Open Access is an initiative that aims to make scientific research freely available to all. To date our community has made over 100 million downloads. It’s based on principles of collaboration, unobstructed discovery, and, most importantly, scientific progression. As PhD students, we found it difficult to access the research we needed, so we decided to create a new Open Access publisher that levels the playing field for scientists across the world. How? By making research easy to access, and puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
We are a community of more than 103,000 authors and editors from 3,291 institutions spanning 160 countries, including Nobel Prize winners and some of the world’s most-cited researchers. Publishing on IntechOpen allows authors to earn citations and find new collaborators, meaning more people see your work not only from your own field of study, but from other related fields too.
Organic biodegradable waste contributes to environmental pollution in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Pyrolysis, composting and mycorrhization are technologies used to recover this waste into biofertilizers and biopesticides, alternative to chemical fertilizers and pesticides that have significant economic and ecological footprints. Biological waste recovered in this way is climatic game and agricultural potential. Biochar Kahambwe with high carbon content (46.5%), proves to be a carbon sink and a considerable pedogenetic factor. Biochar Kahambwe, due to its alkaline pH (8.6), acts as a limestone amendment for the acidity of tropical soils. Biochar Kahambwe with a high cation exchange capacity (46.3%) is a source of nutrients including nitrogen (3.8%), phosphorus (0.59%), and potassium (0.20%) as well as the water stored in its pores (Water Binding Capacity: θv = 0.035 cm3.cm-1; pF = 1.25) which also serve as ecological niches for bacteria (Azotobacter, Nitrobacter, Nitrosomonas), Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (Glomus, Gigaspora). In the process of composting and mycorrhization of biochar, the respective values of the Stability Indices of Organic Materials are 45%, 60%, 60%, and 80%, respectively, for manure composts, pig manure, household waste composts, and sawdust composts.
Faculty of Sciences, University of Kisangani, Kisangani, Democratic Republic of Congo
*Address all correspondence to: moangoadrien@gmail.com
1. Introduction
One of the 26 provinces of DRC, Tshopo has edaphic constraints related to the properties: (i) physical: particulate structure, sandy texture, low water retention capacity, colloids with variable charges, etc.; (ii) chemical: acid pH, low cation exchange capacity, abundance of iron and aluminum sesquioxides, aluminum and manganic toxicities [1]; (iii) biological: low microbial activity due to poor microbial biodiversity. The severity of the climate in a drained environment causes the leaching of bivalent elements coupled with the abundance of poorly soluble aluminum and iron sesquioxides, responsible for the acidity and aluminum toxicity of the soil with considerable negative training effects such as the retrogradation of phosphorus. The Ferralsols thus formed are characterized by low organic matter content. The evolution of organic matter into humified colloidal form is an important pedogenetic process that affects the formation of the lumpy structure and the development of horizons.
However, in humid tropical Africa, this development is hampered by climate deregulation (excessive humidity and high temperature), the clearing and incineration of large forest areas, unsuitable cultivation techniques (monoculture), etc.
The evaluation of the mineralization and stabilization of organic materials involves the use of Stability Indices of Organic Materials (SIOM).
Removing these constraints involves pyrolysis, composting, and mycorrhization for environmental sanitation on the one hand and on the other hand for the production from biological waste of biopesticides and biofertilizers. These are formulated with charcoal, obtained by pyrolysis of Bambusa vulgaris Schard ex J.C.Wendel., 1810, Poaceae planted by cuttings in hedges at spacings of 1.20 m x 1.20 m.
After grinding and sieving with 2 mm soil grids, the powder obtained undergoes chemical activation to free the pores clogged with tar. The co-composted and mycorrhizal biochar thus obtained is called Biochar Kahambwe. Highly condensed aromatic structures give biochar recalcitrance [2] to mineralization and a residence time in the soil on the order of hundreds or even thousands of years [3, 4]. The thermochemical conversion of woody waste into biochar facilitates the rearrangement of organic matter, leads to a porous structure [5], raises the pH [6, 7, 8] of the input, and makes it a calcium amendment. The composting, followed by the mycorrhization of the biochar constitutes a source of nutrients, in particular the major elements such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium [9]. The micropores of biochar constitute the privileged habitats of microorganisms, powerful fertilizing agents. The resilience of co-composted and mycorrhizal biochar, Biochar Marie Kahambwe, to thermal and water stress [10] is a key factor for the transition from climate change to changing agricultural practices [11], the basis of climate-smart agriculture and the circular economy, another issue of waste production [12].
