Open Access is an initiative that aims to make scientific research freely available to all. To date our community has made over 100 million downloads. It’s based on principles of collaboration, unobstructed discovery, and, most importantly, scientific progression. As PhD students, we found it difficult to access the research we needed, so we decided to create a new Open Access publisher that levels the playing field for scientists across the world. How? By making research easy to access, and puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
We are a community of more than 103,000 authors and editors from 3,291 institutions spanning 160 countries, including Nobel Prize winners and some of the world’s most-cited researchers. Publishing on IntechOpen allows authors to earn citations and find new collaborators, meaning more people see your work not only from your own field of study, but from other related fields too.
The worldwide requirement for food and protein is assumed to rise as a result of the world’s growing human population, which is expected to reach 9 billion people by 2050. Soybean is an outstanding source of unsaturated fatty acids and protein, dietary fiber, and various other compounds with different physiological properties. Soybean crops besides supplying nutrients can be utilized in the prohibition and cure of various medical conditions. Soybean has been named as one of the most eminent sources of highly important nutraceutical chemicals with health-promoting characteristics. Folic acid and isoflavones content made soybean a versatile healthy food crop. Isoflavones are nutraceutical seed components that have an important role in preventing and treating chronic illnesses. Soybean oil contains small amounts of tocopherols having lipophilic antioxidant characteristics that play an important role in delaying the development of cardiovascular and neurological disorders. Soybean intake has also been extensively researched for addressing the nutritional demands of vegetarians, as well as people suffering from chronic disease, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, and cancer. Studying genetics, physiological and nutraceutical importance will help in enhancing the quality and quantity of soybean production. This chapter will provide detailed information about soybean nutritional and nutraceutical composition in relation to genetics and physiological properties.
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Sana-e-Mustafa
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Ali Aslam Saggo
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Memoona Amam
Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
*Address all correspondence to: samrasiddique33@yahoo.com
1. Introduction
Among grain legumes soybean (Glycine max) also has an importance to be utilized in livestock feed in addition to being a major oil crop. Although the history and provenance of the soybean plant are unclear, ancient Chinese literature indicates that the Chinese Emperor Sheng-Nung listed soybean as one of the five fearsome grains as early as 2853 BC [1]. In the North of East China which is thought to be soybean’s center of origin, saw the earliest cultivation of the crop during the Shang era. China has been growing soybeans for almost 4000 years. On a commercial level, it is treated as the primary oilseed crop in more than 35 countries [2]. According to Singh et al. [3], the United States produces 38% world’s soybean crop. Brazil (25%) is ranked first, followed by Argentina (19%), China (7%), India (3%), Canada (2%), and Paraguay (2%). Soybeans are native to China, and the United States, Brazil, Argentina, and India are the world’s top producers of soybean products. Soybeans are widely utilized as a key source of dietary protein and oil worldwide.
Because it is rich in unsaturated fatty acids and good-quality protein, a high ratio of unsaturated fatty acids to dietary fiber, and other compounds with a variety of physiological roles, soybeans are a good source of food [4]. Recently, the addition of Western diet patterns in Korea has enhanced the chances of being diabetic and cardiovascular events, among other disorders [5, 6]. Furthermore, the usefulness of soy, a food product derived from plants, is emphasized given that eating too many animal-based foods contributes to the development of obesity [7, 8]. Compared to most other bean varieties, soybeans have a much greater protein content of 40% [8]. Moreover, soy provides superb protein that is comparable to that of dairy, meat, and eggs, yet it is free of saturated fats and cholesterol [7]. Furthermore, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA)in America implemented the “healthy” food label after realizing that soy protein consumption lowers the chances of cardiovascular diseases. This stimulated interest in soybeans among the general population in both the US and Japan [9, 10]. Patients with obesity can effectively prevent and treat their obesity by consuming soy protein [11, 12]. It speeds up fatty acid catabolism and inhibits the anabolic pathway of fat, and it helps patients lose weight by controlling the expression of proteins that decrease hunger [13].
Different nutritional compounds have been demonstrated to inhibit HIV and to prevent the development of gallstones, senile dementia and hyperlipidemia. They also have reputed cancer-fighting, antiaging, antirenal failure, anti-obesity, and anticholesterol activities. Additionally, soy supports diuretic activity, inhibits arteriosclerosis, eases constipation, and safeguards against cardiovascular illnesses [14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. As a result, it can be assumed that soybean is closely related to the prevention of some chronic diseases [14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20] because it carries pollutants that are involved in gastrointestinal regulation, have antioxidative properties, prevent osteoporosis, lower blood pressure, have antithrombotic effects, boost immunity, and promote liver functions. Likewise, soy protein causes an allergic reaction in those who are predisposed. Soy is one of the eight foods that actually contributes to the majority of food allergies. It is thought that the allergens glycinin and -conglycinin are both to blame [21, 22]. There are additional proteins in soybeans that might trigger allergic reactions, such as protease inhibitors and whey fractions [23], and it may be possible to breed and genetically alter soybeans to reduce their allergenicity for human consumption [22]. The soybean has additional proteins that are anti-nutritional. Lectins are hemagglutinins; when taken raw, lectins frequently modify the histology of the small intestine and have an impact on animal growth [24, 25, 26, 27]. 6% of the total protein in the bean is made up of protease inhibitors. Hydrolysis in small bowel digestion is reduced as a result of protease inhibitors. Bowman-Birk and Kunitz are the two antinutritional compounds that apply to soy [28, 29, 30]. Protease inhibitors make up only a small portion of protein, but when taken raw and in sufficient quantities, they can hinder growth and alter the physiology of the pancreas [31]. These lectins and enzyme inhibitors are rendered inactive by heat. Since soy is often warmed for human consumption, it may not be harmful to people; nevertheless, if farm animals ingest raw soy in their diet, they may become ill. Research has been concentrated on improving both the amount and the quality of protein in the soybean, but not always effectively, as it serves as an important source of protein for both livestock and people. It has been demonstrated that protein content can be increased to up to 50% of the dry weight of the bean, however, issues with crop output in general and a change in oil composition make this development problematic. How seeds develop biologically directly affects how plants emerge from the ground and what constitutes their production. Physiological quality, according to Ebone et al. [32], is the capacity to carry out crucial tasks like germination, vigor, and lifespan. Previous research has shown that seedlings with weak seed vigor emerge more slowly, which reduces the number of leaves they produce, the number of capsules they produce, and eventually the number of beans they produce [33].
