Sheep Farming Technology in Indian Practice

Abstract

Sheep farming is the branch of animal husbandry, which deals with the rearing and breeding of domestic sheep. Sheep with its multi-facet utility for wool, meat, milk, skins, and manure form an important component of rural economy for specific breed line “Garole”. The sheep provides a dependable source of income to the rural farmers particularly farm women. The major advantages of sheep farming are they do not need expensive buildings to house them and require less labour than other kinds of livestock. As sheep are mainly high fecundity, the flock can be multiplied in the shortest possible time. They are economical converter of green grass (cellulose) into meat and wool. In India, the development of superior breeds of sheep for production of mutton will have a great scope in the developing economy of India. Financial perspectives are input cost for feed and fodder, veterinary aid and insurance, etc., and output costs, i.e. sale price of animals, penning, etc. Judicious use of feed and fodder resources, proper housing, health care management and controlled breeding practice can be the effective tool of sheep rearing among rural stake holders whose economic solvency is need of the hour.

1. Introduction

Sheep farming is considered to be one of the most profitable business ideas. The raising as well as breeding is the process that is followed by the farmers for gaining a certain amount of profit and making a livelihood out of the procedure. In this chapter, the basic ideas about sheep farming along with the perspective of its variables are discussed. Housing management procedures along with its importance and requirements are highlighted. Then breeding management associated with sheep farming is focusing on the progeny testing. The nutritional factors especially the vitamin, protein and other variables required for the development along with reproduction health of sheep is considered. Appropriate criteria as well as the importance of grazing land in sheep farming are discussed. The importance of mobile based application for the benefit of farmers in case of sheep farming is considered. The health care aspects of sheep farming are considered and this included vaccination as well as deworming. Finally, post harvest management of farming is considered.

2. Methodology

2.1 Research philosophy

Research philosophy is the belief of an individual that enables the researcher to have an idea for understanding the appropriate method to implement for the research work. For this research, an interpretivist philosophy is adopted for this research study as the data is accumulated from secondary sources.

2.2 Research approach

Research approach is the selected method for getting an overall idea about the procedure of collecting, analyzing along with presenting the data. For this study an inductive approach is considered as it is appropriate to understand the pattern of observation as well as the correct explanation of sheep farming.

2.3 Research design

This refers to the overall structure of the study with the help of different components. For this study, a descriptive design is selected for understanding the practical implication of this research.

2.4 Sample size

An accumulation of 10 different scholar articles from the internet as well as some local Indian news reports are used in order to understand the topics related to sheep farming such as housing management, breeding management, nutrition, grazing land of sheep along with the current trend of mobile-based identification in India. Health care management of the sheep as well as post-harvest management are also derived from these secondary data of interest.

2.5 Data collection

A secondary data collection method is followed by the researchers for assembling the information related to the topic of interest.

2.6 Data analysis

The collected data is analyzed with the help of article analysis and the information gathered is represented in the section of findings and discussion.

2.7 Ethical conclusion

It is important for any researcher to follow some basic rules and regulations in order to complete their research procedure. For this particular research, the data are collected from legal sources (Google Scholar) of the internet and the original authors are mentioned in the reference list. The statements from those articles are paraphrased in order to avoid plagiarism.

3. Findings and discussion

3.1 Housing management

Sheep housing plays a pivotal role in case of commercial sheep farming as well as backyard/household sheep rearing practices. The housing of sheep is important for the productivity, health as well as the productive and reproductive performance of the sheep population. A proper plan of action is to be developed based on the population size of sheep. The importance of sheep shed/sheep yard include the protection of the livestock from unwanted predators such as wild dogs, snakes and others, providing shelter during night times and the natural calamities. The covered as well as open space for sheep rearing is depending on the number of sheep to be maintained.

3.1.1 Site/location

The location for the sheep shed needs to be on an elevated and open-drained plot. In case of three-sided shelter, the open side should be faced south avoiding the prevailing wind. Easy access for delivery and manure handling needs to be available in case of barn [1, 2]. Water and electricity connection is essential for selection of site/ location for sheep sheds. Different types of sheep housing:

Open housing system for sheep: This type is popular in the areas where rain is comparatively less. It lacks a roof and the floor is made up of straw.

Semi open housing system for: These are bordered by fences with straw floors that have a small roof.

Bound sheep housing: This is completely roofed with floors which are slightly or fully concrete. This is very effective for commercial sheep farming.

Small sheep shed & barn: These can be built within 2 days 240 sq. inch for a small flock of sheep and in a climate that requires minimal shelter [1, 2, 3].

• Pole buildings: These are built on poles with damp conditions with a height of 1.5–2 metre from ground level. These are appropriate for areas with a possibility of flood.

