Emotional Intelligence and Its Role as a Protective Factor against Symbolic Gender Violence in Peruvian Women

Abstract

This chapter presents the results of an investigation that aimed to identify the manifestations of symbolic gender violence and its relationship with emotional intelligence, as a protective factor against it, in 225 women from Metropolitan Lima and Callao (Peru). For this, a quantitative methodology research was carried out, which allowed exploring the relationship between the subdimensions of both variables. The results indicate that higher levels of emotional intelligence, specifically the dimension of emotional perception, present an inverse relationship with the dimensions of symbolic violence, acting as a protector against this type of gender violence against women. Likewise, differences were found in all the sociodemographic variables analyzed. These results are encouraging for the approach, prevention, and intervention of gender violence, in a country in which it is very present.

1. Introduction

Gender violence as a phenomenon has been present over the years, including different behaviors that were deemed as socially acceptable not long ago [1, 2]. However, it is now considered a violation of human rights and a public health problem; because of that, the social awareness surrounding the topic is increasing and its eradication has gained importance [3, 4, 5, 6].

Despite the efforts, it still is an issue in present society, reaching alarming figures. In 2019, 4640 femicides were registered in Latin America [7], 168 of which were in Peru [8]. In 2020, the context of the COVID-19 pandemic and its consequent lockdown measures, women and young girls were at larger risk because of how difficult it was to distance themselves from their aggressors or to ask for external help [9, 10]. In 2022, just during January, 141 adult women and 378 girls and adolescents were reported as missing and 18 femicides were registered [11].

Gender violence is defined as any act of violence based on gender that can result in physical, sexual, or psychological damage, and that takes place both in private and public spheres [12, 13]. It is relevant to consider that this type of violence mainly affects women [14, 15]. Furthermore, given its complexity, it is based on cultural and behavioral patterns that devalue femininity and, therefore, promote inequality [6]. In that sense, it is argued that every act of gender violence implies symbolic violence due to its cultural and historical base [16].

So, symbolic violence, a construct proposed by Bordieu [17, 18], is the submission of one group to another through a socialization process that naturalizes the power dynamics in such a way that gender-based asymmetry becomes unquestionable. This process is called “habitus” [19] and works as a scheme of thought, vision, and action those social agents incorporate over time, shaping practices that fit these schemes [19, 20]. Consequently, there is a kind of “voluntary submission,” which the oppressed group justifies and ends up establishing the relationship of dominance that it is a part of Calderone [20] and López [21]. In the context of a patriarchal system, symbolic violence perpetuates its functioning [22], and it is common for women to apply the mental schemes proposed by the dominant group without questioning them [17, 18, 23]. In turn, this makes the identification of this type of violence a more complex process [16].

It is argued that the symbolic functions as a classification system [22, 24]and since gender classifies and hierarchizes the world [25], this system will be the basis of the present investigation. Therefore, it is necessary to recognize that symbolic violence perpetuates the functioning of a patriarchal system that is already in place [22]. There are existing unequal relationships of power between men and women that respond to a social structure that is already historically and culturally established [16]. In this context, the difference between the sexes will mark both the objective of social structures and the subjective of mental structures, which will result in male dominance that is reinforced through customs and discourses, without the need for justification or coercion [18].

Thus, direct violence (where the aggressor is identified easily) is not needed to have a negative effect on women’s opportunities, wellbeing, identity, or freedom [26]. A diverse range of conducts are identified as habitual, which brings us to see them as normal; the resistance against them decreases, as well as the criticism and opposition to the aggressor and their behavior, so all of it gets integrated into a routine [27]. Because of that, symbolic violence also encompasses the messages, values, signs, and icons that can reproduce and/or transmit relations of domination, inequality and discrimination, which naturalize the subordination of women in society [28]. Therefore, myths, roles, and stereotypes that depict women and men differently must be considered [29].

Despite what is discussed, symbolic violence has not been studied from a psychological perspective. However, promoting research on the topic, in general, continues to be crucial [30], given that investigations help to create intervention programs that respond to the needs of those involved, such as prevention programs that allow a better understanding of the phenomenon to act in a more effective way [6]. On that account, recent studies link healthy emotional development with violence prevention on the context of dating [31]. Therefore, it is important to study the relationship between violence against women and constructs such as emotional intelligence, given that they can function as a protective factor [6].

Salovey and Mayer’s [32] model will be used to define emotional intelligence (EI), given its coherence, rigor, and empiric evidence [33]. According to the authors, the EI encompasses “the ability to perceive, assess, and express emotions with precision; the ability to comprehend emotions and emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions that promote intellectual and emotional growth” (as cited in Jiménez & Lopez-Zafra, [34]). Because of this, an effective adaptation to the environment is achieved through the adaptive use of emotions, considered regulatory and determinant of behavior, both on interpersonal and intrapersonal levels [6, 29].