The overall quality value of soybeans [Glycine max (L.) Merrill] is defined by the seed protein and oil [34]. In addition, soybean has emerged as one of the leading sources of extremely valued nutraceutical chemicals with health-improving qualities in recent years [35]. Due to their shown effectiveness and advantages for human health (for the prevention or support of treatment of various pathologic situations), as well as their nutritional value, these active compounds isolated from plant origin (phytocomplexes), such as soybean seeds, are significant [36, 37, 38]. These substances are typically referred to as nutraceuticals due to their pertinent qualities [39]. Isoflavones (minor meal components) are among the nutraceutical seed components that are significant for the prevention and treatment of chronic diseases (such as cancer, heart disease, and osteoarthritis) because of their anti-estrogenic and antioxidant activities [40]. Tocopherols, essential oil components with lipophilic antioxidant properties, have been associated with a multitude of health benefits, including a critical role in delaying the pathogenesis of cardiovascular and neurological illnesses (such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s) [41].
The main aim of the present study is to investigate the physiological and nutraceutical role of soybeans in human health.
The branch of botany which deals with the study of the functions of plants is called plant physiology. All basic systems of plant life such as photosynthesis, respiration, plant hormone functions, phototropism, circadian rhythms, seed germination, dormancy, transpiration, etc. are studied through plant physiology. For human societies, increase in crop yield is on top priority for survival. For the improvement in yield-related parameters, efforts started today to get maximum yield with limited acreage to attain that goal.
It is fundamental to study the physiology of that particular crop to implement genetic, molecular, and biochemical techniques to improve yield-related traits. The growth of soybean consists of two phases that are overlying, first is productive growth and the second is the reproducing phase. While second one is divided into the formation of seed and seed filling stages. Each condition must be produced by a variety of physiological mechanisms [42]. Yield begins in the vegetative phase with emergence (VE), which triggers the beginning of the bloom (R1). Organs that offer the essential machinery for creating biomass through photosynthesis and nutrient absorption and assimilation are created during this period. In the growth of a plant no. of nodes and no. of seeds are also important. While for yield components flowering starts designated as R1 and goes on to R5 and R6 [43]. Seed filling stage mostly determines the weight of the seed. The seed filling stage starts with the starting lag period while it is a slow process (R5 and R6) and rapid seed filling starts in R7 [44].
There are two main growth habits of the soybean plant i.e. determinate and indeterminate. A third type of growth habit also presents semi-determinate. The duration of determinate growth is short but for other type of habits, mostly 80% of flowering occur during the same time [45]. The difference between these two types is the attachment of the main stem. Indeterminate type growth of stem stops but goes on in indeterminate. Directly related characteristics to high yield are yield components that were previously used in the 1920s initial days for estimation of yield of wheat to planting density [46]. yield depends on two basic parameters i-e seed number and weight per seed, dried seed matter and unit area determined by seed number × weight of a single seed. While seed number per unit area is the only single fundamental yield component [47, 48, 49]. In the Cultivar of soybean a lot of variation found in size of seed and quantity of seed per unit of land area. Mostly large seeded germplasm has less seed per unit area and small seeded genotypes have more seed per unit area but the ultimate goal remains the same in both situations [44]. It becomes clear about the overlapping vegetative and reproductive phases. The final growth goal of the Plant is determined by the duration of these two phases. In consideration of these stages soybean further divided into the following traits [50, 51, 52] (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Relationship of soybean yield components and yield.
Yield components that reflect the yield of soybean from the population of plants in a community are denoted by per unit area determined by the plant density. The stage of R1, R2, R3, R4, and R5 is the main factor determining the number of seeds per unit area. Mostly these stages determine the dry matter accumulation per unit area in grams. R1 is described as a single flower at one node. While R5 determines seed development, we felt it when clutching it at the single flower on the top when nodes are not perfectly unwound. It can also be explained on the thermal time basis. In crop canopies rate of dark respiration is considered half of the rate of photosynthesis while the temperature becomes high at night is also linked to less output yield [44, 53, 54, 55, 56].
The duration of flowering can be explained as:
duration between R1 and R5.
duration between the first flower and last flower observed [57, 58, 59].
The entire quantity of carbon fixed by plants is through canopy photosynthesis. Photosynthesis in the net canopy and dark respiration. These are two of the high stages of crop growth R1 and R5. Respiration in the dark is considered a summation of the maintenance and growth [60] but we cannot measure these both.
It is evident that long-day treatments near R3 positively increase the node, capsule, and grain number per unit land area [61, 62, 63]. When enough light is provided from R3 to the maturation of soybean, the seed filling stage will reduce and increase the duration resulting in less seed weight. But did not affect the flowering period, affecting the yield [64, 65]. Being a short-day plant with a short photoperiod, soybean is insensitive. The output yield of soybeans depends on adoption to target latitude for example, long juvenile trait. Most soybean do not grow in high elevations adopt a low-yielding early maturity, and early flowering. Lengthy juvenile characteristics hasten the flowering, and adequate vegetative growth before flowering [66]. A major gene encodes for Early flowering is the ELF3 ortholog involve in flowering [67]. It allows successful production of soybean production which illustrates the importance of timing.
Another major factor that determines the yield is the leaf area duration. It can be explained as the quantity and ability to produce necessary nutrients in leaf shaded areas during the grain-filling stage. It is also worthy in the determination of the number of pods and number of seed and ultimately final size of the seed. It is assumed that the amount of canopy photosynthesis is functional and made equilibrium. we can measure it in developmental stages from R1 to R7 while R7 is the physiological full growth when half of the pods become pale yellow while different techniques are used to find the correlation of L.A.D and yjeld ultimate production. For example, Liu et al. [66] calculated LAD on the basis of leaf area index over time. The second method to determine is through quantification of the canopy photosynthesis during the grain-filling stage [68, 69]. EFFECTIVE FILLING PERIOD (EFP) is another factor that determines number of days for the storage of dried matter and is directly proportional to the maximum seed size. At R8, indicating full maturity, the final seed size is measured. It is distinct from the total reproductive duration that is estimated from the time that flowers begin to open to the full maturity stage R8 [70] but EFP is directly related to LAD and measured from seed while inversely proportional to the seed growth rate and seed number.
3. Physiological alterations of soybean under abiotic and biotic stresses
There are two main groups of stress factors affecting and modulating the physiology of soybean. Group one includes abiotic factors like heat, drought and salinity. Group two includes biotic factors like viruses and insects.
3.1 Heat
Heat stress is a major detrimental abiotic stress factor that negatively impacts plant growth and development [71]. Heat stress decreases the soybean seed germination [72]. Heat stress causes membrane damage, stomata closure, reduction in carbon assimilation, and enzyme activity [73]. Heat stress causes reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, protein denaturation, metabolic imbalance, and disruption of cytoskeleton integrity and cell structure [74]. Heat stress causes a decrease in chlorophyll content and photosynthetic activity, a reduction in water potential and leaf area, damage to photosystems, and changes in the photorespiration mechanism [75]. Heat stress reduces photosynthetic activity decreases assimilates supply to flowers, decreases pollen viability that results in weak pollination, and decreases grain and pod filling [76]. During the flowering stage heat stress can cause pollen sterility decreasing seed setting, seed number, and pod formation [77].
