatalytic applications. These materials have been employed in the degradation of pollutants and the synthesis of value-added chemicals under light irradiation Jeong et al. [34].
4.3.4 Electrocatalysis
In electrocatalysis also, CNCs have demonstrated significant potential in accelerating electrochemical reactions, particularly in energy conversion and storage devices. The unique electrical conductivity and large surface area of CNCs contribute to their effectiveness as electrocatalysts. Chen et al. [36] showcase the utilization of carbon nanotube-based composites in electrocatalytic applications, such as fuel cells and water electrolysis, highlighting their role in advancing clean energy technologies.
4.3.5 Biocatalysis
Interesting application is that, CNCs have also been explored in biocatalysis, where enzymes immobilized on CNCs enhance catalytic activity and stability. The biocompatibility of CNCs and their ability to mimic the cellular microenvironment make them suitable platforms for biocatalytic applications. The study by Wan et al. [37] exemplifies the integration of CNTs in biocatalysis, demonstrating their role in improving the efficiency of enzymatic reactions.
The versatile nature of carbon-based nanocomposites positions them as valuable catalysts across a spectrum of catalytic applications. Their unique combination of properties, including high surface area, electrical conductivity, and biocompatibility, contributes to their effectiveness in catalyzing various reactions.
4.4 Environmental remediation
The growing concern over environmental pollution has prompted the exploration of innovative technologies for effective remediation. CNCs, as we all know, is a class of materials composed of carbon-based nanoparticles embedded in a matrix, have emerged as promising candidates for addressing environmental challenges. Again, their unique properties, including high surface area, chemical stability, and tunable reactivity, make them versatile tools in various remediation applications, particularly in the cleanup of contaminated air, water, and soil [38].
4.4.1 Water remediation
CNCs have demonstrated significant efficacy in the removal of pollutants from water sources. Carbon based nanocomposites, for example, exhibit exceptional adsorption capabilities for heavy metals and organic contaminants. These nanocomposites can be applied in water treatment processes, acting as efficient adsorbents to selectively capture pollutants. The large surface area of graphene-based materials enhances the adsorption capacity, making them ideal for removing contaminants like arsenic, lead, and organic dyes from water systems [39, 40].
4.4.2 Air quality improvement
CNCs also hold promise in addressing air pollution challenges. CNTs and graphene-based materials possess excellent adsorption properties for gases and VOCs. Functionalized carbon nanocomposites can be integrated into air filtration systems to capture and remove pollutants, contributing to improved air quality. Additionally, these materials can serve as catalyst supports for the development of advanced oxidation processes (AOP), facilitating the degradation of airborne pollutants [29].
4.4.3 Soil decontamination
Contaminated soil poses a significant environmental threat, and CNCs offer innovative solutions for soil remediation. These materials can enhance the mobility and bioavailability of certain contaminants in the soil. Moreover, they can be used as carriers for targeted delivery of remediation agents, such as nanoparticles of zero-valent iron (nZVI), which are known for their ability to degrade organic pollutants and immobilize heavy metals in the soil matrix [41].
4.4.4 Efficient catalysis for degradation
CNCs exhibit remarkable catalytic properties, enabling them to participate in advanced oxidation processes (AOP) for the degradation of organic pollutants. Functionalized graphene or carbon nanotube composites can serve as efficient catalyst supports for reactions like Fenton and photocatalysis. These processes generate reactive species capable of breaking down complex organic pollutants into less harmful byproducts, contributing to the overall effectiveness of environmental remediation [42]. Despite their promising applications, the use of CNCs in environmental remediation also raises concerns. The potential long-term environmental impact and toxicity of these nanomaterials require thorough investigation. Additionally, the scalability and cost-effectiveness of large-scale remediation projects involving CNCs need further exploration.
In conclusion, the applications of CNCs in environmental remediation represent a cutting-edge approach to tackle pollution challenges. Their versatility in water, air, and soil remediation showcases their potential to revolutionize the field. As research in nanotechnology progresses, addressing challenges related to environmental and human safety will be crucial for realizing the full potential of CNCs in sustainable and effective environmental cleanup [43].
