The Role of Nutrition in Enhancing Sustainability in Sheep Production

Abstract

Sheep nutrition is of paramount importance for ensuring sustainable sheep production, regardless of whether it follows traditional or precision methods. Optimal nutrition not only contributes to the well-being and productivity of sheep but also mitigates environmental consequences. Both traditional and precision production systems can adopt responsible management practices to enhance sustainability. These practices encompass maximizing pasture utilization, reducing dependency on synthetic inputs, minimizing waste generation, and implementing efficient feeding strategies. By giving due consideration to the nutritional requirements of sheep and their ecological footprint, sustainable sheep production can be successfully attained across various production systems. It is essential to strike a balance between meeting the nutritional needs of sheep and minimizing environmental impacts to foster a sustainable future for sheep farming.

1. Introduction

Livestock production plays an essential role in the global food system, providing valuable nutrients, creating livelihoods, and contributing to economic development. However, conventional livestock farming practices can have significant environmental, social, and economic impacts. These have catalyzed the need for sustainable approaches in livestock production.

Livestock farming contributes to several environmental issues. It is estimated that livestock is responsible for approximately 14.5% of global greenhouse gas emissions, primarily methane, nitrous oxide, and carbon dioxide. Besides emissions, overgrazing, water overextraction, and deforestation for pasture expansion can lead to land degradation and loss of biodiversity [1].

Producing animal-based foods typically requires more resources than plant-based foods. For example, it takes about 15,500 liters of water to produce 1 kilogram of beef, compared to 250 liters for 1 kilogram of potatoes [2]. Sustainable practices aim to optimize the conversion of inputs (like feed and water) to outputs (like meat or milk), reducing resource use and waste. Unsustainable livestock practices can exacerbate food insecurity by diverting grain from human consumption to feed livestock. Additionally, intensive livestock operations can sometimes lead to social tensions due to land disputes, labor issues, and concerns about animal welfare [3].

Overreliance on antibiotics in livestock farming has been linked to increased antibiotic resistance in humans, posing significant public health threats [4]. Moreover, the spread of zoonotic diseases can be exacerbated by intensive farming practices where animals are kept in confined spaces. Sustainable livestock systems can better withstand external shocks such as droughts, diseases, and market fluctuations. By preserving genetic diversity, promoting healthy ecosystems, and optimizing resource use, these systems become more adaptable to changing conditions [5].

The adoption of sustainable livestock practices is not just a matter of environmental preservation—it is a multifaceted approach that ensures the long-term viability of the livestock sector while addressing economic, social, and health concerns. Sheep have been an integral part of human agriculture for thousands of years, serving diverse roles in different cultures and economies around the world. Their contribution is manifold, from providing essential commodities to playing a role in land management. One of the primary significances of sheep lies in their versatility. Sheep are raised for various products, including meat (lamb or mutton), wool, milk, and hides. In many parts of the world, sheep milk is further processed to produce cheese and yogurt, offering added value to the agricultural chain. Sheep are often employed in pasture-based systems, which can have ecological advantages. They can graze areas that might be unsuitable for crops or other livestock, converting marginal lands into productive systems. Additionally, they can play a role in managing weeds and improving soil structure through their grazing patterns, thereby contributing to sustainable land management and enhancing biodiversity [3].

Sheep farming plays a crucial role in the livelihoods of millions, particularly in developing countries where they provide a source of income and food security. Smallholder sheep farming systems are very common and often integrated with crop production, enabling diversification of income and risk mitigation. Beyond their tangible contributions, sheep have significant cultural and traditional values in many societies. They play roles in religious ceremonies and traditional festivities and have symbolic meanings in various cultures [6].

Sheep have become vital in the realm of scientific research. Due to their physiological similarities with humans in certain areas, they serve as model organisms for studying various diseases and conditions. This has furthered advances in medical research and understanding [7].

In essence, the global importance of sheep in agriculture is multifaceted, ranging from direct economic contributions to intangible cultural values. They remain a cornerstone species in many agricultural systems, underlining their continued relevance in the ever-evolving global agricultural landscape.

The following table summarizes the main ideas of each of the topics covered, providing a clear picture of the benefits, challenges, and potential solutions associated with sustainable nutritional practices in sheep production (Table 1).

Topic	Description	Benefits	Challenges	Potential solutions
Rotational grazing	A system where livestock move between pasture sections, allowing rest and regrowth	Improved soil health, enhanced biodiversity, and better forage quality	Requires planning, fencing, and more hands-on management	Use of digital pasture mapping tools and farm management software
Local feed sources	Feeds produced and used within the same geographic region	Reduced transport costs and emissions, support for local economy	Might not always meet nutritional needs, seasonal variations	Develop storage facilities, diversify local feed crops
Alternative feeds	Using specific seaweed species as a supplement	Significant reduction in methane emissions from ruminants	Determining the right amount, sourcing in large quantities	Cultivating specific methane-reducing seaweed species
	Using insects like black soldier fly larvae as protein sources	Highly sustainable, rich in protein	Public perception, establishing large-scale production	Educational campaigns, developing cost-effective insect farming methods
Water efficiency	Strategies to optimize water use in both feed production and direct consumption	Conserves water, reduces costs, and ensures animal well-being	Changing climate can affect water availability, infrastructure costs	Rainwater harvesting, drought-resistant forages, water recycling systems
Case studies	Real-world examples of farms practicing sustainable sheep nutrition	Proof of concept, demonstrates real-world benefits	Each region has unique challenges, making direct replication difficult	Adaptive management, local community involvement, continuous learning

Table 1.

Key points of the nutritional practices enhancing sustainability in sheep production.

2. Methodology

The authors have written this chapter with a deep commitment to addressing critical issues in the livestock industry. The idea was to promote sustainable practices in sheep farming. The authors wanted to disseminate knowledge about the essential role of nutrition in achieving sustainability, both ecologically and economically. Through this book, the authors sought to bridge the gap between scientific research and practical application, providing a comprehensive guide for farmers, researchers, and policymakers. By providing a wealth of information, best practices, and evidence-based solutions, the authors have aimed to give readers the tools and knowledge to make informed decisions that will not only benefit their own farms but also contribute to the global effort toward more sustainable and responsible sheep production. In essence, the authors’ goal was to create a resource that inspires positive change, advocates for ethical and environmentally sound practices, and leads the sheep industry toward a more sustainable and prosperous future.

The authors of this chapter have approached the task of writing this book with a meticulously structured framework that seamlessly integrates theoretical and practical dimensions. As experienced specialists in their fields, they have used a multidisciplinary approach, drawing on areas such as animal husbandry, environmental science, nutrition, and sustainable agriculture. This interdisciplinary perspective allows for a comprehensive examination of the complex relationship between nutrition and sustainability in sheep farming. The authors have delved into extensive reviews of the literature, encompassing the latest research findings, technological innovations, and evolving industry trends. The chapter is meticulously organized, progressing from fundamental concepts of sheep nutrition and sustainable practices to real-world applications and case studies, providing readers with a coherent and actionable roadmap for improving their sheep production operations. This comprehensive approach ensures that this book not only informs but also empowers readers to make informed decisions and implement strategies that enhance sustainability while promoting the well-being of both sheep and the environment.