3.2 Drought
Drought is one of the most common abiotic stress factors that negatively affect crop growth, physiology, and yield. Drought has irreversible detrimental effects at the seedling stage of soybeans [78]. Drought modulates root architecture (depth of root, branching of root, and angle of root) and decreases root length [79]. Drought stress decreases leaf photosynthetic activity and increases oxidative stress and leaf senescence. It also causes an increase in nitrate concentration and a decrease in soluble protein and nitrogen concentration in leaves. The long duration of drought stress causes a reduction in the biomass of reproductive organs and a decrease in seed weight [80]. Reproductive stages especially the grain-filling stage are more sensitive to drought stress than the vegetative stage. Assimilates production and accumulation in developing seeds is decreased during drought stress which can cause a decrease in soybean yield [81]. Soybeans require double the amount of water during the reproductive phase as compared to the vegetative phase. The intensity and frequency of drought stress susceptibility increases during flowering and post-flowering stages reducing pollen fertility, seed per pod, sink size, and yield of soybean [82].
3.3 Salinity
Salinity is one of the common abiotic stresses that have detrimental impacts on plant growth, physiology, and development [83]. Salinity stress causes delayed seed germination, seedling emergence, nodulation, less leaf area, reduced plant height, and deteriorated seed quality in soybeans. The seedling stage is more vulnerable to salinity stress as compared to the germination stage [84]. Soil salinity affects physiological activities by decreasing turgor, increasing oxidative damage, and reducing growth and yield. Leaf chlorophyll concentration and stomatal conductance reduce significantly as the level of salinity is increased. High salinity level changes soybean leaf size, internodes, branches, pods, biomass, plant height, and seed yield [75]. Ion imbalance, water loss and osmotic damage may occur to soybean at higher salinity [76]. Photosynthesis and productivity is hindered by Na+ and Cl− ions higher concentration in soybean. Osmotic damage and stress occur in root zone causing hyperionic condition reducing water and nutrient uptake [85].
3.4 Viruses
Viruses have been affecting soybean crop around the globe and soybean mosaic virus (SMV) is the most serious biotic factor in soybean production. SMV causes vein thickening, leaf deformation, necrosis in leaves and stem and seed mottling [86]. SMV attack negatively affect photosynthesis, number of leaves, pods, seeds and plant height [87]. Young soybean plants are more susceptible to the SMV. SMV affected plants have shorter internode, leaf curling, chlorosis and radial brown stripe on seeds [88]. SMV causes changes in chloroplast structure and photosystems for its replication [89].
3.5 Insects
Insect pests cause severe damage to soybean plants especially at R3 stage. The damage caused by insects result in weakened leaves, deformed seeds, plate-shaped pods and reduced carbohydrate and fat content in attacked seeds [90]. Some insects like bean bugs attack at vegetative stage and increase population. As the flowering stage is completed insects, suck developing seeds and pods causing seed deformation and abortion [91]. Soybean aphids significantly affect photosynthetic activities, decreases soybean seed quantity and quality. It also causes soybean susceptible to fungus attack on leaves and also act as vector for viruses [92]. The common physiological changes due to different insect feeding on soybean plant includes decreased assimilate movement, decreased photosynthesis, decrease in leaf biomass, leaf senescence, decreased water retention capacity, and architecture disruption reducing seed quality and yield [93, 94, 95].
The physiology of soybean including its capacity to absorb nutrients from the soil, produce energy through photosynthesis, and synthesize defensive phytochemicals, directly influences the soybean seed composition. These seeds are not only rich in essential nutraceutical components such as protein, fiber, and healthy fats but also contain phytochemicals like isoflavones and phytosterols. These phytochemicals have been recognized for their nutraceutical properties, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and hormone regulating effects. Understanding the physiological processes that give rise to these compounds provides valuable insights into the nutritional benefits of soybean, making them a prime example of how a plant’s physiological mechanisms can give significant advantages for human beings.
Oil of soybean seed and seed protein determine the soybeans overall quality value in international trade [96]. Grain legumes are useful for both livestock and aquaculture feed in addition to being valuable oil crops. Throughout the world, soybeans are widely used as significant sources of dietary oil and protein, with their native country being China. The biggest producers of soybean and soybean commodities are the United States, Brazil, Argentina, and India. Soybeans are perennial plants that grow prostrate and have fine brown or gray hairs on their pods, stems, and leaves. Each leaf has 3–4 leaflets and falls before the seed matures [97]. There are usually 1 or 2 seeds inside a waxy pod that is 3–7 cm long and has a simple design, such as a curved shape. A green seed matures to a green or brown color from a light-yellow shade. In modern soybean seeds, the most desirable color is yellow and green [98]. Papilionaceous flowers are colored white, pink and purple. In soybeans, the anthers maturation occurs in the buds, and after maturation anthers split and release their pollen directly on the stigma [99]. Over the past 25 years, soybeans, soy foods, soy-derived food, and dietary supplement components (e.g., soybean oil, soybean proteins, and isoflavones) have been extensively studied for their human health benefits. As soybeans contain protein content about double that of other legumes/servings, as well as having high protein quality, this intensive research is based on the identification of soybeans nutritional properties. The digestibility of protein corrected amino acid scores for some soybean protein ingredients are consistent with the protein digestibility corrected amino acid scores for proteins considered optimal for human nutrition [100]. Isoflavones are another unique ingredient in soybeans. It has been found that phytoestrogens related to soybean proteins may imitate human estrogen in several useful ways, such as alleviating menopause symptoms, and protecting against heart disease and cancer.
