Review Sudan’s Sheep Production: Limitations and Prospects

Abstract

Sudan is home to a large population of indigenous livestock breeds and represents a major source of meat suppliers to the Arab world. Indigenous sheep are critical for the subsistence, economy, and social well-being of large people in Sudan. They have acquired unique features regarding adaptation to the local environmental conditions. Domestic and wild sheep farming in Sudan is covered in this chapter, with a focus on its production systems, production challenges, and production potential. The results indicated that the majority of livestock species including sheep are produced in Kordofan and Darfur States. Two different production systems are used for producing sheep: The conventional low-input production system in remote areas and the modern or semi-intensive production system close to the major cities. The physical characteristics, tribal ownership, or geographic and ecological distribution are used to classify Sudanese sheep. However, Desert sheep types are the most common native sheep populations in Sudan, and they are a significant source of mutton production for both domestic and export markets. Conventional sheep farming systems typically encounter a number of production issues, such as inadequate feed, the prevalence of diseases, and a lack of transportation networks connecting the production and consuming regions. Additionally, structured breeding programs are not available for rural smallholder sheep farmers. These difficulties are probably going to reduce the sustainable production of sheep, their economic value to the country, and their ability to be used to their maximum potential.

1. Introduction

1.1 Sudan overview

Sudan is one of the largest countries in Africa, with a total land area of 1,882,000 square kilometers [1] and a population of 44.4 million [2]. It is situated in eastern sub-Saharan Africa. Since most Sudanese people live in rural areas, their main source of income and security of food comes from agriculture, specifically from crop and animal production. About 40% of Sudan’s workforce is employed in the livestock industry, which provides valuable animal feed for a variety of rural residents [2, 3]. As per the report of the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) on the mission to assess the state and food supply [4]. There are 31 million cattle heads, 40 million sheep, 32 million goats, and 4 million camels in Sudan Figure 1. Cattle and sheep are mostly owned by farmers in the central Sudan, and western regions (Kordofan and Darfur states) [5]. The Darfur region is another place where a predominance of goat ownership is noted. Roughly one-third of rural residents own camels, and those in the Darfur region are more likely to be camel owners [6]. It is noteworthy that sheep comprise almost 37% of all livestock in the country. Sheep are an important social and economic commodity in Sudan, used as a strategic resource for both domestic use and export. They also have a major impact on maintaining rural people who live in extreme poverty, and guaranteeing food security. Live sheep represent Sudan’s primary livestock export since 2000, followed by hides and skins, camels, and goats (Table 1). Most sheep are exported to Saudi Arabia after quarantine [3]. Official statistics capture most trade, except for cross-border trade to Chad, Libya, and Egypt. The selling of livestock makes a substantial contribution to Sudan’s gross domestic product (GDP) and moderately boosts the country’s exports [4]. For instance, more than 60% of the GDP of the agricultural sector is derived from livestock, with agricultural crops accounting for the remaining 40% or so.

Figure 1.

Sudan: Estimates of livestock population by state (head) 2021. Source: [5].

Item	Livestock species				Total
	Cattle	Sheep	Goat	Camel
Numbers (‘000)	41,563	51,555	43,270	4521	140,909
Total meat production (‘000 tons)	1252	313	151	125	1841
Total milk production (‘000 tons)					7406
Total hides and skins (number)					34,165
Total live animal exports (number)	19,265	1,510,996	104,630	154,477	1,789,368
Total meat exports (tons)	18.4	1765.6	1	—	785

Table 1.

Livestock numbers and livestock products in Sudan, 2009.