The development of this chapter was driven by a clear and multifaceted purpose. Firstly, the book is designed to serve as a practical guide for farmers, livestock keepers, and professionals in the field. It aims to provide them with the knowledge, tools, and strategies to improve the sustainability of their sheep production practices. In addition, the chapter fulfills an educational role as a comprehensive resource for academic study, research, and teaching, bridging the gap between theory and practice. With its structured sections and well-researched content, the book serves as a basis for further studies and research in the field of sustainable sheep nutrition. Thus, the chapter serves the broader purpose of advancing the sheep farming industry by advocating for sustainable and ethical practices, contributing to the overall growth and resilience of this industry, and providing educational support and a broader vision for a more sustainable, prosperous, and conscientious sheep farming community.

3. Basic nutrition in sheep

Sheep, like all animals, require a balance of essential nutrients for maintenance, growth, reproduction, and lactation. Their digestive system, a complex four-compartment stomach, allows them to efficiently utilize a variety of feeds. The key nutrients that sheep require are the main groups: carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, and vitamins.

Carbohydrates, the primary energy source for sheep, are mainly derived from plant cell walls (fiber like cellulose) and cell contents (sugars and starches). Ruminant animals like sheep have a unique ability to break down fibrous materials, such as grasses, into volatile fatty acids (VFAs) via microbial fermentation in their rumen. These VFAs, especially acetate, propionate, and butyrate, provide a major portion of their energy [8, 9].

Proteins are essential for growth, reproduction, and maintenance of bodily functions. They are composed of amino acids, the building blocks of the body. The microbial population in the sheep’s rumen synthesizes a significant portion of the protein needs from non-protein nitrogen sources. However, high-quality forage and supplemental protein sources, such as soybean meal or alfalfa, can further enhance protein intake [10].

Fats, although a smaller component of the sheep’s diet compared to carbohydrates and proteins, are a concentrated source of energy. Essential fatty acids, like linoleic acid, play roles in numerous physiological processes including reproduction and wool production. Fats can also be a source of essential fat-soluble vitamins [10].

Essential for various physiological functions, minerals like calcium, phosphorus, magnesium, and selenium are crucial. For instance, calcium and phosphorus are vital for bone development, while magnesium plays a role in nerve function and muscle contraction. The availability and balance of these minerals in the diet are essential for preventing diseases such as hypomagnesemia (tetany) or white muscle disease (selenium deficiency) [8].

Sheep require both water-soluble (e.g., B-complex vitamins) and fat-soluble vitamins (e.g., vitamins A, D, E, and K). Many of these vitamins are synthesized by the microbes in the rumen or are sufficiently present in good-quality forages. However, in some conditions or with certain diets, supplementation might be necessary. For instance, vitamin E supplementation can be beneficial for lambs raised in confinement to improve meat quality and shelf life [8].

Understanding and ensuring the balanced provision of these essential nutrients are crucial for optimal health, productivity, and welfare of sheep.

For thousands of years, sheep have been reared in diverse environments, ranging from lush pastures to arid rangelands. Depending on the region and available resources, various feeds and forages have been used to nourish them. Understanding these can be beneficial for optimal production and health.

Pasture grasses are the primary source of nutrition for many sheep operations worldwide. Common grasses include ryegrass, fescue, Bermuda grass, and bluegrass. These grasses provide a good balance of nutrients when properly managed and are especially high in energy during their vegetative state [11].

Leguminous forages such as alfalfa, clover, and vetch are high in protein and are commonly used as supplemental forage, especially for lactating ewes and growing lambs. They also have the added benefit of fixing atmospheric nitrogen and improving soil fertility [12].

Hay, dried forage, can be made from a variety of plants, but grasses and legumes like alfalfa and clover are most common. Haying preserves forage for times when fresh pasture is not available, such as during winter [13].

Cereal grains such as corn, barley, oats, and wheat are often used as energy supplements. They are especially useful during periods of high energy demand, like late gestation or lactation, or for finishing lambs. However, they should be introduced gradually into the diet to prevent digestive disturbances [14].

With the growth of the agriculture and food industries, several by-products have become available as sheep feed. Examples include soybean hulls, wheat middling, beet pulp, and distillers’ grains. They can be cost-effective sources of nutrients but should be used judiciously, understanding their nutritional profiles [15].

Depending on soil and forage mineral content, sheep might require mineral supplementation. Common minerals supplemented include selenium, copper, zinc, and magnesium. Vitamins, especially A, D, and E, might also be supplemented in specific circumstances [8].

Silage, fermented forage, is less commonly fed to sheep than cattle, but it can be an effective way to preserve forage. It is crucial to ensure that silage fed to sheep is of high quality to avoid potential health issues like listeriosis [13].

A varied and balanced diet is crucial for the health and productivity of sheep. Understanding the nutritive value, benefits, and potential drawbacks of each feed and forage type can ensure a holistic approach to sheep nutrition.

4. Sustainability concerns in sheep production

Sheep production, like all forms of agriculture, interacts with the environment in various ways. While sheep farming can be sustainable under appropriate management, there are concerns about its impact on the environment, especially concerning land degradation, water usage, and greenhouse gas emissions.

Land degradation in the context of sheep farming refers to the reduction in the productivity and utility of land due to various factors. While sheep farming has been a part of sustainable agricultural systems for thousands of years, inappropriate management practices can lead to significant land degradation.

One of the most prevalent issues in sheep farming is overgrazing. When sheep numbers exceed the land’s carrying capacity, the vegetation cannot regenerate at a pace to sustain the herd. The loss of vegetation affects the soil’s structure, its ability to retain moisture, and the microfauna. These cumulative effects can further reduce the land’s ability to support plant life, leading to desertification in extreme cases [16, 17, 18]. The continuous movement and grazing of sheep can lead to soil compaction. This affects the soil’s permeability, making it less able to absorb and retain water, which can decrease plant growth and increase surface runoff [11]. Reduced water infiltration can exacerbate erosion, particularly during heavy rainfall. Additionally, compacted soil can restrict root growth, making plants less resilient to drought and other stressors [19].