4.5 Biomedical applicationms
The integration of nanotechnology in the biomedical field has led to the development of innovative materials with unique properties, opening new avenues for diagnostics, drug delivery, and therapeutic interventions. CNCs, characterized by their exceptional mechanical, electrical, and biocompatible properties, have gained prominence in biomedical applications also in recent times [44]. The diverse applications of CNCs in biomedicine, shedding light on their role in imaging, drug delivery, and tissue engineering have been briefly given here.
4.5.1 Diagnostic imaging applications
CNCs, such as CNTs (CNTs) and graphene-based materials, have demonstrated significant potential in biomedical imaging. The unique physicochemical properties of these nanomaterials make them suitable for various imaging modalities, including magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computed tomography (CT), and photoacoustic imaging [45].
These nanocomposites not only improve the sensitivity and specificity of imaging but also enable multimodal imaging, providing a comprehensive view of anatomical and functional information [47].
4.5.2 Drug delivery systems
CNCs serve as versatile platforms for drug delivery, offering controlled release, targeted delivery, and enhanced therapeutic efficacy. Their unique properties, such as large surface area and biocompatibility, make them suitable carriers for various therapeutic agents.
pH and Temperature-responsive systems: CNCs can be engineered to respond to changes in pH or temperature, enabling triggered drug release in specific physiological conditions. This responsive behavior enhances the precision of drug delivery, particularly in tumor-targeted therapies.
Combination therapy: The multifunctional nature of CNCs enables the co-delivery of multiple therapeutic agents, facilitating combination therapy for synergistic effects. This approach is particularly valuable in cancer treatment, where a combination of chemotherapy and targeted therapy can enhance treatment outcomes [48].
4.5.3 Tissue engineering (TE) and regenerative medicine (RM)
CNCs play a crucial role in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, where they contribute to the development of scaffolds and platforms for cell growth, differentiation, and tissue regeneration.
5. Biomedical sensing and diagnostic devices
CNCs find applications in the development of biomedical sensors and diagnostic devices, owing to their excellent electrical conductivity and surface properties.
6. Wound healing and antimicrobial applications
CNCs show promise in wound healing applications owing to their antibacterial properties and ability to accelerate tissue regeneration. Materials like graphene oxide have exhibited antimicrobial activity against a broad spectrum of bacteria, making them potential candidates for wound dressings and coatings on medical devices. The incorporation of CNCs with graphene oxide into wound care materials can contribute to the prevention of infections and expedite the healing process [55].
7. Smart materials and electronics
CNCs are driving innovation in the development of smart materials and electronics. Their unique electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties make them ideal candidates for applications in flexible electronics, sensors, and wearable devices. The integration of these nanocomposites into everyday materials holds the potential to revolutionize the functionality and performance of electronic devices [56].
Undoubtedly, CNCs have emerged as versatile materials with remarkable properties that significantly impact biomedical applications. From imaging and drug delivery to tissue engineering and diagnostics, these nanomaterials have demonstrated their potential to revolutionize the field of biomedicine. Continued research and development in this area hold the promise of translating these innovations into practical solutions, improving patient outcomes and reshaping healthcare.
8. Polymer based nanocomposites: a new class of nanocomposites
Polymer-based nanocomposites represent a groundbreaking advancement in materials science, leveraging nanotechnology to enhance the properties and performance of polymers. These nanocomposites consist of a polymer matrix (like polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, epoxy, polyurethane, and others) infused with nanoscale fillers or reinforcements (nanofillers can be inorganic nanoparticles, for example, nanoparticles of clays, silica, CNTs, graphene or organic nanoparticles, for example, dendrimers, CNTs or hybrid nanoparticles), leading to synergistic effects that result in superior mechanical, thermal, electrical, and barrier properties compared to conventional polymer composites. Advantages of polymer-based nanocomposites include: improved mechanical properties, enhanced thermal stability, enhanced electrical conductivity, enhanced barrier properties; reduced weight and cost and applications include: automotive industry, packaging materials, construction materials, electronics and electrical devices, biomedical applications.