Due to its high content of secondary metabolites such as isoflavone, saponins, phytic acids, phytosterols, trypsin inhibitors, and peptides as well as essential amino acids, soy is gaining recognition as a crop with nutritional relevance and as a popular source of nutraceuticals [101]. Using chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques, the presence of soy, the isoflavones daidzein and genistein, their precursors formononetin and biochanin A, and their glycosides, glycosides malonates, and acetyl glycosides were identified in red clover extracts [102]. These are organic phytoestrogens that can reduce the incidence of atherosclerosis by inhibiting LDL oxidation [103]. Together with the five isoflavonoids that were already known, Ito et al. [104] isolated two novel isoflavonoids from the leaves of Millettia taiwaniana (Leguminosae), millewanin-F and furowanin-A. According to Wiseman et al. [105], soy protein ingestion lowers the susceptibility of LDL particles to oxidation. According to Isanga and Zhang [101], the phytochemicals found in soybeans have a functional effect on lowering cholesterol and preventing heart disease, diabetes symptoms, bone loss, and cancer. Foods based on soybeans, according to Messina and Lane [100], may help lower cholesterol levels since they contain high-quality protein, are low in saturated fat, and do not contain cholesterol. By expressing the gene for -tocopherol methyltransferase from Perilla frutescens, which is utilized to reduce oxidative damage to lipids during seed storage and germination, Tavva et al. [106] reported that transgenic soybean had a content of -tocopherol. Consuming soybeans, which are nutritious sources of protein and calcium, is a simple method to support the development of healthy bones and even lower the risk of osteoporosis. According to research, the isoflavones genistein and daidzein found in soybeans are what keep bones from breaking or deteriorating. Additionally, the protein in soybeans helps our bodies retain calcium. Soybean folic acid works in concert with other nutrients to prevent bone loss. Isoflavones are a class of chemical compounds related to isoflavonoids that are frequently found in nature [107].
Folate is essential for the one-carbon metabolism, which controls gene expression, cell division, the manufacture of neurotransmitters, and amino acid metabolism [108]. Folic acid was investigated by Blencowe et al. [109] to lower infant mortality from neural tube diseases. In their study, the impact of folic acid on the reduction in risk of infant mortality with folic acid fortification and supplementation is quantified. The impact of folic acid supplementation during pregnancy and its implications for health and disease have been studied by Barua et al. [110]. Heart disease risk can be decreased with the aid of folate. The impact of folate on a number of different health outcomes during pregnancy is hotly contested [111]. Folic acid is present in soybeans in amounts of roughly 2500 g kg-1 on a dry matter basis. There is room for research into the bioaccessibility of the vitamin and the amounts of folic acid in processed grains and their products. Folic acid levels are adversely affected by the processing conditions. Numerous other health issues, including anemia, improper nutrition absorption, newborn brain development, Alzheimer’s disease treatment, age-related hearing loss, etc. have been linked to folic acid. As a result, diets high in soy, a good source of this vitamin, may be beneficial for nutrition (Table 1).
In addition to being used as a raw material for oil milling, soy residues are used as feed for domesticated animals. Due to its high oil content (18–25%) and protein content (38–50%), soybean is a very nutritious food [112]. In western countries, soy production and consumption have increased. Across Asia soybeans have been used in a variety of fermented and non-fermented products [113]. Several disorders are treated with soybean base products, such as lactose intolerance and severe gastroenteritis in infants [114]. A mature soybean seed contains approximately 35% protein, 31% carbohydrate, 17% fat, and 5% mineral content [115]. The amino acids in soybean protein include histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine, which constitute an acceptable amount for daily intake [116]. Several health benefits have been associated with soybeans, including lowering cholesterol levels [117], preventing cancer [118], improving bone mineral density, and protecting against bowel and kidney disease [119]. In soybean, there are isoflavones, saponins, proteins, and peptides that have been found to be beneficial for health [120].
5.1 Protein
According to Liu [121], soybean contains 35–40% protein by dry weight, including globulins, 11S glycinin, and 7S β-conglycinin. As soy products contain all the amino acids essential to human nutrition, they are almost as good as animal sources of protein, but with less saturated fat and no cholesterol. The soybean also contains disease-fighting proteins such as hemagglutinin, trypsin inhibitors, gluten and lipoxygenase. Soybeans are now thought to be beneficial for preventing and treating several diseases, according to the FDA’s Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid source method [122].
5.2 Oil
The major component of soybean oil is triglycerides, which make up about 19%. It contains relatively high amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids i.e., 51% linoleic acid and 8% α-linolenic acid, stearic acid 4%, palmitic acid 10%, oleic acid 23% of total fatty acids [123]. Soybean oil contains essential fatty acids-linoleic acid and α-linolenic acid belonging to the ω-6 and ω-3 family, which play a significant role in regulating several metabolic pathways and exerting significant nutritional and physiological functions.
5.3 Carbohydrates
Beans contain about 35 percent carbohydrates, polysaccharides, and oligosaccharides like raffinose (1.1%). Raffinose is a triose with a galactose-glucose-fructose structure, while stachyose is a tetrase [124].
5.4 Vitamins and minerals
Although soybeans lack B12 and vitamin C, they are a better source of vitamin B than cereals. Natural antioxidants such as tocopherols are also present in soybean oil. Additionally, it contains 5% minerals. It contains relatively high levels of potassium, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, and iron. Soy ferritin can provide reasonable amounts of iron [125].
5.5 Soybean product
Many Asian countries consume fermented and nonfermented soy foods on a regular basis. In the United States and Europe, soy sauce, tofu, tempeh, and other products are becoming more popular. In order to make soy sauce, either hydrolysis or fermentation is used. Soymilk; originated in China and is a complete protein that also contains fiber, vitamins, and minerals that can replace animal protein. Glucose and fructose are the two basic sugars that are found in soy products. Therefore, soy-based infant formulas may be used as a safe alternative to breast milk by children with galactosemia. Natto looks and smells somewhat like a strong cheese. As a result of stirring the natto, there are many sticky strings produced. There are 55% water, 18% protein, 11% fat, 5% fiber, and 5% sugars in natto. As a rich source of protein, it is made from fermented soybeans with Bacillus subtilis. Soybean products are produced by many companies around the world.
Soybean is a major oil crop that is used as food and livestock feed. Soybean has been grown in China for almost 4000 years ago and North China is considered as center of origin of soybean. Soybean provides protein, unsaturated fatty acids, carbohydrates, dietary fibers, and other important healthy compounds. Soybean and soy food have nutritional compounds that prevent many diseases and boost immunity. Soybeans have anti-obesity, antiaging, anticancer, and anticholesterolemic properties. Soybean contains substances that have antioxidative properties, promote liver functions, prevent osteoporosis, lower blood pressure, and causes prevention of certain chronic diseases. Soybean is considered as leading source of nutraceutical chemicals having healthy qualities. Soybean contains high-quality protein about 35–40% with several important amino acids that help in disease-fighting and prevention. Soybean contains oil of about 18–25% with a high ratio of unsaturated fatty acids that plays an important role in nutritional metabolism and decreases the risk of heart diseases. The life cycle of soybeans has overlapping vegetative and reproductive phases. In the reproductive phase seed seed-filling stage from R5 to R7 and determines the seed weight and overall yield. Seed filling also depends upon the leaf’s ability to perform a quantity of photosynthesis during the seed filling stage. The physiology of soybean is modulated by different abiotic factors like heat, drought, salinity, and biotic factors like viruses and insects. The most common harmful effect of these abiotic factors is oxidative damage and a decrease in photosynthesis which severely changes the normal physiology of soybean. The common harmful effect caused by the biotic factors is leaf deformation and reduction in photosynthetic ability. Both these stress factors cause alteration in soybean nutraceutical properties and physiology ultimately diseasing seed number and yield.
