Sustainability of Sheep Farming in Eastern Mediterranean Region

Abstract

Sheep farming in this region holds economic, social, and environmental significance, contributing to livelihoods and food production for the local population. The sustainability of sheep production in the region faces threats from various factors, including climate, nutrition, health, and breeding systems. Efforts have been undertaken in recent years to develop improved feeding and management practices, as well as to ensure the welfare of ruminants. Adapting to changing climatic conditions has been recognized as a priority to ensure the continuity of small ruminant production in the region. However, the sheep farming sector has faced challenges from both the global pandemic and the food crisis in recent years. These external factors have posed additional hurdles for sustainable and profitable sheep production. This chapter aims to identify socio-economic and environmental sustainability issues in sheep production in the Eastern Mediterranean region. It emphasizes the need to address these issues for the future sustainability and profitability of sheep farming. This may involve implementing resilient and adaptive strategies to cope with changing climate conditions, improving resource management, and finding solutions to the challenges posed by external crises.

1. Introduction

In a report published by the United Nations in 1989, environmental problems arising as a result of the overuse of natural resources raised global awareness about environmental problems in our common future and resulted in the emergence of the concept of ‘sustainability’ [1]. The concept of sustainability generally refers to the capacity of a system to sustain itself and a state that must be maintained at a certain level. With regard to the former, in the context of agriculture, it is often a state in which the level of agricultural production is maintained within the carrying capacity of the ecosystem [2].

Over the past few decades, climate change has had detrimental impacts on physical and biological systems across various continents. According to global agricultural production has been declining at a rate of 1–5% per decade because of season variation [3]. Worldwide agriculture will also be negative touched by the variations. This is particularly true in very hot or warm areas. The areas which have big agriculture economy, for example Turkey, agriculture is expected to suffer disproportionately. Agricultural systems, particularly food production are already undefended to quick and unclear temperature and precipitation alterations. Generally, it is predicted that environmental problems caused by climate change will worsen the trend in the coming years, causing some problems especially in food [4]. In addition to food security, migration waves and disruptions in agroecosystem services due to changing climatic conditions, there are controversial views on the sustainability of animal protein production [5]. Compared to other domestic ruminants, livestock are important in resource-poor rural communities because of their special characteristics. These include the ability to graze and exploit a wide range of low quality forage and browse, the efficient use of marginal land, carcasses that can be conveniently marketed or eaten in a short time, and a herding instinct that enables younger and older members of the family to herd [6].

Dairy production in most developing countries depends on smallholder farmers. At the same time this provides to protecting population life, encouraging food sovereignty and keeping food safety [6]. In respect of livestock methods in the Mediterranean region are still far from achieving a reasonable level of continuity in terms of ruminant welfare, environmental effect, product standard and utility Ronchi and Nardone [7]. Feed availability was determined as one of the main constraints for Mediterranean animal systems. This was due to the poor economic conditions in those days, so small farmers had to resort to producing milk and selling it in the local market, or sending it to the town with another person in order to make a little money and to barter this milk for other foodstuffs. Bartering cheese for hay became popular. Farmers also appeared to graze their livestock daily with village herds, supervised by shepherds [8].

Many sectors of production, particularly livestock farming, have traditionally been the subject of trade across the Mediterranean. This is due to the importance of grazing, the production of light and young carcasses the widespread use of labeling and regional production and the dominance of small ruminants over larger ones de Rancourt and Mottet [9]. Furthermore, sheep and goats are essential to Mediterranean agriculture. Due to their capacity to use radical land and the little labor and capital necessary for advance process. It is the only main activity capable of preventing land from becoming abandoned in areas that are challenging and have deteriorated conditions or those suffering from adverse weather conditions [10].