Generally speaking, sheep are important to Sudan’s livestock industry; live sheep exports have made up the majority of GDP. While the government’s livestock authorities have recently made great efforts to oversee a number of secondary and terminal livestock markets in an effort to increase the country’s revenue, Sudanese sheep marketing is still characterized by customs and unofficial organizations [7]. Additionally, the primary methods of producing sheep in the country are still traditional pastoral (nomadic and semi-nomadic), agro-pastoral, and transhumance systems, each of which has its own set of challenges. However, little is known about the real husbandry and management techniques of sheep, the infrastructure needed for them, or the technological obstacles that impede the long-term execution of sustainable genetic improvement projects, even though sheep are highly valuable and abundant in Sudan. Finding production bottlenecks, implementing better husbandry management techniques, and utilizing contemporary livestock production technologies are the only ways to attain sustainable sheep production and consequently improve farmers’ livelihoods and the country’s economy. This work examines sheep production systems, the challenges to production, and the infrastructure and technical issues as the most relevant aspects that affect the local sheep breed’s sustainable use in low-input systems. With the production challenges, there was also a discussion of potential future initiatives for the Sudanese indigenous sheep breeds.

2. Methodology

A thorough review of the literature was done to gather information regarding sheep farming in Sudan using the Google Scholar and Web of Science internet. To conduct a screening process of articles, we use a combination of keywords, such as Sudan sheep, and parameters of interest (e.g., types of sheep, geographical distribution, production system, flock management, performance, production challenges), as well as the use of the specific local name for sheep as a keyword (e.g., Hamari sheep Kabashi, etc.). Following the screening process, reviewed papers were grouped based on the study’s objectives. This arrangement formed the basic framework for the current study as noted in Sections 3 and 4 below.

3. Sudan sheep

3.1 Types of sheep in Sudan

The Sudan desert sheep are a subset of African long-legged sheep and members of the thin-tailed hair sheep group. They are limited to the semi-arid climate zone of Sudan, which is located north of latitude 10 degrees north and stretches east into Eritrea and west into Chad (http://dagris.ilri.cgiar.org/). Sudan’s native sheep are traditionally divided into several ecotypes based on their geographic location or tribal ownership. The most popular indigenous desert sheep breeds in Sudan are shown in Figures 2–6, whereas Figure 3 illustrates the regions in which these breeds are raised. For example, in Western Sudan States, Kabashi sheep are found in northern Kordofan and northern Darfur, and Hamary sheep are found in south-western Kordofan and south-eastern Darfur, and Zagawi and Meidobe breeds (which are not shown in the Figures) are found in northern Darfur. Ashgar, Dobasi, and Watish (shown in Figures 4–6) are the names of three subtypes of desert sheep that are found in the western regions of the White Nile, the northern Gazeri of central Sudan, and the Blue Nile State, respectively. These breeds are categorized mostly based on physical characteristics, animal production properties, geographic and ecological distribution, and tribe ownership. But recently, the native sheep of Sudan have been described using molecular techniques. For example, [10] conducted research on 11 groups of Sudanese sheep in 2010. These populations were the Hammari, Kabbashi, Meidobe, Ashgar, Dubasi, Watish, Bega, Naili, Fulani (West African), Zagawi (Arid upland), and Garag. They found distinct differences between the West African population and the others. The Desert Dongola sheep were also different from other Desert populations. The West African, Arid upland and Nilotic populations were grouped, while the Desert and Nil desert populations showed mixed clusters, indicating cross-breeding. Mitochondrial analysis showed the prevalence of the B haplotype in all populations, with some sheep carrying the A haplotype. This suggests that Sudan may be a contact zone between Asian and African sheep ancestors [10].

Figure 2.

Indigenous sheep of Sudan, Hamary. Photograph source: https://www.agriculturia.com/2023/01/Hammari-sheep.html.

Figure 3.

Indigenous sheep of Sudan, Kabashi. Photograph source: [8].

Figure 4.

Indigenous sheep of Sudan, Ashgar. Photograph source: [9].

Figure 5.

Indigenous sheep of Sudan, Watich. Photograph source: [9].

Figure 6.

Indigenous sheep of Sudan, Dobasi. Photograph source: [9].