1.Hymowitz T. On the domestication of the soybean. Economic Botany. 1970;23:408-421
2.Smith KL, Huyser W. World distribution and significance of soybean. In: Wilcox JR, editor. Soybeans: Improvement, Production and Uses. 2nd ed. Madison, WI: American Society of Agronomy; 1987. pp. 1-22
3.Singh P, Kumar R, Sabapathy SN, Bawa AS. Functional and edible uses of soy protein products. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 2008;7:14-28
4.Chen KI, Erh MH, Su NW, Liu WH, Chou CC, Cheng KC. Soyfoods and soybean products: From traditional use to modern applications. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 2012;96:9-22
5.Ko JW, Chung YS, Kwak CS, Kwon YH. Doenjang, a Korean traditional fermented soybean paste, ameliorates neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in mice fed a high-fat diet. Nutrients. 2019;11:1702
6.Kim SY, Park JM, Hwang JP. Analysis of iodine content in salts and Korean sauces for low-iodine diet education in Korean patients with thyroid cancer preparing for radioiodine therapy. Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging. 2018;52:229-233
7.Rizzo G, Baroni L. Soy, soy foods and their role in vegetarian diets. Nutrients. 2018;10:43
8.Chatterjee C, Gleddie S, Xiao CW. Soybean bioactive peptides and their functional properties. Nutrients. 2018;10:1211
9.Messina M. Soy and health update: Evaluation of the clinical and epidemiologic literature. Nutrients. 2016;8:754
10.Patisaul HB, Jefferson W. The pros and cons of phytoestrogens. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology. 2010;31:400-419
11.Akhlaghi M, Zare M, Nouripour F. Effect of soy and soy isoflavones on obesity-related anthropometric measures: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled clinical trials. Advances in Nutrition. 2017;8:705-717
12.Velasquez MT, Bhathena SJ. Role of dietary soy protein in obesity. International Journal of Medical Sciences. 2007;4:72-82
13.Thangavel P, Puga-Olguin A, Rodriguez-Landa JF, Zepeda RC. Genistein as potential therapeutic candidate for menopausal symptoms and other related diseases. Molecules. 2019;24:3892
14.Villegas R, Gao YT, Yang G, Li HL, Elasy TA. Legume and soy food intake and the incidence of type 2 diabetes in the Shanghai Women’s health study. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2008;87:162-167
15.Feliceti ML, Siega TC, Silva M, Mesquita APB, Silva JA, Bahry CA, et al. Grupos de maturidade relativa frente à qualidade fisiológica das sementes de soja. Brazilian Journal of Development. 2020;6:27410-27421 https://doi.org/10.34117/bjdv6n5-260
16.Lson RF. Seed composition. In: Stewart BA, Nielsen DR, editor. Soybeans: Improvement, Production, and Uses. Agronomy Monograph 16, ASSA, 3rd edn. Madison: CSSA, and SSSA. 2004. pp. 621-677. doi: 10.2134/agronmonogr16.3ed.c13
17.Isanga J, Zhang GN. Soybean bioactive components and their implications to health—A review. Food Review International. 2008;24:252-276. DOI: 10.1080/87559120801926351
18.Santini A, Tenore GC, Novellino E. Nutraceuticals: A paradigm of proactive medicine. European Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2017;96:53-61. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2016.09.003
19.Volpe R, Sotis G. Nutraceuticals: Definition and epidemiological rationale for their use in clinical practice. High Blood Press Cardiovasc Prevent. 2015;22:199-201. DOI: 10.1007/s40292-015-0092-5
20.DeFelice S. The Nutraceutical Revolution: Fueling a Powerful, New International Market. Como: Harvard University Advanced Management Program in Biomedical Research and Development; 1989
21.Rajcan I, Hou G, Weir AD. Advances in breeding of seed-quality traits in soybean. Journal of Crop Improvement. 2005;14:145-174. DOI: 10.1300/J411v14n01_07
22.Vollmann J, Rajcan I. Oil crop breeding and genetics. In: Vollmann J, Rajcan I, editors. Oil Crops. New York, NY: Springer; 2009. pp. 1-30. DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-77594-4_1
23.McCue P, Shetty K. Health benefits of soy isoflavonoids and strategies for enhancement: A review. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2004;44:361-367. DOI: 10.1080/10408690490509591
24.Bramley PM, Elmadfa I, Kafatos A, Kelly FJ, Manios Y, Roxborough H, et al. Vitamin E. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 2000;80:913-938. DOI: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-001080:73.0.CO;2-3
26.D’Amico G, Gentile MG, Manna G, Fellin G, Ciceri R. Effect of vegetarian soy diet on hyperlipidaemia in nephrotic syndrome. Lancet. 1992;339:1131-1134
27.Bernstein AM, Treyzon L, Li Z. Are highprotein, vegetable-based diets safe for kidney function? A review of the literature. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 2007;107:644-650
28.Haub MD, Wells AM, Campbell WW. Beef and soy-based food supplements differentially affect serum lipoprotein-lipid profiles because of changes in carbohydrate intake and novel nutrient intake ratios in older men who resistive train. Metabolism. 2005;54:769-774
29.Sacks FM, Lichtenstein A, Van Horn L, Harris W, Kris-Etherton P, Winston M. Soy protein, isoflavones, and cardiovascular health An American Heart Association science advisory for professionals from the nutrition committee. Circulation. 2006;113:1034-1044
30.Rimbach G, Boesch-Saadatmandi C, Frank J, Fuchs D, Wenzel U, Daniel H, et al. Dietary isoflavones in the prevention of cardiovascular disease—A molecular perspective. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2008;46:1308-1319
31.Jenkins DJ, Kendall CW, Marchie A, Faulkner DA, Wong JM, de Souza R, et al. Direct comparison of a dietary portfolio of cholesterol-lowering foods with a statin in hypercholesterolemic participants. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2005;81:380-387
32.Ebone LA, Caverzan A, Tagliari A, Chiomento JLT, Silveira DC, Chavarria G. Soybean seed vigor: Uniformity and growth as key factors to improve yield. Agronomy. 2020;10:545. DOI: 10.3390/agronomy10040545
33.Wu AH, Yu MC, Tseng CC, Pike MC. Epidemiology of soy exposures and breast cancer risk. British Journal of Cancer. 2008;98:9-14