• Hoop shelters: These are easy to set up and convenient for sheep farming. These are less expensive than the traditional wooden buildings. Effective equine facilities are available for the sheep (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Shelter for sheep. Source: Self-clicked (2021).

3.1.2 Requirements for developing the ideal sheep shed

1. The land is supposed to be not impacted by wild winds, predators and floods. The space needs to be kept dry. The shed can be made in an elevated area so that the water stagnation is avoided.

2. Cross-ventilation along with good airflow is preferable for sheep farming.

3. Low-cost material is suitable for the construction of a shed.

4. The shed should be made at a clean and dry place. The housing needs to be well ventilated.

5. Sections must be made for keeping the sheep separately on the basis of age or health condition. There should be a partition for the feeding area.

6. Gable roofing can be considered for sheep shed. In case of small housing set-ups, a lean type of roofing is preferable [3, 4].

7. Clean and fresh water needs to be used for cleaning the shed and feeding area.

8. There is no restriction on the length of the shed but it is better to build the housing with a width of 24 feet to 30 feet.

9. The shed can have one or more gates made up of wood or iron battens. The suitable dimensions can be 1 metre x 1 metre.

3.1.3 Constructional details of different units

• Floor: Moorum or strong wooden battens can be used as flooring material; the width of each plank needs to be between 7.5 and 10.0 cm and the thickness of 2.5 to 4.0 cm in case of wooden-batten flooring. A clearance of 1–1.5 cm can be developed between two of the disposal of dung and urine. The flooring is generally constructed at a height of 1 m above the ground level with a suitable ramp case added in case of wooden battens. A pedestal wall of 15–30 cm should be built in case of moorum flooring [3, 5, 6]. The flooring may be made up of moorum or brick for the shearing, store room along with shepherd’s house.

• Roof: The roof may be made gabled. Plain or other steel sheets or asbestos sheets can be used as roofing material in case of areas with heavy rainfall.

• Gate: One or more gates can be built either on the long or board side of the shed on the basis of dimension of sheep shed. The gate can be of 0.8 m board and 1 m high, the frame can be made up of wooden battens and the gate needs to fit the entrance.

• Manger: Cement or wood can be used to make manger with two compartments for providing fodder to the sheep. Separate hay rack can also be built at a level below the head of the sheep. The manger can be risen to 450–600 mm from the ground with the help of clamps. The water trough can be created by fixing or hanging hooks. It can also be portable. The size of the manger can be altered according to the number of sheep present in a yard.

• Dipping Tank: Dripping tanks are generally made for protecting sheep from infections. These are made up of galvanized steel or bricks based on the financial resources and availability. The tank can be bedded on concrete at one side in the yard [3, 6].

• Footbath: It can be made up of steel sheets as well as brick in cement mortar at the entrance of the yard for avoiding foot-rot disease in sheep. These footbaths can be planted on soil.

3.2 Breeding management

Breeding is a crucial factor in the economics of the production of sheep. Without regular breeding and offspring production at the appropriate time, sheep rearing will not be profitable at all.

3.2.1 Selection

Selection process is important for any livestock because it increases the possibility of achieving desirable qualities in the offspring for improvement in performance as well as the livestock. The required criteria for the selection are the following:

• The preferable ratio of ram and ewe is 1:20 in case of breeding management practices (BMP).

• Young rams may be put with older ewes and on the other hand, older rams can be put with younger ewes for improving mating chances.

• Inbreeding is least recommended. The male sheep are supposed to be replaced every 2 years and female ones after 20–24 months considering the health conditions, if inbreeding is conducted.

• Younger females are better to avoid for breeding as it results in increased mortality rate.

• The body weight of the ewe is preferable to be less than the body weight of an adult sheep.

• Conception can be increased if two services are practiced with an interval of 8–10 hours.

• Ewes that do not get back to oestrus cycle can be considered as pregnant and are recommended to keep separated from the non-pregnant ones.

• The sheep which do not have kids for over a year are supposed to be kept out of the flock and they can be used for meat purposes. The kidding procedure can be avoided during peak winter season in order to protect the newborn ones from pneumonic death.

• Any sheep must be kept out of starvation during the early pregnancy period as it has a possibility to result in a higher percentage of shed embryos to be absorbed [7, 8, 9].

3.2.2 Pedigree

Pedigree means a very large amount of record of some antecedents or purity of breed. Pedigree flocks diverge from commercial ones in that all sheep are pure breed and are typically registered with their solitary breed society. Usually at premium prices a pedigree flock can impart opportunities to sell breeding stock to other breeders. Based on the phenotype of the farmers village-based genetic enhancement activities, an execution and pedigree recording scheme was built up and the choosing of breeding stock in the village flocks were acknowledged to phenotypic trends across generations [7, 10].