Recently, [8] studied the diverse Sudanese sheep populations (thin-tailed) along with Ethiopian and Libyan sheep (fat-tailed) aiming to understand their genome structure and population diversity. The analysis revealed three distinct genetic groups based on tail morphotype, geographical distribution, and population subtype. Thin-tailed Sudanese sheep were separate from fat-tailed Ethiopian and Libyan sheep, and there was also differentiation between fat-tailed Ethiopian and Libyan sheep. The study provides insights into the population structure and principal components related to tail morphotype, geographical distribution, and population subtype of Sudanese sheep populations. These sheep groups’ unique genetic variations may be the cause of their distribution across several geographical regions with unfavorable climatic conditions. Analysis of mitochondrial DNA has also shown some genetic differentiation among three subtypes of Sudan desert sheep [11]. Also, significant efforts are ongoing aimed at discovering genetic potential of Sudan desert sheep to identify variants for association with litter size, using a molecular approach. The molecular genetics has shown to be a very useful tool for determining the genetic variation found within breeds and for examining the links between animal populations. All of these research findings could be used as a guide to build successful breeding plans for the conservation and long-term improvement of local breeds in Sudan.

3.2 Production systems of sheep in Sudan

Generally speaking, there are two main types of sheep production systems in the country: traditional systems and improved modernized systems. Three subsystems comprise the traditional system: pastoral nomadism, sedentary and semi-sedentary agro-pastoralism, and transhumance. The nomadic pastoralists depend on rangelands and move their animals where feed and water are available. It is the primary source of meat for both local consumption and export. Sheep farmers who use rain-fed agriculture and send their animals with nomads to graze on local agricultural by-products are part of the sedentary and semi-sedentary system. In this situation, agricultural items are the primary source of food and money for farmers, whereas sheep are generally raised as a source of extra cash. In an agro-pastoral system, farmers receive a reduced percentage of their revenue from livestock as opposed to a pastoral system, when farmers primarily rely on animals for food and cash [11].

Modern/intensive sheep fattening is for commercial production purposes. This system is most visible in large cities, where it supports both domestic consumption and export during market times. Sheep are transported over great distances from the country’s western regions to urban areas and marketplaces in feedlots for fattening. However, recent conflicts in Darfur have rendered grazing sites and stock routes unavailable, necessitating the use of remote routes and increased marketing prices [12].

3.3 Production performance of indigenous sheep

Sudanese sheep are highly productive, capable of having several lams per year, and grow rapidly. Some production and reproduction characteristics of the most common Sudan desert sheep are presented in Table 2. Compared to Watich, Ashgar, and Dobasi, the breeds of Hammari and Kabashi had greater mature weights and daily weight gains. The overall productivity of the flock and the financial return from the sheep production enterprise are largely determined by the growth performance of the flock. At lambing, Sudan Desert sheep on average weigh about 4.0 kg, and after 5 months, they weigh 18–20 kg. Female sheep weigh over 30 kg at 1 year, but their growth rate slows down, resulting in weights of 36 kg at 2 years and 40 kg at 3 years. Male sheep weigh approximately 50% more than females of the same age. In Southern Darfur, under traditional grazing system, typically ewes give birth between the ages of 13 and 15 months. For certain breeds, this age is roughly 14 months at the El Huda station (Table 2). The age of first lambing is postponed to almost 2 years if a 35 kg conception weight is necessary before access to rams is permitted. The average litter size is 1.14 in the traditional system, but it improves to 1.22 for the three subtypes studied at El Huda. The traditional system has a greater yearly reproduction rate because of the shorter lambing interval, even though there are more lambs born at the station per parturition. At birth, Sudan Desert sheep weigh about 4.0 kg, and after 5 months, they weigh 18–20 kg. Female sheep weigh over 30 kg at 1 year, but their growth rate slows down, resulting in weights of 36 kg at 2 years and 40 kg at 3 years. Male sheep weigh approximately 50 percent more than females of the same age. Dressing percentages in well-finished sheep approach 50 percent, but this varies depending on nutrition, particularly dietary fiber.