Our study aims to (i) deploy sanitation technologies for a healthy environment in the Tshopo Province in DRC; (ii) use Stability Indices of Organic Materials (SIOM) to evaluate mineralization and stabilization of organic materials; (iii) use pyrolysis, composting, and mycorrhization techniques to recover biological waste into biofertilizers and biopesticides in climate-smart agriculture. The results of the study show that (i) the sanitation [13] of the environment by recovering biological waste; (ii) the Biochar Kahambwe contains an evident potential of humus and fertilizing power in climate-smart agriculture [14].
Tshopo Province is located in the northeastern region of the Congolese central basin in the forest region with a climate of the Af type of the Köppen classification, with an annual rainfall amount varying between 1600 and 1800 mm.
Figure 1 shows that the wet periods favorable to crops cover practically 9.5 over 12 months per year for a really dry period of about 1 month. The average temperature varies between 24 and 25°C. The average air humidity is quite high (85%). The monthly relative insolation averages are generally between 30 and 55% [15]. The soils of the Tshopo Province are generally acid-ferralitic soils [16, 17].
Figure 1.
Variation of favorable dry and wet periods during the year.
Pyrolysis, composting, and mycorrhization are technologies to be promoted to recover biological waste into biofertilizers and biopesticides with considerable effects and aftereffects for the implementation of sustainable agricultural systems and environmental sanitation.
3.1 Pyrolysis
Biochar is a carbon-rich co-product resulting from the pyrolysis of biomass under high temperature and low oxygen conditions in suitable devices like cylindrical horizontal drum kilns (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Map in French of Tshopo Province in the humid forest region (DRC).
After carrying out the moderate pyrolysis of the common bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris) with a yield of 8%, the charcoal obtained was crushed and sieved on a soil grid 2 mm in diameter. Histotaxonomic research shows that Bambusa vulgaris presents a very large number of libero-ligneous bundles, accompanied by fibro-vascular bundles and independent fibrous bundles dispersed in the parenchyma [18].
Figure 3 illustrates (i) the production of biochar by pyrolysis of fresh bamboo at 500°C. The biochar thus obtained with an alkaline pH after thermochemical conversion can be used as a low-cost limestone amendment for acidic soils prevalent in the Province. From the Tshopo; (ii) after grinding, the biomass was sieved with the 2 mm diameter soil grid to give the biochar powder a particle size equivalent to that of fine earth; (iii) the chemical activation of the biochar to release the pores obtruded by the tar using sodium hypochlorite, NaClO which simultaneously plays the role of oxidant, disinfectant, and dispersant by the sodium ion.
Figure 3.
Pyrolysis, crushing, sieving, and chemical activation of Bambusa vulgaris biochar.
Figure 4 shows the imbibition of must with NaClO for 24 hours. After drying in an oven at 800°C, the biomass is washed with tap water (Figure 5) to dissolve the NaClO salt. The biochar thus washed, is dried in an oven at 800°C then in the open air (Figure 6).
Figure 4.
Soaking the must to saturation.
Figure 5.
Washing with tap water.
Figure 6.
Drying in the open air.
The determination of the matrix potential was carried out using a tensiometer with a mercury manometer.
3.2 Composting
The composition of the 2 m x 2 m x 2 m or 5 m x 1.5 m x 1 m Andean composter was made by superimposing the floors of ligneous compounds (wood chips, biochar, etc.) at a rate of 20% and water-soluble substances (animal excrement, crop residues, household waste, cassava retting water, etc.) at a rate of 80%. The ratio between the different inputs is Biochar/Household waste/Chicken droppings/Pig manure/Sawdust: 1/8/4/4/3. The stirring and the turning of the biomass were carried out every 2 weeks. At maturity (12 months), the composted biochar was analyzed. This involved determining the humification rate of organic matter by using [19] the Stability Index of Organic Matter (SIOM for manure composts, household waste composts, pig manure, and sawdust composts).
3.3 Compost tea
The process of making compost tea takes place in two phases: extraction and multiplication. From a high-quality compost, we first seek to extract the beneficial microorganisms, bacteria, and fungi as well as other types of organisms, which we will then multiply for 24 hours in water in the presence of oxygen. Compost tea is a fermented liquid used simultaneously as a biofertilizer and biopesticide.