2. Methods

In this chapter, sheep farming in the Mediterranean region will be discussed from socio-economic and environmental aspects. Therefore, the possibilities of sustainability of game breeding in the regional conditions will be discussed. In the chapters, firstly the importance of sheep breeding in the region, its structure and then the effect of changing environmental conditions will be revealed. The Mediterranean region, also known as the Mediterranean Sea, is the land area located at the intersection of Eurasia and Africa. The Basin encompasses a vast region extending from the tip of Portugal to the shores of Lebanon, spanning approximately 3800 km from east to west and covering about 1000 km from north to south, reaching from Italy to Morocco and Libya [11]. Broadly speaking, the region features; warm, dump seasons and wet, cold seasons. Still, it is in famous unpredictable, with rapid severe heavy rains and storms (e.g. sirocco, mistral) appearing at different seasons of 12 months. The weather circumstances have a deep effect on these flora or fauna of the area [12]. The Mediterranean continent has a diverse landscape, including high mountains, rocky coastlines, scrubland, wetlands, semi-arid steppes and numerous islands surrounded by clear blue seas. Human development and its impact on the ecosystem have lasted at least 8000 years, longer than in any other hotspot, in an area once covered by dense Mediterranean forest. Deforestation, habitat degradation, intensive pastoralism, fires and infrastructural development, particularly along the coast, have significantly altered the landscape. These disturbances have resulted in agricultural land, evergreen forests and scrubland habitats dominating the basin for several thousand years [11].

3. Results and discussion

3.1 Socio-economic importance of sheep production

The livestock sector is a significant contributor to the North African economy. Ovine, caprine and bovine animals represent 25–80% of agricultural production in terms of value, at the same time very important for generating and maintaining livelihoods, food security in Mediterranean countries, with a particular focus on upland and marginal areas [13]. The regions of West Asia, North Africa, and Southern Europe derive significant economic, social, and environmental value from it [14]. Sheep farming is often the only sustainable option in disadvantaged areas. It is crucial for maintaining social activities and safeguarding vegetation from fire [15]. Livestock supply milk, meat, wool, leather and dung to its keepers. These animals can also be used as a source of income and for transport purposes [16]. Sheep contribute substantially to the subsistence, self-employment for the rural community [17]. Sheep meat and dairy products are important sources of animal protein for rural families in the Mediterranean region of Turkey [18].

3.2 Sheep production in Mediterranean agro-ecosystem

Sheep farming exerts a significant impact on the world’s water, land, and biodiversity resources, while also playing a substantial role in climate change. These animals are a major source of terrestrial pollution, releasing nutrients, organic matter, pathogens, and pharmaceutical products into waterways. The emissions of greenhouse gases from sheep and their by-products contribute to climate change, as do the alterations in land use required for grazing and feeding. Additionally, sheep farming leads to pollution of surface and groundwater, heightened salinization, erosion, and considerable transformations in our countryside, particularly evident in the Mediterranean where some regions have been classified as deserts [10]. Furthermore, the increasing demands of agriculture and other human activities are placing growing constraints on water supply, with agriculture alone accounting for 70% of total freshwater usage [19].

Sheep production systems are primarily distinguished by the way small ruminants are reared, including the feed resources used and flock movements throughout the year. These systems hold significant economic, cultural and importance of ambiance in the Mediterranean. It is crucial to maintain a balanced and objective perspective when discussing these systems. Sedentary, transhumant and nomadic farming systems are categorized in the Mediterranean [20].

3.2.1 Transhumant & nomadic systems

In past times, transhumant production systems held sway (see Figure 1). During the summer and fall, herds would relocate to cultivated areas to feed on crop remnants and irrigation byproducts. Nevertheless, transhumance has gradually waned in recent decades, and there has been a shift towards an increased reliance on plateau sheep populations. Nomads, who are pastoralists, traditionally migrate from lowland wintering areas to higher-altitude summer grazing locations [21]. Point out, this represents the most prevalent production system for small ruminants in arid regions. These systems are recognized for their restricted productivity and the substantial grazing pressures exerted in arid areas [22].

Figure 1.

Transhumant sheep flock in Taurus Mountains.

Pastoral sheep flocks are typically poor growers from the direction of milk and little ones. They are, however, well adapted to the local weathers and are almost tolerant to the illnesses that affect the region [16].

3.2.2 Semi-sedentary system

Under this system, herds are kept on arable land during the winter. February is the month of the year when they have to leave the arable land to graze on the steppe to avoid damaging the crops. After the harvest, the animals are taken back to the improved regions to feed on the stubble left behind. By late hot season, the herds are back in the regions.