Parameter	Hammari	Kabashi	Breed Ashgar	Watich	Dobasi
Geographical region	Western Sudan	Western Sudan	Central Sudan	Eastern Sudan	Central Sudan
Dominant Color	Brown/dark brown	Multicolored	Light brown	White	White/black
Tail type	Long, thin-tail	Long, thin-tail	Long, thin-tail	Long, thin-tail	Long, thin-tail
Fiber type	Hairy	Hairy	Hairy	Hairy	Hairy
Mature weight (Kg)	64–90	60–80	46	20–60	19.5
Daily weight gain (g)	87–134	160	141	122	157
Age at first laming(month)	8–12	7–10	14	14	14
Litter size	—	—	1.027	0.93	0.83

Table 2.

An overview of some characteristics of the most common Sudan desert sheep breeds.

Sources: [3, 13, 14, 15].

Comparisons of productivity between the station management system and traditional farm management system provide valuable insights beyond performance evaluation and encompass management considerations. All three sheep subtypes in El Huda Station perform similarly, although noticeably worse, than comparable sheep types in South Darfur when using the conventional method. The disparities between the systems stem from differences in breeding control, resulting in suboptimal reproductive performance with extended lambing intervals and delayed ages at first lambing. The traditional system also has high mortality rates. To achieve long-term improvements, selecting superior stock from local populations is crucial [3].

3.4 Sheep production challenges

Given the immense potential of sheep and Sudan’s mutton self-sufficiency, the following sheep production challenges are significant:

3.4.1 Inadequate water and animal feeds

As stated previously, free grazing of rangelands is the most common feeding system for sheep production in the semi-arid rangelands of Sudan, primarily in the western states of Kordofan and Darfur. Generally, rainfall patterns in semi-arid ecological regions are unpredictable and irregular. A paucity of water resources, as well as lack of pasture and quality feeds, have been cited as important hurdles to sheep production in the semi-arid rangelands [16]. This is due to the fact that sheep must travel long distances in search of pastures and drinking water, while farmers in this area rely on seasonal streams, rainfall, boreholes, and wells for their water sources. In addition, the nutritional deficiency of dry-season grazing places a significant restriction on sustainable sheep production in traditional systems where grazing is the only source of animal feed [17]. Besides, the majority of sheep flock graze on the same pasture together under traditional natural grazing practices, even though each animal has different nutritional needs due to their different physiological status. This is done without providing additional concentrated feeding. Nonetheless, animals that do not receive supplemental feeding in poor grazing pastures are frequently undernourished and more susceptible to diseases, which lowers their ability to reproduce and yields less [18]. Therefore, mitigation strategies should be implemented on various fronts to lower the aforementioned production hurdles linked with a lack of feed and water for sustainable sheep production. In rangeland areas experiencing water scarcity, these strategies might involve installing roadside water harvesting sites, and other water sources. For grazing animals to reach a fair level of productivity during the late grazing season, or dry season, supplementary must be provided. Moreover, the most important aspect of managing grazing is choosing the right stocking rate; this rate should be adjusted seasonally or annually to account for changes in fodder yield and carrying capacity.