3.4 Mycorrhization
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi through their hyphae allow greater mobilization of nutrients, in particular assimilable phosphorus. During the maturation phase under the action of fungi, a sorghum carpet will be installed to inoculate the endomycorrhizae [20]. At flowering, the sorghum plants will be stressed [21] by cutting in order to promote sporulation, and the coppiced plants will be spread on the composter in order to restore the exported elements. The characterization of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi requires:
(i) Inventory viable spores and highlight arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi colonizing sorghum roots [22]; (ii) perform morphological and molecular characterization [23, 24, 25]; (iii) carry out propagation in situ or ex situ.
The benefits of mycorrhizae are multiple: (i) the widening of the nutrient base (absorption of several minerals and water), whereas for Rhizobium, it is essentially a question of symbiotic nitrogen fixation; (ii) the solubilization of phosphorus (generally unavailable in acid soils, blocked by aluminum and iron oxides); (iii) longevity and increase in root volume; (iv) accommodation in the mycorrhizosphere of a symbiotic and free bacterial microflora fixing atmospheric nitrogen; and (v) natural biological control of crop pests embedded in the hyphae of arbuscular mycorrhizae.
Applied to the soil as is, the biochar causes the nitrogen shock. Hence, there is a need for a co-substrate in the form of composted materials or endomycorrhizae, of which sorghum is the preferred host (Figures 7 and 8). The composted and mycorrhizal biochar is named Kahambwe Biochar and is pending labeling.
Figure 7.
Sorghum plants at 4 weeks.
Figure 8.
Sorghum plants at 6 weeks.
3.5 Mycorrhizal analysis
After flowering, soil and sorghum root samples were taken for microscopic examination. Microscopic observation of the live spores contained in the composite soil samples was carried out after conditioning in the following manner: (i) weigh 100 g of soil into the first beaker, mix and let stand for at most 50 seconds and then filter with the 1 mm sieve into the second beaker; (ii) collect the liquid and filter for the second time with a 63 μm sieve; (iii) collect the waste and place it in a test tube for centrifugation; (iv) centrifuge for 10 minutes, and recover the pellet then mix with sucrose (30% sugar solution) depending on the quantity of pellet; (v) centrifuge again for 10 minutes; (vi) filter with a 63 μm sieve and retain the pellet, wash it, and place it in a petri dish for observation under an inverted objective microscope.
The sorghum roots, carefully extracted using a suitable auger, were packaged as follows: carefully wash the roots and take the youngest (thin); (a) place the washed roots in a test tube with 10% potash and heat in a water bath at 90°C before 15 minutes, or leave them overnight in potassium hydroxide (KOH) (the solution then becomes red-brown); (b) filter through a sieve, rinse with water and then acidify with 1% HCl to neutralize the KOH; (c) add the blue ink and return to the water bath at 90°C for 10 or 15 minutes; (d) filter again through a sieve and rinse with distilled water or tap water; (e) put in the bottles and add 5 ml of vinegar for 12 hours for discoloration; (f) wash with tap water; (g) place the sample in the petri dish. The blue ink colors the mycorrhiza fungus (Figure 9), which is present throughout the cortical parenchyma without ever entering the central cylinder. Arbuscules can be seen inside certain root cells and vesicles between the cells.
Figure 9.
Demonstration of Arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi colonizing the roots of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor).
Tables 1–3 reveal the physicochemical characteristics, microbiological, and diversity of Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi of Composted and Mycorrhizal biochar as an amendment, biofertilizer, useful water reserve for pedogenesis and off-season crops.
Parameters
Value
pH
8.6
C (%)
46,5
N(%)
3,8
C/N
12,2
P(%)
0,59
K (%)
0,20
CEC (%)
46,3
SIOM MC (%)
45.0
SIOM PM (%)
60.0
SIOM HW (%)
60.0
SIOM SC (%)
80.0
θv (cm3.cm−3)
0.035
pF
1,25
Table 1.
Physicochemical characteristics of composted and Mycorrhizal biochar.
Treatment
Bacteria
Features
T0
Nitrobacter
Gram ⊝ pointed or rounded bacillus
T1
Azotobacter, Nitrosomonas
Gram ⊝ pointed or rounded bacillus
T2
Azotobacter, Nitrosomonas
Gram ⊕ et Gram ⊝ pointed or rounded bacillus
T3
Azotobacter, Nitrosomonas
Gram ⊕ et Gram ⊝ pointed or rounded bacillus
Table 2.
Microbiological characterization of composted and Mycorrhizal biochar.