34.Akiyama T, Ishida J, Nakagawa S, Ogawara H, Watanabe S, Itoh N, et al. Genistein, a specific inhibitor of tyrosine-specific protein kinases. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1987;262:5592-5595
35.Thorburn J, Thorburn A. The tyrosine kinase inhibitor, genistein, prevents α-adrenergic-induced cardiac muscle cell hypertrophy by inhibiting activation of the Ras-MAP kinase signaling pathway. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 1994;202:1586-1591
36.Linassier C, Pierre M, Le Peco J-B, Pierre J. Mechanism of action in NIH3T3 cells of genistein, an inhibitor of EGF receptor tyrosine kinase activity. Biochemical Pharmacology. 1990;39:187-193
37.Constantinou A, Kiguchi K, Huberman E. Induction of differentiation and DNA strand breakage in human HL-60 and K-562 leukemia cells by genistein. Cancer Research. 1990;50:2618-2624
38.Peterson TG, Kim H, Barnes S. Genistein may inhibit the growth of human mammary epithelial (HME) cells by augmenting transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) signaling. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1998;68:1527S (abstr)
39.Markowitz SD, Roberts AB. Tumor suppressor activity of the TGF-β pathway in human cancers. Cytokine & Growth Factor Reviews. 1996;7:93-102
40.Messina MJ, Barnes S. The role of soy products in reducing risk of cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 1991;83:541-546
41.Korde LA, Wu AH, Fears T, Nomura AM, West DW. Childhood soy intake and breast cancer risk in Asian American women. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention. 2009;18:1050-1059
42.Pederson P, Licht MA. Soybean Growth and Development. PM1945. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Extension and Outreach; 1999
43.Egli DB. Soybean yield physiology: Principles and processes of yield production. In: Guriqbal S, editor. The Soybean: Botany, Production and Uses. Wallingford: CABI; 2010. pp. 113-141. DOI: 10.1079/9781845936440.0113
44.Board JE, Kang MS, Harville BG. Path analyses of the yield formation process for late-planted soybean. Agronomy Journal. 1999;91:128-135. DOI: 10.2134/agronj1999.00021962009100010020x
45.Egli DB, Crafts-Brandner SJ. Photoassimilate Distribution Plants and Crops Source-Sink Relationships. New York, NY: Routledge; 1996. DOI: 10.1201/9780203743539
46.Robinson SL, Wilcox JR. Comparison of determinate and indeterminate soybean near-isolines and their response to row spacing and planting date. Crop Science. 1998;38:1554-1557. DOI: 10.2135/cropsci1998. 0011183X003800060024
47.Ting CL. Genetic studies on the wild and cultivated soybeans. Agronomy Journal. 1946;38:381-393. DOI: 10.2134/agronj1946.0002196200380005 0001x
48.Tian Z, Wang X, Lee R, Li Y, Specht JE, Nelson RL, et al. Artificial selection for determinate growth habit in soybean. Proceedings. National Academy of Sciences. United States of America. 2010;107:8563. DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1000088107
49.Engledow FL, Wadham SM. Investigations on yield in the cereals. The Journal of Agricultural Science. 1923;13:390-439. DOI: 10.1017/S0021859600003828
50.De Bruin JL, Pedersen P. Growth, yield, and yield component changes among old and newsoybeancultivars. Agronomy Journal. 2009;101:124. DOI: 10.2134/ agronj2008.0187
51.Jin J, Liu X, Wang G, Mi L, Shen Z, Chen X, et al. Agronomic and physiological contributions to the yield improvement of soybean cultivars released from 1950 to 2006 in Northeast China. Field Crops Research. 2010;115:116-123. DOI: 10.1016/j.fcr.2009.10.016
52.Wei MCF, Molin JP. Soybean yield estimation and its components: A linear regression approach. Agriculture. 2020;10:348. DOI: 10.3390/agriculture10080348
53.Hartwig EE, Edwards CJ Jr. Effectsofmorphologicalcharacteristics upon seed yield in soybeans1. Agronomy Journal. 1970;62:64-65. DOI: 10.2134/agronj1970. 00021962006200010021x
54.Carciochi WD, Schwalbert R, Andrade FH, Corassa GM, Carter P, Gaspar AP, et al. Soybean seed yield response to plant density by yield environment in North America. Agronomy Journal. 2019;111:1923-1932. DOI: 10.2134/ agronj2018.10.0635
55.Wilson D, Jones JG. Effect of selection for dark respiration rate of mature leaves on cropyields of Loliumperennecv.S23. Annals of Botany. 1982;49:313-320. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aob.a086255
56.Seddigh M, Jolliff GD. Night temperature effects on morphology, phenology, yield and yield components of indeterminate field-grown soybean. Agronomy Journal. 1984;76:824-828. DOI: 10.2134/agronj1984.00021962007600050026x
57.Albrizio R, Steduto P. Photosynthesis, respiration and conservative carbon use efficiency off our field grown crops. Agricultural Forest Meteorology. 2003;116:19-36. DOI: 10.1016/S0168-1923(02)00252-6
58.Kantolic AG, Slafer GA. Photoperiod sensitivity after flowering and seed number determination in determinate soybean cultivars. Field Crops Research. 2001;72:109-118. DOI: 10.1016/S0378-4290 (01)00168-X
59.Kantolic AG, Slafer GA. Reproductive development and yield components in indeterminate soybean as affected by post-flowering photoperiod. Field Crops Research. 2005;93:212-222. DOI: 10.1016/j.fcr.2004. 10.001
60.Kantolic AG, Slafer GA. Development and seed number in indeterminate soybean as affected by timing and duration of exposure to long photo periods after flowering. Annals of Botany. 2007;99:925-933. DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcm033
61.Zhang LX, Kyei-Boahen S, Zhang J, Zhang MH, Freeland TB, Watson CE, et al. Modifications of optimum adaptation zones for soybean maturity groups in the USA. Crop Management. 2007;6:1-11. DOI: 10.1094/CM-20070927-01-RS
62.Destro D, Carpentieri-Pípolo V, Kiihl RAS, Almeida LA. Photoperiodism and genetic control of the long juvenile period in soybean: A review. Crop Breeding and Applied Biotechnology. 2001;1:72-92. DOI: 10.13082/1984-7033
63.Lu S, Zhao X, Hu Y, Liu S, Nan H, Li X, et al. Natural variation at theso ybeanJ locus improves adaptation to the tropics and enhances yield. Nature Genetics. 2017;49:773-779. DOI: 10.1038/ng.3819
64.Watson DJ. Comparative physiological studies on the growth of field crops: I. Variation in net assimilation rate and leaf area between species and varieties, and within and between years. Annals of Botany. 1947;11:41-76. DOI: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aob.a083148