3.2.3 Sheep pedigree record keeping

3.2.3.1 Breeding records

Selection of purely commercial flock or pedigree flock, breeding records can be intensely convenient and more advantageous profits rather than others. In the process of method of data collection and keeping overall the records of sheep, the size of the flock will no doubt impact on it.

However, the breeding traits have never been easier to collect the data as for example lambing records, weight records and breeding traits with the inception of EID data collection that were unfeasible on huge commercial flocks without the requirement to remain updating our books for records.

There are different types of breeding aspects such as tupping to weaning, including embryo implantation, scanning, automatic identification of sire on gestation, lambing records, ease of lambing, lambing problems, prolapse and abortion were incorporated within these records [9, 11, 12].

There are different analytical methods for Lambing and their problems, breeding; diseases, pedigree relationship and weighing (Sire and Dam progeny performances) which were incorporated for overall assessment of recording the data and diseases, pedigree relationship and weighing were incorporated for overall assessment of it.

3.2.4 Breeding practices

3.2.4.1 Reproductive parameters

• The breeding age of sheep is preferable to be 6–8 months.

• They can be brought to the heat after 21 days post lambing.

• The duration of pregnancy spans between 144 to 152 days in case of sheep.

• The suitable male and female ratio for breeding is 1:20.

• The estrous cycle takes place every 16–17 days and it lasts for an average of 24–36 hours each period [8, 10].

3.2.4.2 Preparation of female

• Flushing: This process of feeding in ewes in which extra concentrated food is given just before the beginning of the breeding period to facilitate the increasing rate of ovulation in order to multiply the number of twins and triplets. Flushing is done by giving 250 gm of concentrate daily or 500 g of superior quality legume hay per head each day. Flushing improves the rate of lambing by 10–20%.

• Tagging: As wool or tags inhibit them from satisfactory copulation, trimming is done in rams and ewes.

• Eyeing: In some breeds of sheep, the excess wool around the eyes should be removed regularly to prevent wool blindness. This process is known as eyeing.

• Ringing: Just prior to breeding season, the wool from the neck and from the belly especially at the region of penis should be clipped and trimmed.

• Crutching: In the beginning of the breeding season, wool is removed from the perineal region and the base of the tail of ewe. This process is known as Crutching. It promotes the process of breeding (Figure 2) [7, 13].

Figure 2.

Male and female sheep in farm. Source: Self-clicked (2021).

3.2.4.3 Preparation of male

• Marking the ram / buck: Marking is the essential process for breeding. For this purpose, lamp black or venetian red is mixed up with linseed oil to make a paste that is applied in the brisket area minimum once a week. During the time of mating, when the ram mounts with the doe, she will also be marked.

• Raddling: Raddle is the harness of the ram that contains crayons. During the time of copulation, when the raddle of the ram is rubbed on the ramp of the ewe, a color mark is left on the ewe.

• Ringing: Just prior to breeding season, the wool from the neck and from the belly especially at the region of penis should be clipped and trimmed [9, 12].

3.2.4.4 Procedure of mating in sheep

• Hand mating: Here, one ewe is allowed to mate with ram one by one. On the other hand, a ram is restricted to mate only three ewes in a day. It is beneficial when copulation occurs between older ram and younger ewe. It ensures the expected time of lambing and also improves the breeding efficiency of ram.

• Pen mating: Here, ewes are divided into batches containing 20–25 ewes in each batch. Males are turned into the flock only during the night time. During the grazing period, it protects the ewes from disturbance from the ram [7, 8, 10].

• Flock mating/Pasture mating: Here, the rams are put to run with the ewes throughout the entire day. The male tends to lose most of its body fat when they chase females. Due to multiple copulation of a particular ram, ewes do not receive sufficient amounts of spermatozoa and remain unconceived so it decreases the fertility rate.

• Artificial Insemination (AI): In this case, both fresh and frozen semen can be used. The speculum method of insemination is used in this process. AI leads to lower reproductive rate than natural processes whereas frozen semen gives even a much lower fertility rate [7, 9, 12].

3.2.5 Progeny testing

Progeny testing is defined as the production of many offspring by mating a male with different types of females in different environmental conditions. Progeny testing is extensively used in sheep farming for evaluating and selecting superior quality of breed for wool and meat production. It is used to determine the Probable Breeding Value (PBV)of a parent of quantitative traits. Progeny selection is essential for progeny testing [9, 12, 13]. It refers to the choice of breeding stock on the basis of their performance.