Number of viable spores
Morphology
Color
Species
77
Rounded
Greenish
Gigaspora calospora
102
Rounded with flagellum
Yellowish
Glomus moseae
80
Arrondie with tip
Dark Yellow
Glomus intraradices
86
Arrondie in germination
Yellowish
Piriformospora Indica
43
Elongated
Yellowish Black
Glomus viscosa
56
Elongated with flagellum
Yellowish
Glomus pubescens
Table 3.
Characterization of the diversity of Arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi per 100 g of substrate.
The relatively lower matrix potential under compost tea-enriched biochar would be explained by the retention of water in the enlarged pores of this substrate.
A biodiversity of 444 viable spores was inventoried in 100 g of co-composted and mycorrhizal biochar (Figures 10–12) and demonstrated in the colonization of sorghum roots (Figure 9).
Figure 10.
Glomus black yellow viable spores in soil.
Figure 11.
Green gigaspores in soil.
Figure 12.
Glomus yellow viable spores in soil.
Table 2 gives the morphological (shape) and physiological (Gram staining) characteristics of the isolated bacteria.
5.1 Characterization of co—composted and mycorrhizal biochar
Unlike [26], who measured the average water contents at saturation, at pF 2 and at pF 4.2 with volumetric water contents varying from 0.503 to 0.009 m3/m3, we measured in sandy soil water contents at field capacity at pF from 1.26 to 1.30 with voluminal humidities varying from 0.022 to 0.35 cm3.cm−3. In their study on silty soil under cultivation, [27] measured a water content at average saturation varying between 0.517 and 0.486 m3/m−3 at pF 2.
The application of composted biochar increased the pH of our substrate to 8.6 compared to 7.5 [28], an effect particularly useful for improving highly weathered and often acidic tropical soils. The increase in maize yields in tropical soils in Colombia was explained by a pH effect [29] inducing a higher cation exchange capacity (46.3%).
The relatively high carbon content (46.5%) is explained by their resistance to very intense degradation processes in tropical environments that lead to the rapid mineralization of other organic matter. Due to its intrinsic chemical recalcitrance and its interactions with soil particles, biochar has a residence time in the soil of hundreds or even thousands of years [30].
To avoid nitrogen shock, the application of a co-substrate is necessary to provide plants with a complementary source of nitrogen (3.8%), phosphorus (0.59%) and potassium (0.20%). The combination of compost with biochar could be beneficial for soil fertility [31].
Biochars have a high cation adsorption capacity per unit of carbon compared to other types of soil organic matter [32]. The authors [33] showed that the presence of biochar could increase the fertility of certain soils by increasing their exchange capacity, nutrient retention, and availability. This is probably due to their larger specific surface area, greater negative charge, and higher charge density [31]. Unlike other types of Soil Organic Matter (MOS), carbons can adsorb phosphate despite its anionic form [32]. The high values of the Organic Matter Stability Indices reveal the evolution of raw organic matter into humified organic matter.
All these properties make biochars unique substances, which retain exchangeable nutrients in the soil and can reduce the environmental pollution generated by trapping air thanks to its micropores, contributing to the sequestration of carbon [13], thus promoting humification [19]. This is particularly important in tropical regions where soils are often degraded and have poor exchange properties.
In our test, the genera Glomus, Gigaspora, and Piriformospora represented, respectively, 63%, 17%, and 19% of 444 viable spores of the mycorrhizal biomass of our substrate. These results are consistent with those found by [34] for the genus Gigaspora (17%). The authors [35] found during an inventory in the Kisangani region of viable spores of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi that the genus Piriformosaspora represented 19% of the total mycorrhizal biomass.
5.2 Characterization of co-composted and mycorrhizal biochar
Our study showed that the soils at the bottom of the composter numerically resulted in a greater mycorrhizal biomass. This means that the foot of the composter promotes strong activity of telluric microorganisms in general and mycorrhizae in particular due to a strong accumulation of organic matter (Figure 13) [36].
Figure 13.
Modeling of aerobic microbiological reactions during composting [36].
5.3 Characterization of compost tea
Demonstration of Bacillus thuringiensis, Gram-positive bacillus in compost tea spread on maize attacked by the armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda), is a means of combating this pest and can serve as a biopesticide.
Composted and mycorrhizal biochar reveals itself as a bioamendment (pH 8,6) and a biofertilizer (SIOM: 45.0%; SIOM PM: 60.0%; SIOM HW: 60.0%; SIOM SC: 80.0%) rich in Bacteria and Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi (444 viable spores).