Water is a fundamental resource for all life forms, and its sustainable management is crucial for the resilience of ecosystems and human societies. In the context of sheep farming, water usage can have varying impacts on environmental sustainability. Sheep need water for drinking, and their requirements can vary based on their age, stage of production (e.g., lactation), environmental conditions, and diet [20]. While sheep typically consume less water compared to larger livestock like cattle, in arid regions with large flocks, their water needs can strain limited water resources. Overextraction can affect local water tables and deprive other users, including native ecosystems [21]. A significant portion of water use in sheep production comes indirectly through the production of feed crops. Feed crops, especially those irrigated, consume vast quantities of water. In water-scarce regions, feed crops can place further pressure on diminishing water resources [22]. Overreliance on irrigated feed crops can lead to overextraction from rivers, lakes, and underground aquifers, sometimes causing long-term ecological damage and inter-sectoral water conflicts [23].

Sheep farming activities, such as manure management and use of agrochemicals, can affect water quality in surrounding water bodies. Runoff from pastures can carry nutrients, pathogens, and chemicals into waterways, leading to eutrophication, spread of water-borne diseases, and harm to aquatic life. Such contamination can also pose challenges for downstream water users, including households and industries [24]. To address these concerns, adopting sustainable water management practices is essential. This might include using drought-resistant forage species, improving irrigation efficiency, implementing riparian buffer zones, and promoting natural water purification systems. Efficient and sustainable water use in sheep production are essential not only for the sector’s long-term viability but also for the health of ecosystems and societies that depend on the same water resources.

Livestock production, including sheep, is a significant contributor to global GHG emissions. These emissions can accelerate climate change, with a myriad of environmental, economic, and social repercussions. Sheep, like other ruminants, produce methane (CH₄) during the digestion of forage in their rumen. Methane is a potent greenhouse gas, having a global warming potential much higher than carbon dioxide (CO₂) [1]. While individual sheep produce less methane than larger ruminants like cows, the collective contribution of sheep is still significant due to their numbers and widespread rearing. The decomposition of sheep manure can produce both methane and nitrous oxide (N₂O), another greenhouse gas with a global warming potential considerably higher than CO₂. Clearing lands for sheep pasture, especially deforestation, can lead to significant CO₂ emissions and loss of biodiversity. Effective manure management, including composting and biogas production, can mitigate these emissions. The production of sheep feed, especially when involving synthetic fertilizers, can lead to emissions of N₂O from soils. Additionally, land use change to create pastures or cropland can release large amounts of CO₂ stored in plants and soils [25]. Employing sustainable agricultural practices, like precision farming and agroforestry, can reduce the GHG emissions associated with feed production. To reduce the GHG footprint of sheep production, multiple strategies can be employed. These include improving feed efficiency that can reduce methane emissions from enteric fermentation, breeding for lower-methane-emitting sheep, implementing better manure management systems, and employing sustainable grazing practices. Addressing GHG emissions from sheep production is crucial in the broader context of global efforts to combat climate change. Sustainable practices in this sector can play a pivotal role in ensuring a greener and more resilient future [1].

Addressing these sustainability concerns requires integrated management practices that balance productivity with environmental stewardship. Techniques such as rotational grazing, integrating agroforestry, and using feed additives to reduce methane emissions are some of the potential solutions being researched and implemented. Promoting sustainable sheep production practices is crucial in the current context of global environmental challenges. Combining traditional knowledge with scientific research can aid in devising strategies that are both effective and environmentally responsible. By understanding and addressing these concerns, it is possible to maintain productive sheep farming systems in harmony with their environment.

Economic and social sustainability are essential for the continuation and improvement of sheep farming practices worldwide. These concerns emphasize the importance of holistic approaches that consider not only the environment but also the well-being and livelihoods of the people involved in the industry. With fluctuating market prices, rising production costs, and global competition, many sheep farmers struggle to maintain profitability. Economic instability can discourage the next generation from entering sheep farming, leading to the potential loss of traditional farming systems and expertise [26]. Sheep farming, especially during lambing season, is labor-intensive, requiring long hours in often challenging weather conditions. Poor work conditions can lead to physical and mental health challenges among farmers, deterring younger individuals from pursuing this livelihood. Economic challenges in sheep farming, combined with broader rural-to-urban migration trends, can lead to depopulation of rural areas where sheep farming is a primary occupation. As rural areas depopulate, local economies, cultures, and communities can deteriorate, leading to loss of social cohesion and cultural heritage. Modern farming techniques and technologies can improve productivity, profitability, and sustainability in sheep farming. However, many farmers, especially in developing regions, lack access to training and resources to implement these advancements [27]. Access to and control over land are pivotal for sheep farmers. Without secure land rights, farmers might not invest in long-term sustainable practices, leading to suboptimal land use and potential conflicts with other land users [28].

5. Nutrition’s role in enhancing sustainability

5.1 Optimized feed efficiency

In sustainable sheep production, feed efficiency stands out as one of the critical determinants. Feed often constitutes the most substantial production cost in sheep farming. Improving feed efficiency—getting more production per unit of feed—can drastically reduce these costs and boost profitability [3]. Efficient feeding reduces the resources (like water, land, and fossil fuels) needed to produce feed crops. It also diminishes waste output and the associated environmental impacts, including GHG emissions from enteric fermentation [29]. An optimized diet that caters to the nutritional needs of the sheep not only enhances productivity but also promotes overall health, reducing the need for medical interventions and potentially extending the productive life of the animal. Providing a balanced diet with the right proportions of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, minerals, and vitamins is essential. This ensures that the microbial populations in the rumen are well-maintained, optimizing digestion and absorption. Techniques like total mixed ration (TMR) can ensure consistent nutrient intake, prevent selective eating, and enhance feed conversion efficiency. Selecting sheep breeds or lines known for better feed conversion ratios can be a long-term strategy to enhance feed efficiency [9].

Optimizing feed efficiency in sheep is more than an economic consideration. It is an essential pillar of sustainability, safeguarding the environment and ensuring the health and productivity of the animals.

Incorporating additives, probiotics, and fermentation products in sheep nutrition strategies can have manifold benefits. Natural polyphenolic compounds found in various plants and tannins can help protect proteins from degradation in the rumen, leading to better protein efficiency and reduced nitrogen emissions in urine and feces. Some essential oils have shown promise in modulating rumen fermentation, potentially reducing methane emissions and improving feed efficiency [30].

Probiotics are live microbial feed supplements that can beneficially affect the host animal by improving its microbial balance. They can enhance digestive processes, boost immunity, and potentially reduce pathogenic microbial populations in the gastrointestinal tract. Yeast-based probiotics can stabilize ruminal pH, reduce lactic acid accumulation, and improve fiber digestibility, leading to increased feed efficiency and potentially reduced methane production [31].

Fermentation products are bacterial or fungal additives used to ensure rapid fermentation and preservation of silages. By improving the fermentation quality of silage, inoculants can lead to better nutrient retention, reduced feed wastage, and improved animal performance. These are non-viable microbial products or metabolic by-products from probiotic microorganisms. Recent studies have highlighted their potential in modulating gut health, improving nutrient utilization, and enhancing immune responses in livestock, including sheep [32].