3.2.5.1 Advantages of progeny testing

• This method is suitable for sex-limited characteristics, traits with low inheritability and slaughter traits.

• It increases selection’s accuracy

• It promotes the production of superior quality of breed [9].

3.2.5.2 Disadvantages of progeny testing

• Time –consuming and expensive method due to prolonged generation interval.

• Genetic gain is low as probability is uncertain.

• It leads to lack of variety in the long run due to inbreeding depression [9].

3.3 Nutrition

3.3.1 Water requirement

• Water requirements vary in different stages of the life cycle of a sheep. It increases during growth, lactation as well as during heat stress. Sheep require more minerals during the time of long travel.

• Sheep drinks an approximate amount of 2–3 liters of water per kilogram dry fodder consumed [14].

3.3.2 Protein requirement of sheep

• A mature sheep which is not lactating and stopped growing acquires optimum protein from forage along with pasture. The maintenance of a sheep needs at least 7% crude protein in their diet.

• The requirement of protein in sheep varies in different stages of growth. The demand for protein increases by about 50% during pregnancy and 100% during lactation.

• Sheep can also convert non–protein nitrogen (NPN) like urea, ammonium phosphate and biuret and protein into the rumen of the sheep by the help of some microorganism.

• For maintenance of the body of sheep, required daily Digestible Crude Protein (DCP) is approximately 1/10th of the Total Digestible Protein (TDP) or 1 gm per kg of body weight [14, 15].

• As wool consists of a high amount of Cystine and Methionine, 10% level of protein is adequate for wool production.

3.3.3 Energy requirement of sheep

• Total Digestible Nutrient (TDN) is required in higher amounts in lamb in comparison to the adult sheep. Similarly, the requirement of energy is much higher in pregnant, lactating and breeding ewes than non-lactating and non-pregnant ones.

• For breeding ewes, good roughage alone can supply an adequate amount of TDN whereas pregnant ones should feed concentrate.

• A mature ewe which is not lactating or pregnant and stopped growing ewe requires 10 gm TDN / kg live weight for maintenance and wool production [15, 16].

• Deficiency of energy affects reproductive health, growth along with body weight and can lead to death.

3.3.4 Minerals requirement of sheep

• Among all the elements, only 15 elements are considered as the “essential elements” for sheep. Seven of these minerals include Na, Cl, Ca, P, Mg, K & S.

• Sodium Chloride (NaCl): This is generally given at the rate of 0.5% in case of complete ration or 1% in concentrate. It should be given regularly and consume more in comparison to other cattle.

• Calcium (Ca): Sheep which rear on good pasture and legumes do not suffer from any kind of calcium deficiency [15, 17].

• Phosphorus (P): In pregnant ewes, the adequate requirement of P is 0.16–0.19% whereas in lactating ewes, the adequate requirement of P is 0.23%. Abortion or the production of weak lamb may occur if insufficient amounts of P is given to pregnant ewes through roughage.

• Cobalt (Co): Anemia, retarded growth, rough hair coat is observed in sheep due to deficiency of cobalt. 1.0 mg of cobalt chloride is generally given twice a week to correct the inadequacy.

• Copper (Cu): It is very much essential for melanin production. Cu plays a significant role in the formation of wool (keratin) upto 6 months of age. Due to deficiency of Cu, “Stringy wool” is observed in sheep.

• Zinc (Zn): Deficiency of Zn affects testicular growth as well as can lead to a discontinuation of spermatogenesis in ram lamb [16].

3.3.5 Vitamins requirement of sheep

• A good quality roughage can fulfill the vitamin requirements in sheep..

• Pasture contains a high quantity of Vitamin A.

• Vitamin E is generally consumed with roughage. Deficiency of Vitamin E can lead to “Stiff lamb disease [14, 17].

3.4 Grazing land

Grazing land is defined to be a selected area that can be used for animals to graze. The grazing land is of great importance considering the beneficial factors such as providing land for sheep to roam as well as getting source for fodders including grasses. A grazing management plan can be considered for sheep farming. This plan also includes a systematic plan for completing the tasks with the help of resources that are available, getting used to the plan as well as monitoring and adjusting according to the progress of the plan. Grazing management plays an impactful role on sheep farming as it is useful to detect flaws by identifying the lack of resources as well as what is supposed to be done in order to make those available [18, 19, 20].

3.4.1 Goals for grazing land

The operational goals for developing and maintaining grazing land are supposed to be specific and achievable so that they can be accomplished within a certain time-period. Simultaneously, the current development of the grazing land plan is supposed to be identified as well as a time period can be set depending on the progress so far. These goals can be long-term, intermediate or short-term. A low-producing grazing land can be considered for rotation. The litter production in such overgrazed fields can be increased by 400 lbs. per acre and the operational goal is to decrease the wastage by 25% each year with the help of forage utilization by rotating for three growing seasons [19, 21].