Volumetric water content (0.035 cm.cm−3) and matrix potential soil water (− 10 KPa), thus contributing to resilience in the context of climate change.
Biochar (Hard) Kahambwe, a real computer tool, Edge-cutting Soil Technologies, at the frontiers of the climate challenge (carbon sink) and agricultural potential (pedogenesis, biopesticide, source of nutrients, water reserve, circular economy, transition from slash-and-burn agriculture to agriculture climate-smart, etc.) with lasting effects on the order of hundreds or even thousands of years.
I thank my wife and my students for the accompaniment.
References
1.Quintal EB, Magana CE, Machado IE, Estévez MM. Aluminium, a friend or foe of higher plants in acid soils. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2017;8:1767
2.Quenea K, Derenne SRC, Rouzaud JN, Gustafsson O, Carcaillet C, Mariotti A, et al. Black carbon quantification in forest and cultivated sandy soils (Landes de Gascogne, France). Influence of change in land-use. Organic Geochemistry. 2006;37:1185-1189
3.Verheijen F, Jeffery S, Bastos AC, van der Velde M, Diafas I. Biochar Application to Soils: A Critical Scientific Review of Effects on Soil Properties, Processes and Functions. Vol. 24099. Publications.jrc.ec.europa.eu; 2010. p. 162
4.Shackley S, Ruysschaert G, Zwart K, Glaser B. Biochar in European soils and agriculture. In: Science and Practice. 1st ed. Routledge; 2020. p. 324. ISBN: 9780367606046
5.Lehmann J, Joseph S. Biochar for environmental management: An introduction. In: Lehmann J, Joseph S, editors. Biochar for Environmental Management. Earthscan: London; 2009. pp. 1-12
6.Chang KY, Xu. Biochar: Nutrient properties and their enhancement. In: Lehmann J, Joseph S, editors. Biochar for environmental management. London: Earthscan; 2009. pp. 67-84
7.Yuan JH, Xu RK. The Amelioration Effects of Low Temperature Biochar Generated from Nine Crop Residues on an Acidic Ultisol. Soil Use and Management. British Society of Soil Science. 2010;27(1):110-115. DOI: 10.1111/j.1475-2743.2010.00317.x
8.Atkinson CJ, Fitzgerald JD, Hipps NA. Potential mechanisms for achieving agricultural benefits from biochar application to temperate soils: A review. Plant and Soil. 2010
9.Aubertin ML. Biochar-Compost Mixtures: Interactions and Impact on Carbon Sequestration and Soil Fertility. Thèse de doctorat en Sciences du sol et de l’environnement Sorbonne Université; 2022. 178 p. Available from: http://www.theses.fr>2022 SORUS 173
10.Sohi S, Lopez Capel E, Krull E, Bol R. Biochar’s Roles in Soil and Climate Change: A Review of Research Needs. CSIRO Land and water Science Report; 2009. 64 p. Available from: https:/www.scirp.org>
11.Van Klink I, Ferroudji AR, Venkatasu Bramanian G, Aubriot O, Prabhakar I. Du changement climatique au changement des pratiques agricoles: une démarche prospective dans un village indien. Dans Sciences eaux et territoire. 2017;22:56-61
12.Cristofoni O. Économie circulaire et gestion des déchets ménagers: quelle dynamique de champ portée par les collectivités locales? Dans Gestion et Management public. 2023;11(3):9-35
13.Beesley L, Moreno-Jiménez E, Gomez-Eyles JL. Effects of biochar and greenwaste compost amendments on mobility, bioavailability and toxicity of inorganic and organic contaminants in a multi-element polluted soil. Environmental Pollution. 2010;158:2282-2287
14.Moango Manga A, Kolongo Etiabilea J, Yandju Dembo MC, Mavinga Blaise M, Kasaka Dingbo L, Monzongo Linzembe A, et al. Characterization of biochar enriched with compost tea, its effects and after-effects in continuous cultivation of maize (Zea mays L.) on a ferralsol of Lubuya Bera, Tshopo Province in the Democratic Republic of Congo. International Journal of Scientific Research Updates. 2023;05(01):079-092. DOI: 10.53430/ijsru.2023.5.1.0003
15.Van Wembeke A, Libens R. Carte des sols et de la végétation du Congo-Belge et Rwanda-Urundi. Bruxelles: INEAC; 1957. p. 932
16.Verbeek T. Géologie et lithologie du Lindien (précambrien supérieur du Nord de la République Démocratique du Congo). Annales de la Musée Royale de l’Afrique Centrale. Science Géologique. 1970;66:115-132