Not only can these products enhance the health and productivity of the sheep, but they also play a role in reducing the environmental footprint of sheep production. Embracing these nutritional tools can be a significant step toward more sustainable sheep farming practices.

5.2 Forage-based systems

By embracing grass-based systems, sheep production can align with natural processes that not only support animal health and reduce costs but also offer environmental benefits such as carbon sequestration. Sheep, being ruminant animals, have evolved to efficiently convert grasses and other forages into meat, wool, and milk. Grass-based systems capitalize on this inherent design, aligning with the animal’s natural diet and behavior [33]. Grazing systems generally require lower inputs compared to systems reliant on grains and concentrates, leading to reduced production costs. Well-managed grasslands can support a wide array of plant species, insects, birds, and microorganisms, thereby boosting biodiversity [11].

Grasslands, when managed appropriately, can act as carbon sinks, storing carbon in the soil. This process is primarily driven by the photosynthesis of grasses and the subsequent deposition of carbon in the soil in the form of root exudates and decaying organic matter [34]. Sheep production systems that rely more on grazed pastures than on cultivated grains can have a lower carbon footprint, mainly because the carbon sequestration potential of the pasture can offset, to an extent, the methane emissions from the sheep. By increasing soil organic carbon, grasslands can also improve soil structure, water retention, and nutrient cycling, which can further support pasture productivity and resilience against erosion and drought. Some farming approaches, such as holistic or regenerative grazing, emphasize rotational or adaptive grazing strategies. These can potentially enhance grassland carbon sequestration and further improve the sustainability profile of sheep production [35]. Such systems showcase that it is possible to merge productivity with ecological responsibility in the realm of agriculture.

Rotational grazing serves as a cornerstone in the realm of sustainable livestock management, particularly in sheep production. By shifting animals across various pasture sections or paddocks, rotational grazing not only bolsters animal nutrition but also engenders several ecological and socio-economic advantages.

One of the most direct impacts of rotational grazing is on the nutritional intake of sheep. When grazing is controlled and rotated, it allows for a consistent intake of high-quality forage that is in its prime vegetative state [2, 3]. This translates to improved weight gain, milk production, and overall animal health. Rotational grazing allows for recovery and regrowth of forage, leading to increased total biomass production over time compared to continuous grazing [36]. By systematically grazing each paddock, undesirable plants are controlled, reducing the need for herbicides and promoting desirable forage growth. Regular pasture rest periods can lead to a build-up of organic matter, improving soil fertility and structure. Healthier plant root systems help stabilize the soil, reducing erosion and minimizing soil loss. Rotating pastures exposes sheep to a variety of forages, ensuring a balanced and nutritious diet [37]. Regularly moving sheep reduces the risk of parasite build-up in the soil, thereby naturally controlling worm burdens and reducing the need for anthelmintics. Enhanced soil structure due to rotational grazing aids in water infiltration, reducing surface runoff and promoting groundwater recharge. With decreased soil erosion comes a reduction in sediment and nutrient runoff, leading to improved water quality in adjacent water bodies. Efficient rotational grazing can boost the number of animals a piece of land can support without degrading pasture health [36]. The need for supplementary feeds, herbicides, and anthelmintics can be reduced, leading to economic savings [37].

Through rotational grazing, the integration of sheep nutrition and pasture health creates a sustainable cycle that benefits the land, the animals, and the farmer.

5.3 Reduced dependence on concentrated feeds

Growing grains specifically for animal feed competes with land that could be used for human food crops. This competition exacerbates land-use pressure and may lead to deforestation and habitat loss. Producing grain crops, particularly corn and soy, requires a substantial amount of water, aggravating water scarcity in vulnerable regions [22]. The cultivation, processing, and transportation of grain feeds release significant amounts of CO₂. Additionally, grain diets can increase methane production in ruminants compared to forage-based diets [5, 14]. Grain cultivation often relies on synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. Their manufacture and use contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, groundwater contamination, and loss of biodiversity [5].

Global grain prices can be unpredictable, with fluctuations influenced by climate events, trade policies, and competing demands from other sectors like biofuel production. Such unpredictability can strain the finances of livestock producers. While grain-based diets can promote faster growth, the costs associated with purchasing, transporting, and storing these feeds are often higher than using pasture-based systems. Overreliance on grain can lead to livestock health problems, such as acidosis, which might result in additional veterinary expenses [3, 7, 14].

Reducing the dependence on concentrated grain-based feeds is vital for ecological integrity and economic viability in sheep production. Embracing alternative feeding strategies that are both sustainable and cost-effective is crucial for the future of the industry. Considering the pitfalls of grain-based feeding, alternatives like rotational grazing, the use of local feed sources, and novel protein supplements like insects or seaweed can provide sustainable options that are both environmentally sound and economically viable [38].

While grain-based feeding may offer quick growth and fattening of livestock, the environmental and economic costs are substantial. Sustainable sheep production requires a more holistic approach that considers long-term ecological balance and economic resilience.

One of the strategies to minimize grain feed is to use pasture-based grazing. Rotational grazing involves moving sheep across different paddocks or pasture sections to allow forage regrowth in previously grazed areas, ensuring a steady supply of fresh pasture [36]. Introducing different livestock species can optimize pasture utilization since different species prefer different types of vegetation, leading to more efficient pasture use [3]. Utilizing legumes like clover or alfalfa, which have higher protein content than grasses, can reduce the need for grain supplements. These legumes can either be grazed or harvested and offered as hay or silage [12, 13]. During periods of forage abundance, forages can be harvested and stored as silage or hay, ensuring a continuous feed supply even during scarcity [11]. Implementing efficient feeding systems, such as using hay nets or specialized feeders, can significantly reduce feed wastage [13]. Agro-industrial by-products like beet pulp, brewery waste, or wheat bran can serve as valuable supplements in sheep diets, reducing the need for grains. Shrubs and trees, such as willow or poplar, can be incorporated into sheep diets, offering supplementary nutrients and reducing grain reliance [15].

Breeding sheep that have the genetic capacity to thrive on forage-based diets, with high feed conversion efficiency, can further minimize grain feed use [6, 7].

Minimizing grain feed in sheep production not only contributes to environmental sustainability but also provides economic benefits. Adopting these strategies can foster a more resilient and sustainable sheep industry (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Nutrition’s role in enhancing sustainability in sheep farming.

6. The benefits of local feed sources

The use of local feed sources in sheep production has gained increasing attention for its multiple advantages. These benefits span across ecological, economic, and social aspects, reinforcing the importance of localized, sustainable livestock systems.

Transporting feed over long distances consumes fossil fuels and releases CO₂ and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Utilizing local feed sources dramatically reduces these transportation miles, subsequently reducing associated greenhouse gas emissions [1, 5]. Beyond just the emissions from fuel combustion, long-distance transportation requires additional energy to maintain feed quality. For instance, grains might need to be dried to a lower moisture content for long-haul transport to prevent spoilage, while local transport might not have this requirement [1].