3.2.3 Sedentary system

The dominant sheep farming system is the sedentary flock system, where the flock is maintained in or around the regions year round (Figure 2). During some days, the sheep graze either on common village pastures or on private or rented pastures. The animals have access to uncultivated and wasteland areas. At night, they seek shelter in farm [23]. Semi-natural grazing regimes are present in several regions. Furthermore, the animals are hand-fed throughout the year [4, 24].

Figure 2.

Sedentary sheep flock.

3.2.4 Oasis system

The Oasis system facilitates the enhanced rearing of sheep by providing sufficient fodder and by-products for livestock feed, as highlighted by Djemali and Bedhiaf [25].

3.2.5 Peri-urban system

In peri-urban areas, it is usual for several hundred lambs to be kept in one yard or barn for fattening of which, their diet usually comprises barley [9].

4. Animal breeding problems in Mediterranean area

According to the estimated population of sheep in the Mediterranean is 152.069.381, which accounts for 12.97% of the global population [26]. Ovine farming systems show diversity in production methods, more than 200 breeds, intensification and suit different conditions. However, the region has not achieved self-sufficiency in livestock products due to several factors, including climatic conditions, fodder shortages, lack of drinking water, poor husbandry practices, inadequate animal health control, poor interaction between stakeholders, poor pastoral organization, unfavorable policies and legislation [17].

4.1 Climate change and sheep farming interactions

Ensuring the preservation of environmental quality is crucial for the sustainability of agricultural production systems. The issue of climate change, often referred to as the greenhouse effect or global warming, is highly pertinent and can be influenced by human interventions in the carbon and nitrogen cycles of agro-ecosystems. This interference may impact natural cycles of plant and animal reproduction, bird migrations, and even lead to the extinction of certain species, posing a significant threat to global biodiversity [27]. Indeed, anthropogenic factors are recognized as a major hazard to life [28].

The Mediterranean region, situated in Europe, is particularly vulnerable to the repercussions of climate change, including potential future water scarcity, loss of agricultural capacity, and shifts in biomes [29]. Climatic elements such as ambient temperature and rainfall patterns play a significant role in shaping the availability of pasture and food resources throughout the year, as well as influencing the occurrence of diseases and parasite outbreaks in animal populations [30]. Furthermore, the climatic conditions strongly impact the breeding, growth, lactation, and overall health maintenance of livestock [31].

The performance, health, and welfare of sheep are directly and/or indirectly affected by the changing climate. These effects are more pronounced in developing countries, exacerbated by limited access to technology and financial support, as noted by Ronchi and Nardone [7].

Several aspects of climate change affect goats, namely physical, biological, climatic and chemical (Figure 3).

Figure 3.

Categorization of anticipated impacts of climate change on small ruminant farming [32].

Climate change can manifest its effects on sheep production across physical, biological, chemical, and climatic dimensions. Alterations in environmental conditions, particularly in feeding patterns, constitute a notable physical impact. Furthermore, there is a likelihood of adverse effects on key performance traits, such as reduced milk and meat productivity. Research carried out in exceptionally harsh climatic conditions has yielded evidence of alterations in both the quality and quantity of milk produced by goats. Additionally, these studies have indicated a reduction in the lactation period for sheep [32]. Studies have shown that goats excel in natural resource use, waste management and crop production, and are more responsive to the environment than other animals at different physiological stages [33, 34]. It is generally believed that some government and public compulsions have suppressed small ruminant production with the aim of reducing greenhouse gas emissions [19].

Improving genetic capacity and raising production of animals should be the focus of sheep production efforts. When considering pollution, it is important to take into account the biological conditions of the environment. To increase production per unit area, conventional methods should be favored when using natural resources. This statement promotes organic production. The indiscriminate use of substances has repercussions on sheep farming, giving rise to new diseases that can potentially impact humans. When examining the impact of climate change on sheep farming, it is essential to consider manufacturing and quality of forage crops, the pricing and accessibility of feed grains, soil fertility, animal health, reproduction, pest distribution, water scarcity, and heightened power consumption, among others suggest that pastoral and mixed sheep farming systems are prone to greater vulnerability in the face of climate change impacts [35]. This vulnerability arises from the significant negative impacts of reduced water availability or increased droughts on crop and grass growth, coupled with changing environmental conditions such as heatwaves and high humidity.