66.Liu X, Jin J, Herbert SJ, Zhang Q , Wang G. Yield components, dry matter, LAI and LAD of soybeans in Northeast China. Field Crops Research. 2005;93:85-93. DOI: 10.1016/j.fcr.2004.09.005
67.Wells R, Schulze LL, Ashley DA, Boerma HR, Brown RH. Cultivar differences in canopy apparent photosynthesis and their relationship to seed yield in soybeans. Crop Science. 1982;22:886-890. DOI: 10.2135/cropsci1982. 0011183X002200040044x
68.Daynard TB, Tanner JW, Duncan WG. Duration of the grain filling period and its relation to grain yield in corn. Zea mays L. Crop Sci. 1971;11:45-48. DOI: 10.2135/cropsci1971.0011183X001100010015x v01n01a10
69.Salado-Navarro LR, Sinclair TR, Hinson K. Comparisons among effective filling period, reproductive period duration, and R5 to R7 in determinate Soybeans1. Crop Science. 1985;25:1050-1054. DOI: 10.2135/cropsci1985. 0011183X002500060037
70.Egli DB. (ed.) seed biology and yield of grain crops, 2nd Edn. Wallingford: CABI; 2017. doi:10.1079/9781780647708.0000
71.Nakagawa AC, Ario N, Tomita Y, Tanaka S, Murayama N, Mizuta C. High temperature during soybean seed development differentially alters lipid and protein metabolism. Plant Production Science. 2020;23:504-512. DOI: 10.1080/1343943X.2020.1742581
72.Veas RE, Ergo VV, Vega CR, Lascano RH, Rondanini DP, Carrera CS. Soybean seed growth dynamics exposed to heat and water stress during the filling period under field conditions. Journal of Agronomy and Crop Science. 2021;208:472-485. DOI: 10.1111/jac.12523
73.Jianing G, Yuhong G, Yijun G, Rasheed A, Qian Z, Zhiming X, et al. Improvement of heat stress tolerance in soybean (glycine max L), by using conventional and molecular tools. Frontiers. Plant Science. 2022;13:1-17. DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.993189
74.Soba D, Arrese-Igor C, Aranjuelo I. Additive effects of heatwave and water stresses on soybean seed yield is caused by impaired carbon assimilation at pod formation but not at flowering. Plant Science. 2022;321:111320. DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2022.111320
75.Zorb C, Geilfus CM, Dietz KJ. Salinity and crop yield. Plant Biology. 2019;21:31-38. DOI: 10.1111/plb.12884
76.Ilangumaran G, Subramanian S, Smith DL. Soybean leaf proteomic profile influenced by rhizobacteria under optimal and salt stress conditions. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2022;13:1-15. DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.809906
77.Haider S, Iqbal J, Naseer S, Shaukat M, Abbasi BA, Yaseen T, et al. Unfolding molecular switches in plant heat stress resistance: A comprehensive review. Plant Cell Reports. 2021;41(3):775-798. DOI: 10.1007/s00299-021-02754-w
78.Kumar A, Kaushik P. Heat Stress and Its Impact on Plant Function: An Update. 2021;1:1-29. doi: 10.20944/preprints202108.0489.v1
79.Onat B, Bakal H, Gulluoglu L, Arioglu H. The effects of high temperature at the growing period on yield and yield components of soybean [glycine max (L.) merr] varieties. Turkish Journal of Field Crops. 2017;22:178-186. DOI: 10.17557/tjfc.356210
80.Du Y, Zhao Q , Chen L, Yao X, Zhang W, Zhang B, et al. Effect of drought stress on sugar metabolism in leaves and roots of soybean seedlings. Plant Physiology and Biochemistry. 2020a;146:1-12. DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2019.11.003
81.Kunert KJ, Vorster BJ, Fenta BA, Kibido T, Dionisio G, Foyer CH. Drought stress responses in soybean roots and nodules. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2016;7:1-7. DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.01015
82.Du Y, Zhao Q , Chen L, Yao X, Xie F. Effect of drought stress at reproductive stages on growth and nitrogen metabolism in soybean. Agronomy. 2020;10(2):302. DOI: 10.3390/agronomy10020302
83.Du Y, Zhao Q , Chen L, Yao X, Zhang H, Wu J, et al. Effect of drought stress during soybean R2–R6 growth stages on sucrose metabolism in leaf and seed. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2020c;21(2):618. DOI: 10.3390/ijms21020618
84.Poudel S, Vennam RR, Shrestha A, Reddy KR, Wijewardane NK, Reddy KN, et al. Resilience of soybean cultivars to drought stress during flowering and early-seed setting stages. Scientific Reports. 2023;13:1-13. DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-28354-0
85.Otie V, Udo I, Shao Y, Itam MO, Okamoto H, An P, et al. Salinity effects on morpho-physiological and yield traits of soybean (glycine max L.) as mediated by foliar spray with Brassinolide. Plants. 2021;10:1-22. DOI: 10.3390/plants10030541
86.Zhang W, Liao X, Cui Y, Ma W, Zhang X, Du H, et al. A cation diffusion facilitator, GmCDF1, negatively regulates salt tolerance in soybean. PLoS Genetics. 2019;15:1-27.e1007798
87.Feng C, Gao H, Zhou Y, Jing Y, Li S, Yan Z, et al. Unfolding molecular switches for salt stress resilience in soybean: Recent advances and prospects for salt-tolerant smart plant production. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2023;14:1-27.DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1162014
88.Maugeri Suarez M, Rodríguez M, Bejerman N, Laguna IG, Rodríguez PP. Biological, Molecular and Physiological Characterization of Four Soybean Mosaic Virus Isolates Present in Argentine Soybean Crops. 2021:1-37. DOI: 10.1101/2021.06.10.447356
89.Taiye HA, Olusegun SB, Islamiyat A. The pathogenicity of soybean mosaic virus and cowpea mild mottle virus on soybean variety TGX 14428-2E. Al-Hikmah Journal of Pure & Applied Sciences. 2015;2(1):20-25
90.Taufik M, Bande LO, Hasan A, Rahayu M, Yusuf DN, Wulan RD. Incidence of soybean mosaic virus on soybean in Southeast Sulawesi. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science. 2020;468(1):012024. DOI: 10.1088/1755-1315/468/1/012024
91.Bwalya J, Alazem M, Kim K. Photosynthesis-related genes induce resistance against soybean mosaic virus: Evidence for involvement of the RNA silencing pathway. Molecular Plant Pathology. 2021;23(4):543-560. DOI: 10.1111/mpp.13177