Locally sourced feeds often have a shorter time span from harvest to consumption, ensuring higher nutrient retention and minimizing losses that can occur during prolonged storage or transportation [37]. Purchasing local feeds keeps money within the community and can promote the local agricultural economy. It also allows for better relationships between farmers and feed producers, which can lead to improved feed formulations and innovations tailored to local livestock needs [39].

Relying on local feed sources allows producers to be more adaptable to changes in local climate or growing conditions. They can adjust feed formulations based on what is seasonally available, leading to resilience in the face of unpredictable weather patterns or crop yields. Supporting local feed sources can drive demand for diverse crops suitable for the specific region, thus fostering agricultural biodiversity and promoting soil health [40].

Using local feed sources is not just an environmentally friendly choice, but it also offers tangible benefits in terms of feed quality and economic support to local communities. As the global community becomes more conscious of the impacts of human activity on the environment, adopting sustainable practices such as these will be vital for the long-term viability of livestock farming.

The use of local feed sources in sheep production has become a focal point for sustainable agriculture, especially considering its impact on local ecosystems and soil health. Utilizing local forages and feeds is not just an economically viable strategy but also a way to enrich the ecological integrity of the farming environment.

Relying on local feed sources often encourages diversified cropping systems as different feed crops are cultivated to meet the nutritional needs of livestock. Such diversification reduces pest and disease pressures, improving soil health and biodiversity [40]. Local feed crops, especially when integrated with livestock manure, increase the return of organic matter to the soil. This organic matter acts as a reservoir of nutrients, enhances soil water retention, and stimulates microbial activity, leading to healthier soils [35]. Local cropping systems, particularly those that incorporate perennial forages or employ cover crops, can help reduce soil erosion by offering continuous soil cover. This not only conserves the topsoil but also enhances water infiltration and reduces runoff [36].

Diverse local feed cropping systems can attract and sustain a variety of beneficial insects, such as pollinators and predators of crop pests. This can lead to reduced reliance on chemical insecticides and a more balanced local ecosystem [19]. When there is a focus on local feed production, there is often a parallel emphasis on sustainable, organic, or regenerative farming practices. This means fewer chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides, which in turn leads to less soil contamination and better overall soil health [41]. In regions where local feed sourcing integrates tree planting with crop or pasture systems (agroforestry or silvopasture), there are added benefits in terms of soil conservation, increased biodiversity, and enhanced carbon sequestration [25].

Utilizing local feed sources and adopting practices that promote biodiversity and soil health can create a virtuous cycle: healthy soils lead to healthier crops, which in turn lead to healthier livestock. This approach is not just sustainable but also can enhance the resilience and productivity of the entire farming system.

Local feed sourcing in sheep production can serve as an effective vehicle for invigorating local economies. By focusing on localized resources, farmers can stimulate financial flow within their communities, improve livelihoods, and contribute to more resilient economic frameworks. Purchasing local feeds ensures that money stays within the community. This amplifies the economic impact as local feed producers spend their earnings in local businesses, creating a multiplier effect. Local feed production and processing can lead to job creation in various sectors—from farming to transportation to sales. This helps reduce unemployment rates and contributes to community welfare [42]. By sourcing locally, there is increased potential for the development of value-added products, like organic or specialty feeds, which can fetch higher prices in the market. Increased demand for local feed could stimulate investment in local infrastructure, including roads, storage facilities, and processing plants, further aiding economic development [39].

By diversifying their production and having a local market for their products, farmers can achieve more stable incomes, making them less vulnerable to price fluctuations in global commodity markets [40]. Areas that emphasize local, sustainable agricultural practices can attract agritourism and can brand their products for consumers interested in local and sustainably produced goods. Direct relationships between farmers and feed buyers can foster trust and community cohesiveness. Farmers’ markets or community-supported agriculture (CSA) systems related to feed can also be avenues for community interactions [3, 40].

Encouraging the use of local feed sources can catalyze a range of economic benefits, from job creation to community engagement. These economic advantages complement the environmental benefits, making a compelling case for the broader adoption of local sourcing in livestock production.

7. Alternative and novel feed sources

As sustainability becomes a focal point in livestock production, the utilization of alternative and novel feed sources such as crop residues and agro-industrial byproducts is gaining importance. These unconventional feed sources can serve multiple purposes, including waste reduction, cost efficiency, and enhancing sustainability in sheep production.

Crop residues, such as straw, husks, and stover, are often left over after the harvest of crops like rice, wheat, maize, and barley. While traditionally viewed as waste or used for purposes like mulching, these residues can be used as livestock feed [43]. Using crop residues as feed can decrease feed costs for farmers. Furthermore, it reduces the environmental burden by preventing the burning of residues, a common practice in many regions that contributes to air pollution [44]. Nutritional content is a concern. Crop residues are generally high in fiber but low in protein and other essential nutrients. However, treatment processes, like urea treatment, can improve their digestibility and nutritional value [9].

Agro-industrial byproducts include materials like bagasse (from sugar production), bran (from grain milling), and pulp (from fruit and vegetable processing). These byproducts can offer substantial nutrients [15]. Utilizing these byproducts can reduce feed costs and offer additional revenue streams for agro-industries [43]. Instead of disposing of these byproducts, which can have environmental impacts, they are recycled into the food system, reducing waste [45]. The nutritional profile of agro-industrial byproducts can vary based on the primary processing method. Some byproducts may also contain antinutritional factors or contaminants. Proper processing and blending with other feed components are essential to ensure a balanced diet for livestock [9, 15].

Crop residues and agro-industrial byproducts, when properly processed and integrated, can substantially contribute to sustainable livestock production by offsetting traditional feed costs, reducing environmental impacts, and making better use of resources.

As the demand for more sustainable animal feed options grows, the potential of using insects as a protein source in sheep production is drawing significant attention. Insects offer a promising, eco-friendly substitute to traditional protein feeds like soybean and fishmeal. The implications, advantages, and challenges of using insects as a protein feed for sheep can be manifold.

Insects, especially species like the black soldier fly, mealworms, and houseflies, have been studied for their potential as an alternative protein source for livestock feed, particularly for poultry and fish [46]. Many edible insects contain protein levels comparable to conventional meat sources, with protein content ranging between 40 and 80% of their dry weight [47]. Insects are ectothermic, meaning they do not require as much feed to produce the same amount of protein compared to endothermic animals like poultry or cattle [48]. Some insects can be raised on organic waste products, transforming waste into high-value protein [45]. Beyond protein, insects are also sources of vitamins, minerals, and essential fatty acids [46].