Anticipated impacts of climate change include its effects on forage in regions characterized by moderate climates, although to a lesser extent than in other weather events. The magnitude of this impact depends on specific geographical conditions, such as mountainous, forested areas, the balance between growth time lengthening and winter flood/ summer drought damage [36].

4.2 Reproductive impact of environmental pressures on sheep

According to elevated ambient temperatures adversely affect the reproductive performance of both female and male individuals [37]. Environmental stress can have a significant impact on various aspects of reproductive health in sheep. This section delves into various aspects related to the reproductive performance of sheep, covering topics such as estrous behavior, embryo development, the birth weight of lambs, the size and functionality of the placenta, and the rate of fetal growth. Additionally, it could potentially result in irregularities in gonadal development, follicular development, and ovulation, resulting in delayed onset of puberty, extended anestrus, changes in sexual behavior, heightened rates of embryonic and pregnancy loss, decreased fecundity and fertility, and increased morbidity and mortality during the perinatal period [38]. Sheep are homoeothermic ruminant and can keep an almost fixed heat in different circumstances. Thermoregulation is how a living thing keeps body temperature (BT) and provides standard temperature of animals operate most efficiently within their thermos-neutral zone. If it drops below the lower critical temperature or surpasses the upper critical temperature, the animal will experience stress, limiting its ability to produce. According to the thermo-neutral zone for sheep is approximately 12–32°C [39]. The thermos-neutral zone is the temperature range in which an individual animal does not require extra energy to sustain its body temperature.

Heat stress refers to the external forces that can disrupt the body’s systems from their basal state and is the result of various factors that can adversely affect the health and performance of sheep [40]. Sheep can experience various stresses, including physical, nutritional, chemical, physiological stage. Heat stress emerges as a substantial challenge, particularly in regions characterized by tropical, subtropical, arid, and semiarid climates [34, 41, 42, 43]. The present apprehension revolves around the dynamic climate scenario and its repercussions on both sheep production and health [41]. Undoubtedly, climate change stands out as the most formidable long-term challenge confronting owners of small ruminant livestock globally. The shifting climate patterns pose a serious threat to the well-being and productivity of these animals, necessitating proactive measures and adaptations in the face of this evolving environmental landscape. Various environmental elements, such as ambient temperature, exposure to the sun’s rays (insolation), and related variations, exert both direct and indirect influences on sheep, as noted by Collier et al. [44]. Specifically, higher environmental temperatures pose a significant challenge to sheep in maintaining essential balances in energy, heat, water, hormones, and minerals [41]. In small ruminants, the respiratory response to an increase in environmental temperature involves an initial rise in breathing frequency following a period of softer breathing. This adjustment in respiration is part of the animal’s effort to cope with the elevated temperature. The mechanisms for heat dissipation from the animal are diverse and include sweating, panting, seeking a cooler environment, increasing skin circulation, sensible water loss, radiant surface exposure, and air movement or convection [34]. These adaptive responses collectively aid in enhancing heat loss, enabling the sheep to manage and mitigate the impact of elevated temperatures on their physiological processes.

As the environmental temperature approaches the temperature of the skin, the rate of heat removal by means of sensitive BT loss reduces [45]. As the thermal stress advances, processes of evaporation are activated. Firstly, sweating and raised breathing rates. As heat stress increases, tidal volume returns to near normal, and respiration remains above normal, as a result of a conflict between efforts to conserve exhaled carbon dioxide and ongoing heat dissipation through wheezing [33]. For heat energy to be lost through the evaporation of water into the surroundings, a vapor pressure gradient is required. At high humidity, the slope decreases, reducing evaporative skin heat loss [33]. A study investigating the effects of climate change on estrus incidence raised in the Mediterranean region of Turkey reported a delay in the onset of estrus in sheep. While it had typically been observed in August in previous years, the onset was shifted to September due to seasonal changes. The research findings indicate that from July 26 to September 15, estrus densities reached their highest points, coinciding with a decline in atmospheric temperatures over the years [18]. This implies a connection between evolving climate conditions and the timing of reproductive events in goats, underscoring the impact of environmental factors on the reproductive patterns of these animals.