3.4.2 Plans for creating a grazing land

Different tools and infrastructural assistance can be introduced to the grazers for managing sheep farming. The infrastructure for the sheep farm needs to be figured out. The infrastructure includes the condition of the land, type of fencing, water system, the availability of manpower and others.

A number of different fencing as well as combinations can be considered for sheep management. The process is useful for keeping the sheep within the field as well as keeping predators out of the grazing land. Woven as well as electric fencing is the most common type of fencing for perimeter. In case of temporary fencing a flexible as well as multi-sized grazing of the area, for different locations and times throughout the grazing season. In case of permanent one, the grazing field remains similar throughout the year [19, 22].

Water is the most essential element for the grazing system. Clean and good-quality water is required for sheep farming as poor quality water can deteriorate performance; worsen reproductive health as well as overall health of sheep. Water needs to be tested so that it is appropriate for the livestock. Sheep consumes 8–12 liters of water per day. They usually walk more than 1.5 km in order to reach a clean water-source but the highest limit of distance to reach for water is 2.5 km. Sheep are unable to drink water directly from the dugouts [18, 19, 22].

Predators can have a negative impact by injuring sheep especially the lambs, sick or the old ones. Coyote, cougar, bear and wolves are the most common types of predators observed in the grazing land. Dogs can be employed for the purpose of protection of the livestock from predators. Turkish Kangal, Great Pyrenees and other dog-breeds are suggested for protecting the livestock.

3.4.3 Requirement for grazing land

• Provide adequate rest – The plants need a certain time period to grow back after a season of grazing. Adequate phase for the plants to rest ensures the growth as well as functions of the leaves for photosynthesis and roots to uptake nutrients and water from the soil profile.

• Balanced livestock demand– A balance in the number of animals being farmed is required to be maintained considering the availability of forage. Exceeding the carrying capacity can have some detrimental effects on the performance as well as health of sheep.

• Timing of grazing – The recovery process for plants varies according to season. It has been observed that the plants remain the most susceptible to grazing during summer as well as spring. These should be an adequate resting period between two grazing periods [19, 20].

• Animal distribution – Sheep tend to graze repeatedly around the areas that are familiar to them and have water bodies nearby. This results in over-grazing some areas as well as under-grazing others.

• Intensity, frequency and duration of grazing – Grazing intensity affects root growth and regeneration. Different grass species respond differently, but root growth is generally stunted when 50 percent or less of the aboveground biomass is removed.

• Monitoring: Monitoring the health status of areas is a documented starting point for decision making. This allows the manager to assess the impacts on the pasture and their response to those impacts. Some monitoring methods include:

  1. Rangeland/riparian health assessments

  2. Range inventory

  3. Photo reference points

  4. Grazing response index

3.4.4 Contingency plan

A contingency plan is essential for a successful grazing management, animal management or farm business management. Several external factors including drought, excessive moisture as well as other environmental factors can affect the plan for farming. So the manager is suggested to develop a contingency plan after addressing all the possible complications [19, 20, 21].

3.4.4.1 Importance

Grazing land is beneficial not only for animals and farms but also for the environment. These advantages include –

• Grazing land enhances the performances of the sheep such as weight gain, milk yield and others.

• An easy control of sheep is possible for the farmer in a grazing land.

• The sheep are protected from theft through rustling.

• This makes the decision making process regarding the farm easy for the farm manager.

• This helps in reduction of pasture loss through trampling and fouling by sheep as well as increases pasture re-growth through defoliation and grazing.

• Generation of organic farms along with farm products is encouraged with the help of using grazing land [20, 21, 22].

• Farmer income is also boosted and financial stability is established.

3.5 Mobile based identification

Mobile apps have a huge potential for reaching out to a greater number of farmers for providing information about animal husbandry within a short time-period. Productivity along with income generation can be increased with the help of such applications. The factors which can be considered for this such as educating the farmer community with proper guidance and education, useful information; strategies for farm management, marketing skills as well as associating with the government policies. The livestock management software plays a significant role to farmers for the farm’s animal health and well being. In this type of livestock management software, many data like date of birth, medical records of livestock are maintained [23].

3.5.1 Importance

• It is a potential digital tool by means of which a large number of farmers are interconnected.

• It is a very useful tool for maintaining the records of livestock like date of birth, vaccination, medical record and others [24, 25].

• It can be employed to spread animal husbandry information to the maximum number of local people which is used for betterment of their economic condition and increasing annual income.

3.5.2 Potential challenges

• Lack of smart phone utilization in rural areas.