Despite producing highly selective, adjustable, and fast filtering on a bench scale, aligned CNT composite membranes are still in the development stage and are challenging to build phases of the development process. Some uses of CNTs (CNTs) in nanocomposite membranes make use of the materials’ physical characteristics to increase the membrane’s mechanical stability or to break up the polymer packing of the active layer in conventional reverse osmosis membranes [57].
High-flux filtering membranes with a hydrophilic nanocomposite surface coating are described by Wang et al. These membranes are made up of a standard nonwoven micro fibrous support layer, an electro spun polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) substrate midlayer, and a dense hydrophilic nanocomposite coating top layer. The addition of MWNTs to the hydrophilic top layer increased water permeability while also boosting mechanical strength and durability. Water permeability was likewise increased by MWNT concentration and oxidation, indicating that the MWNTs promote flow by rupturing polymer chain packing and forming nanoscale voids in the coating layer [58].
The sorptive capacity, antibacterial activity, and thermal stability of carbonaceous nanoparticles are combined with improved flow rates in subsequent composite membrane designs. For the treatment of dissolved estrogenic compounds, poly(2,6-dimethyl-1,4-phenylene oxide) (PPO)-fullerene composite membranes improve the adsorption rate and capacity of the membrane for hydrophobic organics while also enhancing permeate flux through controlled heterogeneity in the polymer chain packing. This might be a low risk and effective strategy to use the special qualities of nanoparticles for water and wastewater treatment, assuming immobilization of the nanomaterials can be proven over the membrane lifetime [59].
Polymer and nanocarbon-based green nanocomposites have been created for many uses in fuel cells, solar cells, nanodevices, chemical sensors, biosensors, aerospace, automotive, etc. [60]. To create the green nanocomposites, a variety of green synthesis techniques have been used. In order to prevent the usage of hazardous organic solvents, the polymerization was completed using green solvents. To outweigh the environmental concerns, green solvents including ionic liquids, supercritical carbon dioxide, and water-based solvents must be created. These solvents could be used as green media because of their low volatility, strong dissolving power, high ionic conductivity, good thermal stability, wide temperature range, etc. [20, 61]. Due of their thermal stability, fatigue resistance, and corrosion resilience, these nanocomposites are typically preferred over metals. Future systems for green nanocomposites aim to further develop multifunctional nanomaterials in this area [62].
9. Challenges
Carbon-based nanocomposites (CNCs) have garnered considerable attention due to their unique properties, offering a myriad of applications across diverse industries. However, as these nanocomposites move toward practical implementation, several challenges need to be addressed to ensure their scalability, safety, integration, and commercial viability. This section of the chapter explores the challenges and future perspectives of carbon-based nanocomposites, encompassing scalability and cost-effectiveness, toxicity and environmental concerns, integration and commercialization prospects, and emerging trends with potential applications.
9.1 Scalability and cost-effectiveness
Achieving scalability in the production of carbon-based nanocomposites remains a significant challenge. Many synthesis methods that showcase promising results at the laboratory scale encounter difficulties when transitioning to large-scale industrial production. Techniques such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD) for graphene and arc-discharge for CNTs (CNTs) face challenges related to maintaining quality, consistency, and cost-effectiveness when produced at scale [63].
Developing scalable processes is crucial for meeting the increasing demand for carbon-based nanocomposites in applications ranging from electronics to energy storage.
The scalability challenge is underscored by the fact that certain high-quality graphene production methods involve resource-intensive approaches, hindering their cost-effectiveness on a larger scale. Innovations in production methods, exploration of alternative precursors, and the development of novel synthesis techniques are ongoing to address scalability challenges and make these nanocomposites economically viable [56].