17.FAO-UNESCO. Revised Legend, Soil Map of the World. World Soil Resources Report n° 60. Rome: FAO; 1988. p. 119
18.Auquier P, Somers Y. Recherches histotaxonomiques sur le chaume des Poaceae. Bulletin de la Société Royale de Botanique. 1967;T100(Fasc 1):95-140
19.Faye A, Sall SN, Faye CT. Caractérisation biochimique et potentiel de fertilisation des composants innovants produits par les petits de la vallée du Fleuve Sénégal. Journal of Applied Bioscience. 2023;182
20.Brundrett M, Bougler N, Dell B, Grove T, Malajczuk N. Working with Mycorrhizas in Forestry and Agriculture. Canberra, Australia: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research; 1996. p. 344
21.San de Prager M, Hernando Posada R, Velasquez Pomar D, Narvaez Castillo M. Metodologías básicas para el trabajo con Micorriza Arbuscular y Hongos formadores de Micorriza Arbuscular. Universidad Nacional de Colombia Sede Palmira; 2010. 140 p
22.Plenchette C, Perrin R, Duvert P. The concept of soil infectivity and a method for its determination as applied to endomycorrhizas. Canadian Journal of Botany. 1989;67:112-115
23.Oehl F, Sieverding E, Ineichen K, Mäder P, Boller T, Wiemken A. Impact of land use intensity on the species diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in agroecosystems of Central Europe. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 2003;69:2816-2824
24.Oehl F, Laczko E, Bogenrieder A, Stahr K, Bösch R, van der Heijden MGA, et al. Soil type and land use intensity determine the composition of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal communities. Soil Biology & Biochemistry. 2010a;42:724-738
25.Walker C. Taxonomic concepts in the Endogonaceae. I. Spore wall characteristics in species descriptions. Mycotaxon. 1983;18:443-455
26.Zanutel M. Impact à long terme du biochar sur les propriétés physiques et hydrodynamiques du sol ainsi que sur les flux et stocks d'eau en milieu tempéré. Thèse de Doctorat. Faculté des bioingénieurs, Université catholique de Louvain. 2019. Available from: https://dial.uclouvain.be>ucl>object>thesis : 19439
27.Kerré B, Willaert B, Cornelis Y, Smolders E. Long-term presence of charcoal increases maize yield in Belgium due to increased soil water availability. European Journal of Agronomy. 2017;91:10-15
28.Mujtaba G, Hayat R, Hussain Q , Ahmed M. Physio-chemical characterization of biochar, compost and Co-composted biochar derived from green waste. Sustainability. 2021;13:4628
29.Major J, Rondon M, Molina D, Riha SJ, Lehmann J. Maize yield and nutrition during 4 years after biochar application to a Colombian savanna oxisol. Plant and Soil. 2010;333:117-128
30.Burnette R. Production de charbon de bois dans des fours à tambours horizontaux de 200 litres. North Fort Myers, Florida 33917, USA | 239.543.3246 | ECHOcommunity.org: Note Technique; 2013
31.Liang B, Lehmann J, Solomon D. Black carbon increases cation exchange capacity in soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 2006;70:1719-1730
32.Glaser B, Lehmann J, Zech W. Ameliorating physical and chemical properties of highly weathered soils in the tropics with bio-char–a review. Biology and Fertility of Soils. 2002;35:219-230
33.Lehmann J. A handful of carbon. Nature. 2007a;447:143-144
34.Tshibangu K. Arbuscular Mycorrhizae Diversity, Inoculation of Maize (Zea mays L.) and Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in Lubumbashi Region (Upper-Katanga/D.R.Congo) . [Doctoral Thesis] 2020. 131 p
35.Venneman J, Audenaert K, Verwaeren J, Baert G, Boeckx P, Moango A, et al. Congolese rhizospheric soils as a rich source of new plant growth-promoting endophytic Piriformospora isolates. Frontiers in Microbiology, Section Fungi and Their Interactions. 2017:16
36.Mustin M. In: Dubusc F, editor. Le Compost, gestion de la matière organique. 1987. 954 p
Written By
Adrien Moango
Reviewed: 15 February 2024Published: 20 March 2024
Open access peer-reviewed chapter - ONLINE FIRST