• Internet connectivity varies in different areas.

• Lack of digital literacy among farmers.

• Lower availability of information about livestock among farmers.

• Diversity of languages across the country makes it difficult to make an app in the local language [23, 25].

3.6 Health care management

3.6.1 Preventive measures

Bacterial, viral and protozoan borne diseases impact on the productivity of the livestock which directly affects the economy. Vaccination and deworming are the two preventive measures which can be taken to prevent the spreading of such diseases [26].

3.6.2 Vaccination

Vaccines are classified into several categories. Some of them are antibacterial vaccine, antiviral vaccine, anti protozoan vaccine and so on [27].

3.6.2.1 Antibacterial vaccine

3.6.2.1.1 Clostridial diseases

• Causative Agent: Clostridium perfringens types C and D, Clostridium tetani.

• Timing: Vaccinate at 6–8 weeks, and revaccinate 3–4 weeks later.

3.6.2.1.2 Footrot

• Causative Agent: Dichelobacter nodosus.(Gram negative bacteria).

• Timing: After appearance of symptoms. Revaccinate between 6 weeks and 6 months later [26].

3.6.2.1.3 Caseous lymphadenitis

Causative Agent: Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis.

Timing: At the age of 3 months.

3.6.2.1.4 Bacterial pneumonia

Causative agent: Pasteurella multocida, Bibersteinia trehalosi, and Mannheimia haemolytica.

Timing: During breeding period on the ewes and revaccinate 2–4 weeks apart. Revaccination again 2–4 weeks before lambing. Revaccination at 4–6 months [26].

3.6.2.1.5 Ovine enzootic abortion

Causative agent: Chlamydia abortus.

Timing: 60 days before breeding and revaccination 30 days later.

3.6.2.1.6 Anthrax

Causative agent: Bacillus anthracis.

Timing: Twice within 2–3 week intervals [26].

3.6.2.2 Antiviral vaccine

3.6.2.2.1 Sore mouth

Causative agent: Orf Virus (Genus: Parapoxvirus).

Timing: 1 month. Revaccination 2–3 months later.

3.6.2.2.2 Bluetongue

Causative agent: Bluetongue virus (BTV).

Timing: Over 3 months of age and revaccination 3 weeks before the breeding season [26].

3.6.2.2.3 Rabies

Causative agent: Rabies virus (Lyssavirus).

Timing: Over 3 months of age.

3.6.2.3 Other vaccine

3.6.2.3.1 Q fever

Causative agent: Coxiella burnetii.

Timing: Vaccinate in three doses at least three weeks before breeding.

3.6.2.3.2 Sheep pox

Causative agent: Capripoxvirus.

Timing: Vaccinate during the time period of 12–30 months [28].

3.6.2.3.3 Brucellosis

Causative agent: Brucella melitensis.

Timing: Vaccinate lambs between three and five months of age.

3.6.2.3.4 Contagious agalactia

Causative agent: Mycoplasma agalactiae.

Timing: Inactivated as well as modified live vaccines are considered in order to prevent the disease. Revaccinate after six months.

3.6.2.3.5 Leptospirosis

Causative agent: Leptospira interrogans serovar Pomona and Leptospira borgpetersenii serovar Hardjo.

The combined bacterins which are available at present can provide protection against several months. Re-vaccination is required in such cases [28].

3.6.2.3.6 Peste des petits ruminants (PPR)

Causative agent: Small Ruminant Morbillivirus (PPRV).

Attenuated vaccines against sheep strains have been developed. These can be considered to be effective for PPR [28].

3.6.3 Deworming

Rams are required to be completely ready for reproduction before mating-seasons. Sheep is one of the most common animals that are being farmed, so it is important to keep the sheep healthy. The wool production as well as poor reproductive performance can be caused because of internal as well as external parasites. So deworming is considered as an essential measure to be taken for maintaining good health of the sheep [28].

3.6.3.1 Reasons for deworming

• Internal parasites have some harmful effects on the productivity as well as profitability of sheep as it can deteriorate the growth of lambs as well as the reproductive ability of the ewes and even the death of sheep.

• These internal parasites can live and affect the digestive or respiratory tract. These worms can harm the lining of the stomach and/or intestine, so the nutrient absorption is prevented and that can lead to diarrhea and severe weight loss. Such worms can ingest blood, causing anemia and weakening the animal [29].

• The life cycles of most of the worms are similar. The adult organisms live as well as produce eggs in the stomach or intestines of the infected sheep. The fertile eggs pass through the body with manure. They hatch outside and the mobile versions of infective larvae are formed after a series of changes.