The cost of production is a critical factor influencing the widespread adoption of carbon-based nanocomposites. The intricate manufacturing processes for high-quality CNTs and graphene often contribute to the high cost of the final products. As industries look to integrate these nanocomposites into various applications, achieving cost-effectiveness without compromising quality becomes imperative. Research efforts are aimed at optimizing production methods, utilizing alternative and more cost-efficient precursors, and exploring innovative synthesis techniques to reduce costs and enhance affordability [64]. Achieving cost-effectiveness in the production of CNCs is pivotal for their integration into commercial applications, including electronics, energy storage, and advanced materials. This requires a gentle balance between maintaining high-quality standards and optimizing manufacturing processes to reduce overall production costs.
9.2 Toxicity and environmental concerns
The potential toxicity of CNCs is a critical consideration, especially in applications involving human exposure. Despite their promising properties, concerns regarding the impact of these nanocomposites on human health persist. Studies have been conducted to evaluate the biocompatibility and potential toxic effects of CNTs and graphene. These studies consider factors such as the size, shape, and surface functionalization of nanocomposites, as these influence their interaction with biological systems [65].
While many studies suggest that certain forms of carbon-based nanocomposites exhibit low toxicity, comprehensive toxicological assessments are essential for establishing safe usage guidelines. Assessing the long-term effects and potential accumulation of carbon nanocomposites in biological tissues is crucial for applications in biomedicine and consumer products.
Environmental concerns surrounding the production and disposal of CNCs are gaining prominence. The potential persistence and bioaccumulation of these nanocomposites raise questions about their impact on ecosystems. Addressing the environmental impact involves exploring eco-friendly synthesis approaches, understanding the biodegradability of these materials, and developing sustainable disposal and recycling methods [60]. As the production and use of CNCs continue to grow, the industry must proactively assess and mitigate their environmental footprint. Sustainable practices, such as recycling and responsible disposal, are crucial for minimizing the potential long-term environmental impact of these materials.
9.3 Integration and regulatory approval for commercialization prospects
The seamless integration of CNCs into existing technologies requires interdisciplinary collaboration involving researchers, engineers, materials scientists, and industry professionals to develop effective integration strategies. Challenges often arise in incorporating these nanocomposites into complex systems while ensuring compatibility with other materials and maintaining the integrity of the final product [66].
Interdisciplinary research and collaborative efforts are crucial for overcoming integration challenges. By fostering communication and collaboration between experts from various fields, researchers can accelerate the development of practical applications for carbon-based nanocomposites.
Commercializing products incorporating carbon-based nanocomposites requires adherence to stringent safety and environmental regulations. Regulatory agencies worldwide are actively working to establish guidelines for the safe use of nanomaterials. Companies investing in the commercialization of carbon-based nanocomposites must navigate these regulations to ensure that their products meet necessary compliance standards [67]. The regulatory landscape for nanocomposites is evolving, and it is essential for industry stakeholders to stay informed about and compliant with emerging regulations. This proactive approach is crucial for gaining regulatory approval and ensuring the market acceptance of products containing carbon-based nanocomposites.
10. Future perspectives
The future perspectives of CNCs hold great promise across various industries, driven by their unique properties and versatility. As research and development continue to advance, several key areas showcase significant potential for the future applications of carbon-based nanocomposites and a few of them have been projected below.
10.1 Advanced materials for electronics
Carbon-based nanocomposites, such as graphene and CNTs, are poised to revolutionize the field of electronics. Their exceptional electrical conductivity, thermal stability, and mechanical strength make them ideal candidates for the development of high-performance electronic components. In the future, we can expect to see the integration of carbon-based nanocomposites in flexible electronics, transparent conductive films, and next-generation semiconductor devices. These materials hold the key to enhancing the efficiency and capabilities of electronic devices while enabling new form factors.