Figure 4 vividly illustrates the negative repercussions of heat stress on both ewe fertility and fecundity, as well as the compromised semen production and quality observed in rams. This dual impact inevitably leads to a significant reduction in the number of lambs born per ewe, creating a multifaceted challenge for sheep farming. The cascading effects extend beyond mere quantity, affecting the individual health and development of each lamb [46].

Figure 4.

Reducing the impact of heat stress on the reproductive capabilities of male and female sheep before and during the mating season, emphasizing the importance of normothermic (blue) and hyperthermic (orange) temperature timings preceding mating [46].

Notably, the diminished birthweights of lambs and hindered mammary development in ewes during pregnancy indicate the far-reaching consequences of heat stress on various aspects of reproductive success. The intricate interplay of these factors poses a substantial threat not only to immediate lamb survival but also to their subsequent growth and weight at weaning [46].

The detailed exposure of pregnant ewes to controlled temperature conditions, as outlined in the conducted studies, provides a valuable context. The fluctuating daily temperature cycle, with its warmer daytime conditions and cooler nighttime periods, highlights the meticulous research into the nuanced impact of temperature and humidity on ewe health and lamb development. This controlled environment serves as a crucial tool for understanding the complexities of environmental stressors in sheep reproduction.

In a study examining the impacts of changing climate on estrus incidence in sheep raised in the Mediterranean region of Turkey, the onset of estrus, typically observed in August in preceding years, was documented to be delayed until September. This alteration was attributed to seasonal changes as revealed by the research. Between July 26 and September 15, the study found that estrus densities reached their peak values, coinciding with a decrease in atmospheric temperatures over the years, as documented by Darcan Koluman and Daskiran [18].

The production of sheep is an important dimension of the dairy sector in the Mediterranean area [47]. The Mediterranean sheep production cycle is closely related to the Mediterranean climate. The production of sheep milk in the Mediterranean area is most of based on the use of grassland, therefore, follows the pattern of the availability of pastures. Cheesemakers experience variations in the processing of milk volumes throughout different seasons. Peaks in milk processing are observed during the spring, followed by significant reductions in early summer and low milk yields from August to October, as outlined Todaro et al. [48]. These fluctuations are likely indicative of the natural cycles in sheep milk production, influenced by factors such as pasture availability and environmental conditions.

The influence of heat stress on sheep becomes apparent through a decrease in feed intake, subsequently leading to a decline in milk production [49]. Support this observation, highlighting the physiological hurdles that sheep encounter in elevated temperature conditions. The connection between heat stress, diminished feed consumption, and lower milk yields underscores the broader impact of environmental factors on the productivity of dairy sheep. Cheesemakers must navigate these seasonal fluctuations and address the challenges posed by heat stress to ensure a consistent milk supply for cheese processing.

4.3 The impact of climatic stress on the availability of pasture land

The influence of environmental stress on pasture availability stands out as a critical aspect of the of changing climate impacts on domestic animals, as emphasized by Sejian et al. [50]. Climate change plays a role in the depletion of water sources, grazing areas, and other feeding resources, thereby affecting the overall well-being and productivity of livestock.

In areas marked by humid, sub-humid, arid, semi-arid, and Mediterranean climates, forage resources like grasses and fibrous crop residues are crucial as principal sources of feed [51]. The Mediterranean region, in particular, faces challenges due to high temperatures and low precipitation during the summer, leading to restrictions in grass growth. As a consequence, the grazing capacity of mountain pastures significantly diminishes in autumn. To cope with this, animals often need to be transported to plains where cultivated winter cereals serve as pasturing resources.

In extensive farming systems, ensuring a consistent supply of fodder for sheep is crucial, as highlighted by Nardone et al. [52]. This underscores the necessity for adaptive strategies and management practices to tackle the impact of climate change on pasture availability. It becomes imperative to guarantee the continuous provision of suitable feed resources for the well-being of sheep in these regions.

4.4 Impact of thermal stress on lambs’ growth

The impact of thermal stress on lambs’ growth is a significant consideration in livestock management. Thermal stress, induced by elevated temperatures or extreme weather conditions, can have various effects on the nutritional and growth aspects of lambs.