While the use of insect protein in livestock feed might be scientifically sound, consumer acceptance is varied, especially in regions unaccustomed to entomophagy [49]. Industrial-scale production of insects for feed is still in development, with challenges related to optimizing growth conditions, harvesting, and processing [45]. In some countries, regulations regarding the use of insects in livestock feed are still evolving, which can pose challenges for commercial adoption [50].

The use of insects as an alternative protein source offers a promising and sustainable avenue in livestock nutrition. As the global demand for animal-derived protein grows, innovations like these will become increasingly vital for maintaining food security and environmental balance.

The quest for sustainable sheep production has led researchers and farmers to explore unconventional feed sources, one of which is seaweed. Not only does seaweed offer nutritional benefits, but it also plays a pivotal role in mitigating methane emissions, thus contributing to a reduction in the livestock industry’s environmental impact. Seaweeds, or marine macroalgae, have been a staple in human diets for centuries, especially in coastal and island communities. Their potential as a feed source, however, has only recently gained attention, particularly in the context of ruminant methane mitigation [51]. One of the most common seaweeds used for nutrition is Ascophyllum nodosum—commonly known as brown seaweed; it is rich in minerals and has been shown to improve overall sheep health. Sargassum, this brown algal genus, is rich in essential amino acids and can be a valuable supplement for protein. Ulva spp., also known as sea lettuce, is rich in vitamins and can be a nutritional supplement [52].

Certain seaweed species, notably Asparagopsis taxiformis, have been found to significantly reduce methane emissions in ruminants. This is attributed to bromoform, a compound found in Asparagopsis, which inhibits the enzymes responsible for methane production in the stomachs of ruminant animals [53]. Their inclusion in livestock feed can potentially enhance the nutritional value of animal products [54]. Cultivation of seaweeds can have environmental benefits, including carbon sequestration, nutrient bioextraction from marine environments, and potentially reduced pressure on terrestrial feed crop cultivation [50].

Determining the right amount of seaweed to incorporate into ruminant diets to achieve methane reduction, without impacting animal health and product quality, is a key challenge [52]. Large-scale cultivation of specific seaweed species, like Asparagopsis, is still under development, with challenges related to ensuring consistent quality and year-round supply [50, 51]. The economic feasibility of producing and incorporating seaweeds into livestock diets at a commercial scale is an ongoing area of research.

The utilization of seaweeds presents an exciting frontier in sustainable livestock production. This marine resource not only offers a way to reduce the environmental impact of livestock, particularly methane emissions but also holds the potential for additional nutritional and environmental benefits. However, economic and logistical challenges, such as cost and seasonal availability, may hinder its widespread adoption in sheep farming systems. Further research is needed to understand how seaweed can be most effectively incorporated into sheep diets.

As the push for sustainable livestock production intensifies, various innovative feed technologies and alternative feed sources are being investigated to meet nutritional requirements while reducing the environmental footprint of sheep production.

Hydroponically grown fodder refers to grains, like barley or wheat, grown in a hydroponic system to produce green fodder. Within a week, the sprouted grains produce a mat of roots and green shoots, which can be fed to sheep. Rapid growth, decreased water usage compared to traditional farming, and a potential increase in the nutrient profile of the fodder are considered the benefits of this technology [49, 52]. The challenges are the initial setup costs, potential mold growth, and space requirements.

Silvopasture systems by integrating trees with pasture can provide sheep with browse, shade, and shelter. Sheep can benefit from eating tree leaves, bark, and shoots from species like willow or poplar. As benefits are considered increased biodiversity, improved soil health, and potential for additional income from timber or fruit, but the system requires careful management to prevent overbrowsing and potential harm from toxic plants [55].

Single-cell proteins are produced using microorganisms such as bacteria, yeast, fungi, and algae. These organisms can grow on various substrates, including agro-industrial waste, to produce protein-rich biomass. High protein content and the potential for waste recovery are strengths of this technology, but production costs, potential palatability issues, and safety concerns are challenges that make this system not widely used [56].

Tannin-containing forages from plants like sainfoin and birdsfoot trefoil can have positive effects on sheep nutrition. They have the potential to reduce internal parasites and improve protein efficiency [12]. When using these feeds, consideration should be given to ensuring the correct tannin concentration to obtain benefits without adverse effects.

Agricultural by-products like distillers’ grains, crop residues, and pomaces are often underutilized resources that can be incorporated into sheep diets. The benefits are that they are cost-effective and reduce waste, but these sources can have variable nutrient content and potential presence of antinutritional factors [15].

These innovative technologies and feed sources reflect a broader trend toward more sustainable and efficient livestock farming practices. While some of these approaches have been practiced for a while, their potential benefits have come to be appreciated more fully in light of recent technological advances and changing global priorities. As research progresses, these novel options could become increasingly integral components of sustainable sheep nutrition strategies.

8. Water efficiency in sheep nutrition

Water is a critical but often overlooked component in sheep nutrition and overall livestock management. It plays an essential role in various physiological processes, from nutrient absorption and digestion to temperature regulation. However, the need for efficient water use is ever more pressing due to global challenges like water scarcity and climate change.

Water, besides being essential for life, plays a fundamental role in digestion and nutrient absorption. It aids in the breakdown of feed, allowing nutrients to become more accessible and facilitating the transport of these nutrients across the body [8]. Sheep, like all mammals, require water for metabolic processes and thermoregulation. In hot climates, sheep use water to cool down through evaporative cooling (sweating and panting). Efficient water use can thus reduce heat stress and associated health risks. For ewes, adequate water intake is vital during lactation. Milk consists of about 80% water, and any water deficiency can severely limit milk production [57, 58].

Sheep’s feed intake can be influenced by their water consumption. Insufficient water intake can reduce the digestibility of nutrients, affecting overall health and growth. The quality of water provided to sheep is crucial. Contaminated water can introduce diseases, while water with high salinity can negatively affect nutrient absorption and can lead to mineral imbalances. Ensuring efficient water use in sheep production is also a sustainability concern [57]. Water scarcity is a growing challenge in many parts of the world, making it imperative to adopt practices that optimize water use in livestock production [59].

Water, while a basic requirement, has profound implications for sheep nutrition, health, production, and overall sustainability. Addressing water efficiency and quality can enhance the productivity of sheep, ensuring their well-being and mitigating environmental impacts.

In livestock production systems, water is not just crucial for the animals themselves but also for the feed production that sustains them. With growing concerns about water scarcity and climate change, efficient water utilization in feed production has become a pivotal aspect of sustainable sheep farming.

Switching from traditional flood irrigation to more efficient methods like drip irrigation or sprinkler systems can significantly reduce water wastage. These systems deliver water directly to the plant’s root zone, resulting in less water loss through evaporation and runoff [60]. Developing and planting drought-resistant forage varieties can help maintain yields during water shortages. These varieties are bred to use water more efficiently and can produce adequate biomass with less water [61]. Using soil moisture sensors helps in understanding when and how much to irrigate. This prevents over-irrigation, optimizing water use based on actual crop requirements. Collecting and storing rainwater for irrigation purposes can reduce the dependency on traditional water sources, especially during periods of low rainfall [62]. Treated greywater—wastewater from domestic activities like washing—can be safely used for irrigating non-food crops, such as forage plants, reducing the demand for freshwater resources [2].