10.2 Lightweight and high-strength materials
CNCs have the potential to redefine material design in terms of lightweight and high-strength characteristics. Incorporating these nanocomposites into structural materials can lead to the development of advanced composites for aerospace, automotive, and construction industries. The lightweight nature of CNTs and graphene, coupled with their exceptional strength, can contribute to the creation of materials that enhance fuel efficiency in transportation and enable the construction of resilient and durable structures.
10.3 Emerging trends in nanoelectronics
As the demand for smaller and more efficient electronic devices continues to grow, carbon-based nanocomposites are expected to play a crucial role in the field of nanoelectronics. The exploration of 2D materials, such as graphene, for nanoscale electronic components holds promise for pushing the limits of device miniaturization. Quantum dots and other carbon-based nanostructures may contribute to the development of advanced nanoscale transistors and quantum computing devices.
10.4 Green and sustainable technologies
The eco-friendly nature of CNCs positions them as key players in the development of green and sustainable technologies. Their potential applications in renewable energy, environmental remediation, and energy-efficient electronics contribute to a more sustainable future. The recyclability and biodegradability of certain carbon-based nanocomposites further enhance their appeal in addressing environmental concerns.
The primary determinant of the sorption behavior of nanocomposite is the interaction between hazardous chemicals and nanoparticles, both chemically and physically. There is a claim that nanocarbons are very effective at eliminating different types of pollutants from both air and water. Eco-friendly polymer and nanocarbon compounds have received attention in this respect [68]. Heavy metal ions, dioxin, chlorobenzene compounds, aromatics, and other harmful contaminants can be found in wastewater originating from industrial, agricultural, or residential sources. Toxins can lead to increasing poisoning, cancer, problems with the neurological system, and other dangerous risks to human health. The sorption behavior of nanomaterials determines how these pollutants are removed. High adsorption capability of CNTs is demonstrated toward harmful chemicals.
11. Conclusion
Carbon-based nanocomposites (CNCs) have emerged as materials with remarkable properties, finding diverse applications across scientific and technological domains. This comprehensive review explored the synthesis methods of CNCs, including chemical vapor deposition, sol-gel synthesis, and self-assembly, emphasizing the importance of precise control over composition, structure, and morphology to tailor their properties.
The multifunctionality of CNCs is examined across five key areas. In energy storage systems, such as supercapacitors and lithium-ion batteries, CNCs play a crucial role in enhancing charge storage capacity and cycling stability. In sensing technologies, CNCs exhibit exceptional sensitivity, contributing to improved detection of analytes in chemical and biosensing applications, thereby advancing medical diagnostics and environmental monitoring. As catalyst support materials, CNCs prove valuable in enhancing efficiency across various catalytic reactions. In nanomedicine, CNCs demonstrate biocompatibility and unique optical properties, making them ideal candidates for drug delivery and imaging. Additionally, CNCs exhibit significant potential in environmental applications, including water treatment, air purification, and pollutant remediation, offering sustainable solutions to contemporary challenges. The potential applications of CNCs in addressing environmental challenges align with the growing emphasis on sustainable and green technologies.
The review incorporated critical insights from recent advancements and research studies to address challenges and outline future directions in the field. In conclusion, this comprehensive review underscores the transformative impact of CNCs on energy storage, sensing technologies, catalysis, nanomedicine, and environmental remediation. This marks a significant step in addressing contemporary challenges and shaping the trajectory of future technology. Their potential continues to unfold as CNC research progresses, offering tailored solutions to address evolving scientific and technological demands. Thus, it is obvious that the future perspectives of carbon-based nanocomposites are exceptionally promising, with ongoing research and development efforts poised to unlock their full potential across a wide range of industries. From electronics to energy, healthcare to the environment, these nanocomposites are set to revolutionize technology and contribute to the development of innovative solutions for the challenges of the future.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank the management of Madurai Kamaraj University, Madurai, for the encouragement to carry out this fundamental review work at DDE. Also, the authors sincerely thank the reviewers for the positive critical evaluation and suggestions on the manuscript.
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