3.4.2 Fragmentation of the rangelands

Grazing land is the most widespread land use category, spanning about 12 degrees latitude from the northern border of the tsetse fly in the south to the desert in the north [19]. Nonetheless, the main threat to livestock production is the fragmentation of grazing lands, which has been accelerated by the expansion of urban areas, mechanized farming, and the development of rural areas. The spread of armed conflicts in areas rich in flora has also contributed to the fragmentation of the livestock grazing lands. For instance, grazing areas in Gedaref State fell from 78.5% in 1941 to 18.6 percent in 2002 [20], while mechanized farming increased by 725 percent. Between 1973 and 1999, 33% of pastoral land in El Obeid, North Kordofan, was destroyed, while cultivated land rose by 57%. Darfur has lost around 60% of its natural pastures [20, 21]. Overstocking and rising tensions between livestock herders and farmers have also resulted from the growth of agricultural land, with the customary practice of permitting nomads to graze crop wastes diminishing [22]. Furthermore, overstocking is the leading cause of soil deterioration in Sudan, especially near communities and water supplies. Pastoralists are frequently criticized, however, historical studies reveal that intensive grazing and firewood harvesting generated small deserts surrounding villages [19]. Animals belonging to nomads often avoid villages, where grazing is reserved for cultivators’ cattle. According to a study on desertification in North Darfur, rain-fed cultivation beyond the agronomic dry limit and sedentary animal breeding is the most damaging. Taking into account the rangelands fragmentation issues described above, some traditional grazing systems may be modified and sheep farmers may resort to intensive or semi-intensive production strategies when grazing land has decreased owing to urbanization. While there are certain benefits to intensification of production, such as reduced risk of certain diseases, proper nourishment, and shelter, it also comes with higher investment in inputs (i.e., supplementary feeding, husbandry, and management practices) to support production under a controlled environment, that could raise the cost of sheep farming. Therefore, to find out whether sheep producers are open to adopting a high-intensity production system and whether it is economically feasible, more research is necessary.

3.4.3 Prevalence of diseases

Sheep are susceptible to a wide range of infectious agents, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and various parasites, such as worms and protozoa. Malignant ovine theileriosis, which is caused by Theileria lestoquardi [23], and East Coast Fever, which is caused by Theileria parva, are two examples of the most common parasitic infections in sheep. On the other hand, Foot and Mouth Disease, a highly contagious viral infection of animals with cloven hooves, is caused by a virus that belongs to the Aphthovirus genus in the Picornaviridae family. These diseases are recognized for their significant financial costs and ongoing threat to the country’s efforts to increase its animal riches. Contributing factors to the prevalence of these diseases include: the underutilization of veterinary services, as public animal health services are typically not available to livestock producers in remote areas of Sudan, and government funding for veterinary services has lately declined nationwide. Nowadays, the commercial sector typically offers veterinary services at exorbitant costs, primarily in urban areas distant from rural areas [24]. Additionally, poor animal management practices can have a role in the spread of diseases. For instance, inadequate housing is a serious problem as well since it compromises animal well-being and lowers output. In Sudan, housing constructions for sheep are built from a variety of materials, including wooden poles, thorn bushes, or iron sheets depending on the availability of these materials. The flooring could be dirt, concrete, or sand. Bedding may or may not be available. The mud can build up in most wood-built stalls since they usually have poor drainage, which is especially problematic in the rainy seasons. This makes it difficult to keep sheep’s house clean and puts animals at risk of diseases such as ticks as well as animal injuries. Since the majority of Sudanese sheep farmers also raise other animals in addition to sheep, they are frequently preoccupied with the management of different species of farm-related tasks. This can keep them from spending enough time taking care of their sheep’s management, which includes making sure they are healthy, detecting estrus, and getting enough food and water. Diseases are more disseminated among various animals as a result of uncontrolled animal movement [25]. Failure to adequately clean and sterilize the animal’s houses allows pathogenic organisms to grow and infect the animals. Furthermore, grazing on communal pastures spreads bovine disease throughout the community’s sheep flock. Therefore, disease prevention measures such as access to medications, vaccines, and veterinarians, as well as the implementation of appropriate management techniques, must receive special attention. This could be accomplished by creating an animal management health plan that considers the diseases present in each production system within the country. Therefore, the veterinarian needs to be fully informed on the environmental dynamics of sheep operations. Improvement of the production environment is one of the actions that must be done, regardless of whether the animals are kept in the traditional or intensive production system. Any component that negatively affects the host immune system must also be treated. These could include an underlying medical condition, stress, or dietary inadequacies. An effective health management plan should prioritize animal welfare, farm sustainability, and pathological disorder prevention over treatments. In the same perspective, the development of high-performing vaccinations that are customized to local conditions appears to be critical for the survival of sustainable livestock systems for small ruminants. Precision livestock farming (PLF) is a relatively new technique for improving animal management and welfare while also acquiring a better understanding of animal behavior [26]. It is currently used in intensive production systems, but it may also be effective in pasture-based systems where animal control can be problematic due to the physical size, variety, and density of the feed base. Using PLF technologies (i.e., sensor technology) could make it easier to follow the animals and treat any health issues before they spread to the entire flock [27]. The primary requirement for the viability of PLF implementation in pasture-based systems is a large labor reduction, both to pay for the acquisition of PLF technologies and to reap the financial rewards of the investment [28].