• Sheep is considered to be the most susceptible animal for parasites. Adult sheep will be relatively resistant to parasites [29].

• It is important to deworm the ram just before a prior presentation of them to the ewes in order to develop a sustainable deworming process for the reproductive season. This is considered to be an effective measure for farming as this can enable the farmer to achieve a situation not to deal with unnecessary trouble to handle the parasites of the ram during mating period

• It is important to deworm the rams at least before a time period of 2 months before the mating season for controlling round-worms and nasal bot (responsible for the sinus cavities) at the larval stage [29].

3.6.3.2 List of worms

(Refer to appendix).

3.6.3.3 Symptoms

• Sheep stool should be dry and look like pellets as seen in this picture (Figure 3).

• If you notice a change in the appearance of your sheep stool, something is amiss and you need to know what is going on [30].

Figure 3.

Worm-affected sheep-dung. Source: Zaitsev et al. [30].

3.6.3.4 Procedure

There are different strategies that are followed for deworming, each of these have some benefits as well as drawbacks. The three most common strategies that are generally recommended are salvage deworming, tactical deworming, and strategic deworming.

• Salvage deworming is useful for controlling of the animals hosting majority of the worms. This involves the FAMACHA technique to identify the level of anemia among sheep. The beneficial factors for this strategy incorporate the reduction in use of dewormer and providing resistance at the same time [26, 27, 28, 30].

• Tactical deworming process involves the treatment of animals when the egg production rate id highest among the animals and restricting of use of deformers during low parasite concentration.

• In case of strategic deworming involves target parasites in cognitive instead of the entire environment. Ewes should be dewormed 3 weeks before the expected birth of their first lamb, and every 3–4 weeks thereafter until they are 3 weeks old [26, 28].

3.6.3.5 Importance

• Deworming can be a useful measure for sheep-farming considering different factors including climate, season along with different types of pasture. This can be evaluated as a supplemental to flush-feeding as it terminates the harmful effects caused by internal parasites. These effects on sheep include anemia, reduced appetite, nasal worm and others [30].

• The procedure of sperm-development requires a time period of average 50 days. So the rams need to be in healthy conditions 2 months before the mating season starts to ensure good-quality sperm.

• Although internal parasites are considered to have less harmful effect in lower temperature, the measures against these parasites must be taken properly during winter [30].

• The most important worms that are more harmful for the rams include liver fluke, roundworms and others. Roundworms impact on the appetite and that can lead to anemia. The body conditions along with semen production can be affected by anemia. Liver fluke can affect liver functions due to reduction in hormone production along with poor protein and energy synthesis as well as reduced storing of trace minerals (Zn, Cu and Se) required for optimum sperm production [27, 28, 29].

3.7 Post harvest management

3.7.1 Shearing

Sheep which is the main source of wool generate a sustainable livelihood option for the people belonging to economically weaker section. Sheep shearing is a method in which the sheep’s woolen fleece is removed from the thin layer of the body. Nearly all sheep requires proper shearing once per year. The best two seasons for shearing are autumn and spring though sheep may be sheared at any time of a year as long as there is enough wool makes the animal warm in winter. In summer the wool of sheep become also tangled and dirty, holding manure, burrs, and other materials when they contact with them. Sheep may be sheared before lambing, because the wool quality of the pregnant ewes (after lambing) may be reduced [31].

3.7.2 Types of shearing

Shearing is broadly divided into two types. They are Hand shearing process and Machine shearing process. Hand shearing is the process of shearing in which woolen fleece is cut off with the help of specialized scissors. In Machine shearing process power –driven blade or cutter is used to remove the fleece in a particular pattern. Machine shearing is more advantageous process than Hand shearing as it takes less time to complete the whole process and provides smooth shaving. It generates suitable length and higher quality of wool after shearing. The probability of wounds and cut are lesser than the formal one [31, 32].

3.7.3 Slaughter house

Slaughter house is defined as the place where sheep are slaughtered to generate good quality of meat for human consumption. Based on process adopted for slaughtering, slaughter house is classified into three major groups. They are Manual slaughtering, Semi mechanized and Mechanized [33].

3.7.4 Slaughter house management

A special management is constructed for a proper slaughter house where by the shearing, skinning, cutting and all other functions can be done very hygienically. The room of slaughter house should be cleaned and disinfected for processing slaughtering. Re-usable, biodegradable and eco-friendly packets are used for meat packaging. Equipment machinery and skilled labor is also required for ideal slaughterhouse. According to their job deviation, unique color, identical specific number of garments are provided to all labor to easily identify them and give instruction to all workers. Personal kits and full range of tools are supplied to every worker to protect themselves for any type of injury in the process of slaughtering. To avoid contamination, the sterilization of equipments should be done properly and all the procedures should be organized in separate way. The all chemicals used in this process are environmental friendly. After slaughtering all of waste products (animal skin, fats, non consumable, livestock components etc) are collected and sent it to the specialized factory for further manufacturing. Training courses are also given to the all employees how to upgrade their skills, knowledge and all management continuously in health & security issues [31, 32, 33, 34].