Integrating trees into pasture systems can enhance water infiltration, reduce evaporation, and improve soil water retention. This system helps in making the best use of available water and can reduce irrigation demands. Overuse of fertilizers can lead to decreased water quality, with increased leaching and runoff. Efficient and targeted fertilizer application can ensure optimal plant growth while conserving water resources [60]. Rotating crops and using polycultures can improve soil health, leading to better water retention and reduced irrigation needs. Some leguminous plants can also fix nitrogen, reducing the need for water-intensive nitrogen fertilizers [12].

By adopting these strategies, feed producers can significantly lower their water footprint. This not only conserves a vital resource but also makes sheep farming more resilient to water scarcity, ensuring sustainable production in the face of changing global conditions. With climate variability posing significant challenges, efficient utilization of water is more crucial than ever.

Healthy soils with good structure have a significant capacity to absorb and retain moisture. Practices like organic matter addition, reduced tillage, and proper grazing management help in enhancing the water-holding capacity of soils. Soils rich in organic matter act as sponges, storing water for prolonged periods [19]. A diverse mix of deep-rooted plants and grasses can help pastures utilize water from varying soil depths efficiently. Different plant species have diverse water needs and rooting depths, which can complement one another, enhancing overall water use efficiency [20]. Rotational or managed grazing involves moving the sheep frequently to allow pastures enough time to recover. This practice not only prevents soil compaction but also promotes deeper plant rooting, which can access water from deeper soil layers during dry periods. In regions that require supplementary irrigation for pastures, employing systems like subsurface drip irrigation can be more efficient than traditional sprinkler systems. Such technologies ensure precise water delivery, reducing wastage [22]. Collecting and storing rainwater provides an auxiliary water source for irrigation during dry spells. Such systems make full use of available rainwater, optimizing its utility for pasture growth. Breeding and selecting pasture varieties that are drought-resistant or drought-tolerant can lead to consistent pasture yields with reduced water inputs. These varieties are developed to utilize water more efficiently [61].

The efficient utilization of water in pasture-based systems is not a singular action but a combination of various practices, including soil management, diversified plantings, proper grazing techniques, and water conservation strategies. The goal is to maximize the productive use of every drop of water to ensure that pastures remain healthy and provide nutritious feed for sheep, regardless of climatic uncertainties.

9. Case studies: sustainable nutritional practices in sheep production systems

The drive toward sustainability in livestock farming has been a topic of increased interest due to its implications for both the environment and the long-term viability of the industry. Here we explore various case studies from Europe highlighting the successful integration of sustainable nutritional practices in sheep production.

9.1 Spain: Dehesa systems and silvopastoralism

The Dehesa system in Spain is a prime example of traditional silvopastoralism. Trees, notably oaks, coexist with grazing livestock, including sheep. The sheep graze on natural pastures and are supplemented with tree pods and acorns during certain seasons. This multifunctional system supports biodiversity, conserves landscapes, and promotes animal welfare. The integration of trees and pasture improves soil health and provides a diversified income source for farmers [63].

9.2 United Kingdom: herbal leys in Wales

In Wales, some sheep farms have begun incorporating “herbal leys”—diverse mixtures of grasses, legumes, and herbs. Not only are these mixtures more nutritious for sheep than monoculture grasslands, but they also offer potential medicinal benefits, reducing the need for synthetic drugs. Furthermore, herbal leys improve soil fertility and structure [64].

9.3 France: Alpine pastoralism

In the French Alps, sheep graze on high-altitude pastures during the summer, an ancient practice called transhumance. This seasonal migration promotes the use of natural pastures, thereby reducing the need for concentrated feeds. The practice also helps in maintaining the landscape, preventing forest encroachment, and preserving biodiversity [65].

9.4 Romania: traditional sheep husbandry in the Carpathians

Sheep farming in the Carpathian Mountains is deeply rooted in tradition, with pastoral practices that have endured for centuries. These systems rely heavily on natural pastures and hay meadows, which support a rich variety of flora and fauna. Sheep graze on diverse forages, ensuring a balanced diet while playing a role in maintaining these unique ecosystems [66].

Each of the case studies demonstrates a viable pathway toward more sustainable sheep farming. While the initial cost may be higher, long-term benefits often outweigh the initial investment. The practices need to be adapted to local conditions, which require local knowledge and sometimes, initial research.

The European continent, with its rich pastoral history, offers numerous insights into sustainable sheep nutrition and production practices. These case studies highlight the benefits of combining tradition with innovation to maintain the delicate balance between productivity and environmental sustainability.

10. Future trends and challenges in sustainable sheep nutrition and production

10.1 Technological advances in feed formulation and analysis

The global quest for sustainable sheep production hinges significantly on optimizing nutrition. Advancements in technology have opened new avenues in feed formulation and analysis, paving the way for more efficient and environmentally friendly practices.

One of the most promising advancements is precision nutrition, which relies on real-time data to adjust feed formulations for individual animals or flocks. By using sensors and smart devices, farmers can monitor the nutrient requirements of sheep more closely and adjust feed formulas accordingly. This ensures that sheep receive the exact nutrition they need, reducing wastage and improving feed efficiency [3].

Near-infrared reflectance (NIR) spectroscopy offers a rapid, non-destructive method to analyze the composition of feedstuffs. By determining the nutrient content more accurately, it assists in formulating rations that better meet the nutritional requirements of sheep, thus improving their overall health and productivity [10].

Drones equipped with multispectral cameras can analyze pasture quality from above. This helps in determining the nutritional value of pasture in real-time, allowing for timely supplementation or rotational grazing to maintain optimal nutrition for sheep [18].

Understanding the complex microbial community in the ruminant digestive system can unlock new insights into sheep nutrition. By analyzing the microbiome, researchers can find ways to optimize microbial activity for better feed efficiency and potentially reduce methane emissions [31].

While technological solutions offer precision, they come at a cost. Making these technologies affordable and accessible for smallholder farmers and those in developing regions remains a challenge. Adopting new technologies requires adequate training. Ensuring that sheep farmers are equipped with the skills and knowledge to utilize these tools effectively is crucial. With the integration of digital tools, data management and ensuring the privacy of farm data have become essential concerns.

This exciting potential that technological advances bring to sustainable sheep nutrition is ushering in a new era of precision and efficiency, highlighting the challenges the sector must address to truly benefit from these innovations.