In the very remoteness of rural areas, educating farmers to become community-based animal health workers could be one alternative for providing livestock health services in rural areas. According to studies in Zimbabwe [29] and Gambia [30] rural community para-veterinarians are able to offer livestock health services including vaccination and livestock treatments, resolving the limited ability of national veterinary healthcare and addressing the livestock health needs of small-scale farmers in remote settings.

3.4.4 Inappropriate breeding strategies

The main driving force for improvement in genetics is the collection of animal performance information and pedigrees. Measurements that are plentiful and accurate contribute to efficient selection [17]. However, it was noted that Sudan’s traditional sheep farming system lacked an official system for tracking animal identity and performance [8]. Rather, sheep farmers mostly rely on their traditional knowledge, memory, and experiences, to manage their flock which can occasionally be inaccurate and misleading [8]. For example, selecting animals without performance histories as Sudanese sheep farmer does remains a hurdle to the genetic improvement of the indigenous sheep. Lack of awareness about potential benefits of documenting performance records and the low literacy rate among livestock owners are major factors for neglecting to maintain written records in Sudan. It did find, however, that farmers with higher levels of education were more likely to start keeping records [24]. Thus, encouraging sheep farmers to preserve written records could be one way to improve record-keeping. Farmers can readily and cooperatively get this kind of education with the help of creative farmers’ organizations.

It is believed that the Sudan Livestock Ministry is not doing enough to promote the indigenous livestock breeds. The government of Sudan has established sheep research stations in places where there is a concentration of sheep in an attempt to enhance the native breeds of sheep. For instance, the El-Elnuhood Research Station in El-Obeid, Western Sudan, for the improvement of Hamari Desert subtypes, and the EI-Huda National Sheep Research Station in Central Sudan, Gezira Provine, for the improvement of Shugor, Dobasi, and Watish sheep Desert subtypes. However, these institutions have gotten worse as a result of several problems with funding, infrastructure, administrative, and technical management. In addition, sheep farmers lacked access to superior genetics and were not actively involved in the operations of the established sheep research stations, which hindered them from successfully improving their flock. There is a need to empower the community of smallholder sheep farmers to be members of breeding program organizations and effective partners in development of the indigenous sheep breeds. The establishment of village breeding organizations with aid from relevant national livestock institutions could provide a chance for the local sheep’s genetics to be improved in the future. Worldwide, farmers’ cooperatives have had success with breeding projects for a number of livestock species, frequently with the assistance of important stakeholders including the government and corporate groups [31, 32]. As an alternative to central breeding schemes, such breeding initiatives have been proposed and are being implemented in many developing countries, including Africa. From inception to implementation, programs that use this approach address farmers’ requirements, opinions, decisions, and active participation [31]. Village-based breeding organizations intend to start systematic breeding at the community level, including organized animal identification and recording of performance and pedigree data. Farmers can be able to establish connections through associations that facilitate the distribution of necessary inputs for production, such as access to capital, market facilities, and services for genetic development, that is, Artificial insemination (AI) technology and better animal health. Cooperative farmers may be able to leverage genetic improvement methods such as AI and genomic selection. The ability to swiftly implement genetic improvement in situations where pedigree information is unavailable, which is often the case, is the biggest direct benefit of genomic data in Africa [33]. Thus, by combining genomic selection with artificial insemination technology, there is an opportunity to develop new tactics for the genetic progress of sheep breeds in Sudan. However, relevant livestock development organizations may need to provide support for the foundation of a functional association/farmers’ cooperative organization in a typical rural context.