3.7.5 Storage

The storage is essential after slaughtering process to protect meat from contamination as well restrict the enzymatic activities. Meat can be protected by using different methods.

• Cold storage: Temperature is an important factor for bacterial growth and the growth can be restricted under 3°C. Fresh meat can be stored under this temperature for 7–8 days [34].

• Freezing: Freezing is another process that can be considered for storage of meat. A rapid freezing process is the most beneficial one for commercial use (Figure 4).

• Vacuum: The most common process for meat storage is vacuum as it eliminates oxygen from the packaging. So the chances for bacterial growth are reduced [34, 35].

• Canning: Canning is second most used process for meat storage. In this process, meat is packed in a metal container and then heated to avoid the potential bacteria that can spoil food.

• Drying: It is also a common method for preserving meat. In this process, the moist is removed for restricting the growth of microorganism [35].

• Other procedures for meat preservations include fermentation, irradiation, curing and smoking.

Figure 4.

Frozen meat. Source: Google (2023).

3.7.6 Manuring

Sheep manure is the organic, natural fertilizer which is produced from the waste product of sheep. It is rich in essential nutrient like nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium which is important for the growth and development of plant. It also helps to maintain and retain the moisture of the soil, reduce compaction and organic matter that improve drainage system. It can promote better yielding and reduce fertilizer leaching. It contains beneficial bacteria and fungi that improves the texture of the soil by increasing the quantity of micronutrient in the soil. It is also an effective weed suppressant due to high quantity of nitrogen in the soil [36].

4. Conclusion

Sheep farming is one of the most profitable business ventures for the farmers that cost less investment and provides greater profit. This research is conducted with the help of a secondary data-base. The data is collected from different secondary sources such as different journals, research papers and other data to acquire a detailed idea about sheep farming. The housing management for sheep farming requires a certain type of arrangement for an easy access for delivery and manuring handling needs to be available in case of a barn. Cross-ventilation at the breeding places, a particular dimension of 1 m x 1 m is and availability of clean and fresh water is essential. To avail the breeding management for sheep, ratio of body weight and number of both male and female sheep are required to be maintained. Both male and female sheep are supposed to be prepared by using parameters such as the sheep of age of 6–8 months and the number of ration of male and female can be 1:20. Progeny testing is also an important for sheep farming as it increases the selection accuracy and promotes the generation of superior quality breeds and some disadvantages can also be pointed out such as it is time consuming and having a prolonged time-period for completing the procedure. In order to accomplish a proper nutritional aspects, 2–3 liter of water/kg dry fodder is required, about an increase in protein of 50% during pregnancy and 100% during lactation, 15 of the minerals which are known as essential elements along with vitamin A and vitamin E are required. A mobile based identification has been proposed for sheep framing. The sheep are given several vaccinations including vaccinations against viral, bacterial as well as other diseases and deworming procedures. For the post harvest procedures, shearing, storage of the meat along with manuring is performed.

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our special thanks and gratitude to the current Vice Chancellor, Prof. Dr. S. S. Dana and Ex-vice Chancellor, Dr., T. K. Mondal for helping us with financial resources as well as other help for completing the project. We would also like to thank Department of Bio-technology, Govt. of India.

A. Appendix 1

See (Table A1).

Common name; (Species name)	Symptoms
Barber pole worm; (Haemonchus contortus)	Anemia, pale mucous membranes Low energy
Whipworm; (Trichuris)	Usually no symptoms
Tapeworm; (Moniezia)	Unthrifty appearance, poor hair coat Constipation, diarrhea
Threadworm; (Strongyloides)	Anorexia, weight loss Persistent diarrhea
Threadneck worm; (Nematodirus)	Severe watery, yellow-green diarrhea Dehydration, thirst
Nodular worm; (Oesophagostomum)	Arched back, anemia Stilted gait
Bankrupt worm; (Trichostrongylus)	Anemia Edema (swelling)
Coccidia; (Eimeria and Isospora)	Diarrhea that may have mucus and blood Loss of appetite, rectal prolapse Abdominal distension, colic
Brown stomach worm; (Ostertagia/Teladorsagia)	Unthriftiness Diarrhea Weight loss
Cryptosporidium	Typically affects young animals Severe diarrhea

Table A1.

Diseases and respective symptoms of sheep.