10.2 Anticipated challenges related to climate change and resource scarcity

Climate change and resource scarcity are shaping up as two major challenges for global agriculture, including sheep production. The compounding effects of these issues present a multifaceted challenge that necessitates adaptive strategies and foresight. Here is a detailed look at the anticipated challenges:

The effects of climate change on sheep production are diverse and pose substantial challenges. Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns will influence the growth of pasture and forage crops. Some regions might face shorter grazing seasons, while others could experience longer seasons but with reduced forage quality [17]. Elevated temperatures can affect sheep’s metabolism, reproduction, and growth. Heat stress decreases feed intake, weight gain, milk production, and fertility in sheep [58]. With changing precipitation patterns, droughts could become more frequent in certain regions. This will impact the availability of water for sheep and for irrigating pastures [59]. Warming temperatures may expand the range of many parasites and pathogens, exposing sheep to diseases they have not previously encountered [27].

As human populations grow, the competition for grain and cereal resources between livestock feed and human food could intensify, potentially increasing feed costs [26]. Expanding urban areas and the conversion of land for other agricultural purposes can reduce the available grazing areas for sheep. Additionally, land degradation, due to overgrazing or poor agricultural practices, further diminishes the productive capacity of pastures [67].

Future sustainability in sheep production will hinge on adaptive strategies. Breeding programs that prioritize heat tolerance, disease resistance, and efficient feed utilization will be crucial [58]. Systems that combine livestock with cropping, water harvesting, and agroforestry could offer resilience against climate shocks [37]. As traditional feed resources become scarce, looking toward non-traditional feeds like crop residues, agro-industrial byproducts, and even seaweeds can be key [43].

The dynamic challenges that climate change and resource scarcity pose to sustainable sheep nutrition and production are miscellaneous, and the key is to proactively adapt and integrate innovative strategies to build resilience into these systems.

10.3 Strategies to prepare for and adapt to future challenges

The future of sustainable sheep nutrition and production faces a slew of emerging challenges, chiefly influenced by climate change, resource scarcity, and socio-economic dynamics. Effective strategies are imperative to ensure the resilience and adaptability of sheep production systems.

Sheep breeds with traits like drought resistance, heat tolerance, and resistance to emerging diseases can be pivotal in ensuring productivity amidst changing environmental conditions [39]. As traditional feed sources become limited or expensive, integrating a range of alternative feeds—such as crop residues, agro-industrial by-products, and novel ingredients like seaweeds—can provide a buffer [43]. Water-saving technologies, rainwater harvesting, and utilizing drought-resistant pasture varieties can optimize water use in sheep production systems [61]. A combination of cropping, livestock rearing, and agroforestry can promote ecological balance, enhance resource utilization, and provide economic stability [37].

Emerging technologies like IoT (Internet of Things) for monitoring livestock health, drones for pasture assessment, and AI-driven tools for predicting disease outbreaks can streamline management and enhance efficiency [68]. Empowering farmers with knowledge on sustainable practices, market dynamics, and technology usage can foster adaptive capacity and decision-making prowess [3, 26].

Active collaboration between researchers, policymakers, farmers, and the industry is crucial. Policies that promote research, provide incentives for sustainable practices, and support infrastructure can lay the foundation for resilient sheep production systems [69]. Optimizing the sheep value chain—encompassing breeding, feeding, processing, and marketing—can mitigate vulnerabilities and optimize resource utilization, thereby enhancing profitability and sustainability [9, 27].

The interconnected nature of the challenges and solutions in sheep production calls for strategies that focus on adaptability, resource efficiency, and collaboration to guide the sector toward a sustainable future.

Table 2 is a condensed overview of the main trends, challenges, and adaptation strategies discussed regarding the future of sustainable sheep nutrition and production.

Key aspect	Description	Future trends	Anticipated challenges	Strategies for adaptation
Technological advances	Developments in feed formulation and analysis	Rise in precision agriculture, use of AI, and IoT in monitoring and feed optimization	Keeping up with rapid technological changes; high initial investment costs	Training and upskilling of farmers; cost-sharing or leasing technology
Climate change	Changes in global weather patterns affecting agriculture	Increasing unpredictability in weather patterns; altered growing seasons	Droughts, floods, and extreme weather events affecting feed availability and quality	Developing drought-resistant forage species; early warning systems for extreme events
Resource Scarcity	Depletion of vital resources like water and arable land.	More competition for limited resources; rise in alternative feed sources like insects and seaweeds.	Reduced water availability; loss of grazing lands.	Improved water-use efficiency; rotational grazing; adoption of alternative feeds.
Adapting to challenges	Altering practices in anticipation of or in response to challenges	Greater emphasis on sustainable, local, and adaptable practices	Overcoming traditional mindsets and resistance to change	Knowledge sharing platforms; incentivizing sustainable practices; research and development investments

Table 2.

Key points of future trends, challenges, and adaptation strategies for sustainable sheep nutrition and production.

11. Conclusions

Nutrition is not just about feeding animals; it is central to the sustainable future of sheep production. It impacts every aspect of the production chain, from environmental footprint to economic viability.

Leveraging the ruminant digestive system, particularly in sheep, can lead to maximized feed efficiency. This not only reduces costs but also lessens the environmental burden by minimizing waste and methane emissions.

Emphasizing grass-based systems, especially rotational grazing, is vital. These systems have the dual advantage of reducing dependence on grain-based feeds and aiding in carbon sequestration.

Minimizing the use of concentrated grain feeds not only addresses environmental concerns but also combats the economic pitfalls of price volatility in grain markets.

Utilizing local feed sources drastically reduces the carbon footprint associated with transportation. Moreover, it aids in rejuvenating local ecosystems and strengthening local economies.

Exploring unconventional feed sources, such as agro-industrial by-products, insects, seaweeds, and other novel technologies, can potentially revolutionize sheep nutrition by offering protein-rich, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly alternatives.

Given the mounting concerns about water scarcity, implementing strategies to enhance water efficiency in feed production and pasture-based systems will be crucial for the sustainable future of sheep farming.

As the challenges of climate change become increasingly pronounced, adaptive nutritional strategies will be essential. These include selecting drought-resistant forage varieties and optimizing water use in feed production.

Achieving sustainability in sheep nutrition requires a collective effort. Research institutions, farmers, communities, and policymakers must collaborate to share knowledge, drive innovations, and formulate policies that promote sustainable practices.

The challenges brought about by climate change and resource scarcity necessitate a forward-looking vision. Strategies must not only address current challenges but must also be flexible enough to adapt to future, unforeseen obstacles.

In conclusion, nutrition plays an indispensable role in charting a sustainable path forward for sheep production. By focusing on efficient, local, and alternative nutritional strategies and by fostering community engagement, the sheep production industry can navigate the challenges of the present and future, ensuring food security and ecological balance.

Acknowledgments

This paper is published from the project 6PFE of the University of Life Sciences “King Mihai I” from Timisoara and the Research Institute for Biosecurity and Bioengineering from Timisoara.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.