3.4.5 Effect of climatic factors

High ambient temperatures, seasonal and erratic rainfall, and drought are some of the elements that characterize Sub-Saharan Africa’s climate [34]. These and other significant factors can cause a variety of environmental disturbances that are harmful to livestock performance and productivity. Generally speaking, animals in semi-arid areas respond to rising temperatures through changes in their grazing habits. For example, sheep’s feed intake is suppressed due to high ambient temperatures and water scarcity, which can cause physiological disturbances and reduce the animals’ production. However, farmers practice some husbandry management to mitigate the advert effects of heat stressors. In Sudan, desert sheep farmers practice night grazing during the dry seasons to reduce sheep demand for water and protect them from extreme temperatures. In Kordofan, western Sudan, the sheep breeding season is typically scheduled from January to March, coinciding with the rainy season when lambs are born. However, as the breeding and gestation periods fall during the dry season when range lands have the lowest nutritional quality, this puts breeding and pregnant ewes under nutritional stress. In addition, these breeding management practices may restrict the annual number of lambs born thus, consequently, reducing the profit gained from the lam sale under such a production system. It appears that under the current system of management, farmers may not be able to handle the inherent characteristics of the climate, such as droughts and high temperatures, and may even make matters worse for the production of sheep in a sustainable manner. Under severe climate influence, sustainable sheep production typically necessitates concurrent efforts in animal diet, health, and genetic enhancement. Innovative stress-reduction strategies, such as vitamin C and antioxidant dietary supplements, can mitigate the negative effects of water stress on sheep [35]. Breeding animals for increased resilience can also be important to withstand environmental stresses throughout time while retaining or even increasing their productivity [36]. However, further research is required to find out how tolerant Sudan Desert sheep are to heat stress before appropriate action can be taken.

4. Wild sheep

4.1 Classification

The lack of a comprehensive assessment of the morphological differences and the ambiguous morphological distinctiveness of the subspecies have left the taxonomy of the aoudad unclear [37]. Furthermore, there is continuous disagreement about the exact geographic ranges of the subspecies that have been described. As such, determining the geographical limits of the subspecies and evaluating their validity is crucial. Because hybridization occurs and differences between subspecies are not always evident, using morphological traits alone to distinguish between them is out of date and insufficient. A thorough genetic examination of individuals from every community is essential to reevaluate the aoudad subspecies. By using this technique, it would be easier to identify genetic units, rewrite sub-specific criteria, and put suitable conservation measures in place [38].

4.2 Geographical range of barbary sheep

Barbary sheep can be found across North Africa, however, they are most prevalent in Tunisia, North Libya, and East Algeria [39]. The name comes from the Berbers, who were historically inhabitants of North Africa. Six subspecies have been identified based on morphological traits, with Ammotragus lervia (Atlas Aoudad) found throughout the Atlas Mountain Range in Morocco, northern Algeria, and Tunisia. Aoudads were once found in diverse and rugged terrains across North Africa. The population size of Barbary sheep is estimated to be between 5000 and 10,000 mature individuals [40]. In Algeria, several thousand Aoudads are estimated to inhabit the country [41]. In Egypt, Aoudads were previously believed to be extinct but are now locally abundant in the Eastern and Western Deserts M.A. Saleh, in [42].