Understanding and addressing the impact of thermal stress on sheep feeding and growth are essential for promoting animal welfare, maintaining productivity, and ensuring sustainable livestock management practices, especially in the context of changing climatic conditions.

Heat stress has been reported as a major cause of reduced appetite, feed intake, DMI (reduced crude protein and negative nitrogen balance) and metabolic rate. However, decreased feed intake may also result from decreased digestive transit, prolonging gut filling and decreasing intake [33]. Heat stress has an immediate impact on the hypothalamus, causing a hormonal response that lowers metabolism. As the heat increase of feeding is a major resource of heat production, animals experiencing HS reduce feed intake to produce less metabolic heat. Heat stress also leads to an increase in maintenance requirements, causing the energy intake to be insufficient to fulfill daily requirements, leading to an apparent loss of body weight [53].

Water is a crucial nutrient essential for life, playing a vital role in various physiological functions necessary for the well-being and capacity of lambs. It is necessary in order to regulating heat of the animal, growing, breeding, nursing, digestive, nutritional exchange, waste elimination and heat balance [47]. Regulation of ruminant liquid necessity is influenced by DMI, ambient temperature and water loss from tissues. However, especially in ruminants reared in hot conditions, water, unlike feed nutrients, is often not adequately considered to ensure optimal performance. During HS circumstances, small ruminants may experimentation mild to heavy water limitation. High temperatures and solar radiation in arid areas increase their water requirements [47].

Increases in body temperature are generally accompanied by decreases in metabolic rate, leading to decreases in appetite [34]. Climate change can affect feeding in two ways: through changes in the quality, availability of forage, including cereals, pastures, forage crops and animal feeds, as well as through changes in water intake. The main inputs in sheep production are water, feed and forage. Climate change, by influencing the quantity and quality of available forage, can have significant repercussions on sheep production. Changes in the composition of grasslands, expected due to climate shifts, may impact biodiversity, genetic resources, as well as the digestibility and nutritional quality of forage.

According to research suggested by heat stress in growing lambs can result in a reduction in their average daily gain and gross efficiency in converting nutrients to tissue [54].

This underscores the physiological challenges that lambs may encounter under elevated temperature conditions, impacting both their growth and nutrient utilization.

In a comparative study investigating the development of cooled and uncooled male Assaf lambs subjected to heat stress, observed that, at an average air temperature of 35°C, fan treatment positively influenced the growth of male Assaf lambs [18]. Cooled lambs exhibited a 15% increase in live weight, and they showed higher thyroxine levels. These findings suggest that the implementation of cooling measures can alleviate the adverse heat stress effects on lamb growth and physiological responses. Table 1 displays the mean measurements of body weight gain in lambs undergoing fan treatments [55]. Notably, lambs subjected to cooling with a fan displayed heightened weight gains, particularly evident from the 3rd week post-lambing onward. By the trial’s conclusion, this treatment group exhibited an impressive nearly 15% increase in weight compared to the control lambs. These results underscore the positive influence of fan-assisted cooling on the growth trajectory of lambs, highlighting its potential significance in enhancing overall livestock management and productivity.

Weeks	Treatment		SEM	Sig.
	Control group	Fan treated
1	4.60	4.63	0.089	NS
2	5.15	5.45	0.175	NS
3	6.15	6.65	0.171	*
4	7.13	8.08	0.244	*
5	8.28	9.67	0.259	*
6	9.42	10.68	0.299	*
7	11.47	13.08	0.366	*
8	13.53	15.03	0.167	*
9	15.27	17.62	0.415	*

Table 1.

Variations in the body weight gains of lambs exposed to fan treatments [55].

*

p < 0.05.

SEM: standard errors of the means.

NS: not significant, p > 0.05.

Overall, the research underscores the intricate relationship between climate change, heat stress, and the various aspects of sheep production, including growth rates, nutrient utilization, and physiological responses. Strategies for managing these impacts are crucial for sustaining and optimizing sheep production in the face of changing environmental conditions.

4.5 Impact of climate change in sheep health

Factors such as air temperature, relative humidity, and CO₂ concentration play a significant role in influencing pathogens, as highlighted by Mirski et al. [56]. For sheep, stomal and intestinal parasites present a significant health threat, and their prevalence is heavily influenced by changed weather patterns. This influence is particularly notable in their free-living larval stages on pasture, contributing to respiratory diseases in sheep. Table 2 summarizes how various environmental factors affect parasites in sheep and the impact of these factors on sheep health and productivity. The references indicate the sources used to support these effects.