92.Park Y-H, Choi SH, Kwon Y-J, Kwon S-W, Kang YJ, Jun T-H. Detection of soybean insect pest and a forecasting platform using deep learning with unmanned ground vehicles. Agronomy. 2023;13(2):477. DOI: 10.3390/agronomy13020477
93.Song J, Lee G, Jung J, Moon J-K, Kim S-G. Correction: Effect of soybean volatiles on the behavior of the bean bug, riptortus pedestris. Journal of Chemical Ecology. 2022;48:207-218. DOI: 10.1007/s10886-022-01356-4
94.Hohenstein JD, Studham ME, Klein A, Kovinich N, Barry K, Lee Y-J, et al. Transcriptional and chemical changes in soybean leaves in response to long-term aphid colonization. Frontiers in Plant Science. 2019;10:1-18. DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2019.00310
95.Rupe J, Luttrell R. Effect of pests and diseases on soybean quality. In: Johnson LA, White PJ, Galloway R, editors. Soybeans. Urbana, IL, USA: AOCS Press; 2008. pp. 93-116. DOI: 10.1016/B978-1-893997-64-6.50007-X
96.Caldwell BE, Howell RW. Soybeans: Improvement, Production, and Uses. American Society of Agronomy; 1973
97.Lersten NR, Carlson JB. Vegetative morphology. In: Wilcox JR, editor. Soybeans: Improvement, Production and Uses. 2nd ed. Madison, WI: American Society of Agronomy; 1987. pp. 49-94
98.Hammond BG, Jez JM. Impact of food processing on the safety assessment for proteins introduced into biotechnology-derived soybean and corn crops. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2011;49(4):711-721
99.Businco L, Bruno G, Giampietro PG, Cantani A. Allergenicity and nutritional adequacy of soy protein formulas. The Journal of pediatrics. 1992;121(5):S21-S28
100.Messina M, Lane B. Soy protein, soybean isoflavones and coronary heart disease risk: Where do we stand? Future Lipidology. 2007;2(1):55-74
101.Isanga J, Zhang GN. Soybean bioactive components and their implications to health-a review. Food Reviews International; 2008;24:252-276
102.Sabudak T, Guler N. Trifolium L.-a review on its phytochemical and pharmacological profile. Phytotherapy Research. 2009;23:439-446
103.Wiseman H. The bioavailability of non-nutrient plant factors: Dietary flavonoids and phyto-oestrogens. The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 1999;58:139-146
104.Ito C, Murata T, Itoigawa M, Nakao K, Kumagai M, Kaneda N, et al. Induction of apoptosis by isoflavonoids from the leaves of Millettia taiwaniana in human leukemia HL-60 cells. Planta Medica. 2006;72:424-429
105.Wiseman H, O'Reilly JD, Adlercreutz H, Mallet AI, Bowey EA, Rowland IR, et al. Isoflavone phytoestrogens consumed in soy decrease F2-isoprostane concentrations and increase resistance of low-density lipoprotein to oxidation in humans. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2000;72:395-400
106.Tavva VS, Kim YH, Kagan IA, Dinkins RD, Kim KH, Collins GB. Increased α-tocopherol content in soybean seed overexpressing the Perilla frutescens γ-tocopherol methyltransferase gene. Plant Cell Reports. 2007;26:61-70
107.Kaufman PB, Duke JA, Brielmann H, Boik J, Hoyt JE. A comparative survey of leguminous plants as sources of the isoflavones, genistein and daidzein: Implications for human nutrition and health. Journal of Alternative Complementary Medicine. 1997;3:7-12
108.Djukic A. Folate-responsive neurologic diseases. Pediatric Neurology. 2007;37:387-397
109.Blencowe H, Cousens S, Modell B, Lawn J. Folic acid to reduce neonatal mortality from neural tube disorders. International Journal of Epidemiology. 2010;39:110-121
110.Barua S, Kuizon S, Junaid MA. Folic acid supplementation in pregnancy and implications in health and disease. Journal of Biomedical Science. 2014;21
111.Fekete K, Berti C, Cetin I, Hermoso M, Koletzko BV, Decsi T. Perinatal folate supply: Relevance in health outcome parameters. Maternal Child Nutrition. 2010;6:23-38
112.Müller U, Weber W, Hoffmann A, Franke S, Lange R, Vieths S. Commercial Soybean Lecithins: A Source of Hidden Allergens? 1998. pp. 341-351
113.Erdman JW Jr, Fordyce EJ. Soy products and the human diet. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1989;49(5):725-737
114.Anthony MS, Clarkson TB, Hughes CL, Morgan TM, Burke GL. Soybean isoflavones improve cardiovascular risk factors without affecting the reproductive system of peripubertal rhesus monkeys. The Journal of Nutrition. 1996;126(1):43-50
115.Kennedy AR. 1998. The Bowman-Birk inhibitor from soybeans as an anticarcinogenic agent. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1998;68(6):1406S-1412S
116.Kreijkamp-Kaspers S, Kok L, Grobbee DE, de Haan EH, Aleman A, Lampe JW, et al. Effect of soy protein containing isoflavones on cognitive function, bone mineral density, and plasma lipids in postmenopausal women: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of the American Medical Association. 2004;292(1):65-74
117.Friedman M, Brandon DL. Nutritional and health benefits of soy proteins. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry. 2001;49(3):1069-1086
118.Michelfelder AJ. Soy: A complete source of protein. American Family Physician. 2009;79(1):43-47
119.Xiao CW. Health effects of soy protein and isoflavones in humans. The Journal of Nutrition. 2008;138(6):1244S-1249S
120.Grieshop CM, Kadzere CT, Clapper GM, Flickinger EA, Bauer LL, Frazier RL, et al. Chemical and nutritional characteristics of United States soybeans and soybean meals. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2003;51(26):7684-7691
121.Liu KS. Chemistry and nutritional value of soybean components. In: Liu KS, editor. Soybeans: Chemistry, Technology and Utilization, Chapman and Hall. New York: USA; 1997. pp. 25-113
122.Sugano M. Soy in Health and Disease Prevention. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press; 2006. p. 328 ISBN-13: 978-0849335952
123.Gandhi AP. Development of HACCP procedure for the production of full fat soy flour. International Food Research Journal. 2008;15:141-154
124.Hosking R. A Dictionary of Japanese Food: Ingredients and Culture. Boston, MA: Tuttle Publishing; 1996. p. 239
125.McCloud T. Natto: A Breakfast Dish that's an Acquired Taste. Virginia, USA: Daily Press; 1992
Written By
Summra Siddique, Sana-e-Mustafa, Ali Aslam Saggo and Memoona Amam
Submitted: 27 August 2023Reviewed: 30 October 2023Published: 24 January 2024
Open access peer-reviewed chapter - ONLINE FIRST