4.3 The barbary sheep in Sudan

Sudan has many important and globally threatened species of mammals, birds, reptiles, plants, and endemics. Barbary sheep, Aoudads are found in the Hassaniya Mountains Reserve and eastern Sudan. The population of Barbary sheep in Sudan is unknown, however, it is generally believed to be exceedingly rare and probably in decline due to several factors including habitat degradation, particularly from wood harvesting, cattle grazing, drought, and desertification. For the meat and trophy value, many animals are hunted and traded in the game trade. The extraction of resources and construction of roads also contribute to the displacement and degradation of their natural habitat, making them more vulnerable to poachers in these remote areas [40]. Generally, the simultaneous threat of illegal hunting for non-meat trophies and illegal hunting for bush meat has resulted in serious environmental effects for many wild species, as well as the inability to reap the long-term economic and subsistence benefits of wildlife. This will have an impact on protection, but when paired with other pet foods, it will have a good long-term impact on food safety [43].

4.4 Conservation action in Sudan

Barratry sheep are included in CMS Appendix II and are classified as “Vulnerable” on the IUCN Red List. The Wildlife Research Center held a conversation on Barbary sheep conservation in Sudan to address the perilous status of the species. During the discussion, experts stressed the need for more data on the species. Nonetheless, knowing that Barbary sheep exist in Sudan is positive news, and measures are being taken to improve conservation efforts in Sudan’s protected areas. Reintroduction efforts in appropriate locations, expert consultation, and habitat protection are suggested conservation methods. Success depends on stopping overgrazing and poaching. Projects aimed at maintaining the population should begin with captive breeding. To guarantee the aoudad’s survival and recovery, quick action is required.

5. Conclusion

In conclusion, it can be deduced that in Sudan, sheep farmers primarily raised their flocks for mutton production. The fact that sheep exports were favored above other livestock species and that sheep farmers largely relied on the sale of sheep as their major source of income for their households made this more obvious. Indigenous sheep breeds need to have a well-planned breeding program to improve their genetics because it is often considered that they have limited genetic potential. However, it is necessary to address the production limitations and the subpar infrastructure that were found in the sheep-producing zone. To maintain the adaptability of livestock production systems and to support the continued development of rural areas, it is also important to preserve the genetic diversity of the indigenous sheep. Wild Barbary sheep are a valuable part of our national heritage, with diverse and beautiful forms across different countries. It is our duty to protect and preserve them for future generations. Establishing cooperative entities in their habitats and involviing all stakeholders is crucial for their conservation. The wild Barbary sheep, which is restricted to the Hassaniya Mountains Reserve in the Nile River State, is currently regarded as an endangered species. Due to uncontrolled poaching, habitat fragmentation, competition from domestic animals for grazing space, timber collection, drought, and desertification, its population is in decline. We concluded that a carefully thought-out breeding program is crucial to increasing output and profitability for local sheep owners and supporting domestic and export markets. Additionally, special emphasis must be placed to addressing issues with sheep production under traditional production systems in Sudan, such as disease control measures and the implementation of appropriate management practices. It might be advised to start breeding programs for managing the endangered Barbary sheep in a captive setting. Moreover, it could be advantageous to find alternate pet food sources to guarantee food security for Barbary sheep in their natural environments.

Acknowledgments

We extend our sincere gratitude to all the esteemed authors whose invaluable research findings have significantly contributed to the development of this chapter. Additionally, we would like to express our heartfelt appreciation to my younger sister, Tarteel Hassan, for her unwavering support throughout this endeavor.

Conflict of interest

The authors affirm no conflict of interest that could influence the research findings.

Acronyms and abbreviations

AL	artificial insemination
C1 ver 3	version 3.1 of the categories and criteria of (The International Union for Conservation of Nature)
CMS	the convention on migratory species
FAO	food and agricultural organization
FMD	foot and mouth disease
GDP	gross domestic product
ICPALD	centre for pastoral areas and livestock development
IUCN	the international union for conservation of nature
MARF	ministry of animal resources and fisheries
PLF	precision livestock farming
TEV	the total economic valuation
UK	United Kingdom
UNEP	the united nations environment programme
UNDP	United Nations development program
VU	vulnerable