Factors	Influence on pathogens	Reference
Air temperature	Significant role in influencing pathogens, affecting larval survival	[56]
Relative humidity	Plays a role in the prevalence of stomal and intestinal parasites	[56]
CO2 concentration	Influences the prevalence of respiratory diseases in sheep	[56]
Changed weather patterns	Affects the prevalence of stomal and intestinal parasites in sheep	[56]
Temperature and precipitation	Contributes to the spread of helminth diseases, impacting productivity	[47, 57, 58, 59]
Elevated temperatures	Impact on the survival and transmission windows of parasitic larvae	[56]
Seasonal variations	Influences the diagnosis rates of parasitic gastroenteritis in sheep	[57]
Regional differences	Observable variations in diagnosis rates, emphasizing local conditions	[57]

Table 2.

The way diverse environmental factors influence parasites in sheep and the consequences of these factors on both sheep health and productivity.

Gastrointestinal helminths, in particular, can lead to decreased production, heightened susceptibility to other diseases, increased vulnerability to pests, and, in severe cases, mortality [47, 57, 58]. Variations in temperature and precipitation further contribute to the spread of helminth diseases or an increase in disease occurrence and mortality, ultimately reducing sheep productivity [59].

Elevated temperatures can impact the survival of larvae from parasitic species such as Teladorsagia and Trichostrongylus during the winter and spring on pasture. Consequently, this extension in larval survival extends the transmission windows for these species, as well as Haemonchus contortus, into the autumn season. The diagnosis rates of parasitic gastroenteritis in sheep exhibit seasonal variations, as noted by Van Dijk et al. [57]. Moreover, considerable differences in diagnosis rates across regions are observed for all species categories, underscoring the importance of local environmental conditions in influencing the prevalence and impact of parasitic infections in sheep. Managing and adapting to these environmental factors is crucial for preventing and controlling the spread of diseases among sheep and maintaining overall flock health and productivity.

4.6 Other factors

Sheep production in the region is hampered by a number of factors, including mismanagement and poor husbandry, poor effect between researchers, producers, employees, government, weak organization of pastoralists, unfavorable policies, legislation and poor animal health management [17].

5. Sheep farming sustainability strategies

The field of sheep production research, particularly in the domain of biotechnology, has experienced noteworthy advancements. In the context of sheep production, reproductive biotechnologies like in vitro fertilization, in vitro embryo production, and embryo transfer are considered promising advancements for the future [7, 60]. These technologies hold the potential to enhance reproductive efficiency and genetic selection in sheep breeding programs, offering significant benefits to the industry.

Unraveling the genetic mechanisms underlying the polymorphism of specific traits is another area of progress, with potential implications for future selection programs. Understanding the genetic basis of traits allows for more targeted and effective breeding strategies to improve desirable characteristics in sheep populations.

However, despite the scientific progress, there exists a substantial gap between available scientific knowledge and its practical application in sheep production across most regions. Bridging this gap requires a concerted effort to enhance research efficiency and, more crucially, to improve the transfer of technology from research to practical applications [60]. Suggest that, given the high costs associated with research, organizing regional Research and Development networks could be an effective strategy to maximize results and facilitate the application of research findings in sheep production.

In summary, while there have been notable achievements in sheep production research, there is a need for greater collaboration, technology transfer, and regional networking to ensure that scientific advancements translate into practical benefits for the sheep farming industry.

Nutrition plays a crucial role as an environmental factor that has a substantial impact on the reproduction of sheep. In semi-extensive systems, supplements, such as cereal middlings, are employed during crucial physiological stages, often corresponding to the mating season or the end of pregnancy and lactation. While these supplements may not be quantitatively significant, they can have a substantial impact on herd productivity, especially during periods of drought and body condition deterioration.

The effectiveness of these feeding regimens relies on the quality and timing of the dietary stimulus, along with the metabolic history of the sheep, particularly the concept known as “metabolic memory”. Research spanning decades has led to the development of “focus feeding,” a practice already utilized to enhance sperm production, ovulation rates, and the survival of offspring [38, 61]. Focus feeding has been shown to improve the fertility of flocks and progeny, indicating its positive impact on reproductive outcomes.

In a study conducted within a semi-arid region characterized by a Mediterranean-type climate in Tunisia, it was observed that short-term supplementation with cactus cladodes had a beneficial impact on follicle development, sustained ovulation rates, and enhanced fertility when compared to other conventional sources of supplementation. This implies that the inclusion of cactus cladodes could serve as a cost-effective alternative to traditional concentrates, ultimately augmenting reproductive performance in semi-arid regions without the necessity of employing exogenous hormones, as highlighted in the research conducted by Ref. [38].

In addition to nutrition, the availability of adequate feed, efficient support services, and reasonable milk production costs are crucial factors in improving milk production [62]. To ensure the production of sufficient high-quality roughage, optimal utilization of arable land is essential. Applying technical management principles becomes paramount for the sustainable use of pasture and the overall enhancement of sheep production.

In sheep production systems, the conventional strategy for managing parasitic diseases has revolved around chemoprophylaxis, predominantly achieved through the regular application of suppressive or curative dewormers. Nevertheless, this approach is now deemed unsustainable, as emphasized by Ronchi and Nardone [7]. Consequently, there is an imperative to refine methods for safeguarding sheep from both epizootic and zoonotic diseases. The evolving perspective acknowledges the limitations of solely relying on chemical interventions, urging the exploration and optimization of alternative approaches to ensure the sustainable health and well-being of sheep populations.

Enhancing disease control encompasses various essential elements. Firstly, it is essential to create economical and effective approaches for animal identification, registration, and the regulation of movements. This facilitates improved traceability and the ability to manage the spread of diseases among and between different sheep flocks. Furthermore, advancing biological products and vaccines is pivotal, offering alternatives to conventional dewormers and fortifying the resilience of sheep against a spectrum of diseases.

Furthermore, incorporating sanitary and preventive measures into day-to-day operations is essential. This involves integrating production technologies that prioritize the health and well-being of the animals, reducing the reliance on reactive treatments. In a globalized world, achieving the highest level of protection requires simultaneous and harmonized policies and practices worldwide. The cooperation of various regions in research and implementation is crucial for the success of these efforts.

Effective regional cooperation, as proposed by has the potential to constitute a substantial leap forward in safeguarding and fortifying the livestock industry in the Mediterranean [63]. Such cooperative endeavors can pave the way for the formulation of tailored strategies that address the distinctive challenges and requirements of the region, ultimately fostering sustainable and robust systems for sheep production.

6. Conclusion

Sheep farming represents considerable economic, social, and environmental importance for native communities residing in rural parts of the Mediterranean, particularly in mountainous and less-favored regions. Nonetheless, it is acknowledged that sheep farming contributes to climate degradation, leading to alterations linked with rising ambient temperatures. These climate changes stand out as pivotal elements affecting sheep production. Years of research have generated approaches to alleviate inefficiencies in sheep farming and diminish the adverse environmental repercussions linked to it.

To enhance efficiency, there is a need for more specific research methods tailored to the realities of the sheep industry. Management strategies are essential to address challenges posed by hot and humid environmental conditions, which can adversely affect sheep performance. These strategies may involve providing access to drinking water, increasing dietary energy density, using feed additives, and implementing cooling systems such as shade, fans, and sprinklers. Successful implementation of these strategies requires well-trained handlers with expertise, knowledge of species needs, and keen observation skills. Awareness of heat stress is the crucial first step in its management.

Strategic and operational management decisions for developing production methods should involve effective collaboration and coordination among various stakeholders, including scientists, workers, meteorologists, veterinarians, dieticians, and regional agricultural organizations. Integration of factors such as participation, coordination, and cooperation is vital for successful decision-making. Extension services, training programs, education initiatives, workshops, and lectures should be targeted at farmers to complement their existing knowledge and skills in sheep management. This helps equip them with updated knowledge and skills in areas such as sheep and goat housing, feeding, health, and adapting to the changing environment. Overall, a holistic and collaborative approach is crucial for sustainable and resilient sheep production in the face of evolving environmental challenges.