As it was mentioned, the relationship between EI and violence against women has already been studied; nevertheless, it is relevant to study its possible relationship with symbolic violence. Because of that, the general objective of this investigation is to identify the relationship between symbolic violence and emotional intelligence in women from metropolitan Lima and Callao. Consequently, the following hypotheses are raised:

Hypothesis 1: Higher scores of symbolic violence will link to lower scores of emotional intelligence.

Hypothesis 2: Significant Differences will be found in the constructs of symbolic violence and emotional intelligence according to the socio-demographic variables.

2. Method

2.1 Participants

The sample included 225 women, whose ages fluctuated between 18 and 61 years old (M = 30.38, SD = 12.31). 84.9% of them were born in Lima, 11.6% in a province, and 8% abroad. Most of the women in the study had an incomplete college degree (44%), were considered to have a medium socioeconomic status (56.4%), and identify themselves as catholic (72.4%). Plus, most of them were single (38.2%) and identified themselves as heterosexual (88.9%). As to whether they had children, 74.7% did not and 25.3% were mothers. Finally, the most significant sentimental relationship they had lasted an average of 76.57 months (ST = 101.49).

2.2 Measurement

Symbolic Violence Scale [5]. The scale has 40 items divided into three subscales. The answers are rated according to a Likert scale with scores ranging from1 to 4 (1 = Strongly disagree y 4 = Strongly agree). In this study, high levels of reliability were reached both in the total scale (α = .94) and subscales: internalized aspects (α = .92), interpersonal aspects (α = .90), and external aspects (α = .79).

Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS-24) [35]. The scale has 24 items divided into three dimensions. The answers are rated according to a Likert scale (1 = Strongly disagree y 5 = Strongly agree). In the present investigation, high levels of reliability were reached in the subscales: emotional perception (α = .90), emotional comprehension (α = .94), and emotional regulation (α = .89).

Socio-demographic data sheet: A sheet was used to collect sociodemographic data (age, sexual orientation, civil status, number, gender of children, etc.).

2.3 Procedure

This investigation was part of an investigation course to get a bachelor degree in Psychology. The application of the instruments was virtual through a Google Form shared on social media. It included the informed consent, which showed the study objectives and the measures to keep confidentiality and anonymity of the participants.

3. Data analysis

After the creation of the database, the statistical analyses were carried out. First, the descriptive analyses were calculated to obtain the sociodemographic characteristics of the participants, and then evaluate the reliability of the instruments used. Subsequently, the normality tests were performed using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistic to determine the distribution of the scores, which showed that the data did not follow a normal distribution. For this reason, a correlational analysis was performed using Spearman’s coefficient to respond to the objectives of the study. Finally, we proceeded to analyze the significant correlations to deepen the results obtained.

4. Results

The results of the study are presented below, according to the constructs studied and the hypotheses stated, which respond to the general objective of the present investigation.

Hypothesis 1: Higher scores of symbolic violence will link to lower scores of emotional intelligence. From the results (Table 1), it is stated that the first hypothesis is confirmed partially, given that some dimensions of the studied constructs have a relationship.

Measure	Internalized aspects	Interpersonal aspects	Total symbolic violence
Emotional perception	−0.370**	−0.341**	−0.333^*

Table 1.

Correlations between emotional intelligence and symbolic violence.

^**

p < .01.

Note: N = 225.

Hypothesis 2: Significant differences will be found in the constructs of symbolic violence and emotional intelligence according to the socio-demographic variables. To achieve this, the links between these variables were identified, including age, sexual orientation, place of birth, residence time in Lima, civil status, whether or not they had children, the number of children and their gender, most significant relationship duration, type of relationship, whether or not it is their current partner, academic degree, socioeconomic status, and religion (Table 2).

Extent	Emotional intelligence				Symbolic violence
	Emotional perception		Emotional understanding		Internalized aspects		Interpersonal aspects		External aspects		Total symbolic violence
			—						—
Age	−.41**				.31**		.24**				.26**
	Mdn	STD	—		Mdn	STD	Mdn	STD	—		Mdn	STD
Adolescence	32	5.02	—		24.5	9.62	18.5	3.93	—		55	19.36
Youth	29	6.45	—		29	9.14	18	5.53	—		62	15.42
Middle adult	21.5	5.47	—		38.5	8.98	24	7.25	—		75	17.67
			—						—
Sexual orientation	.13*				−.25**		−.17**				−.22**
	Mdn	STD	—		Mdn	STD	Mdn	STD	—		Mdn	STD
Heterosexual	26	6.75	—		33	9.48	19	6.22	—		66	16.67
Lesbian	21	5.51	—		45	5.86	28	1.53	—		86	7.77
Bisexual	32	5.96	—		23	5.69	16	3.23	—		54	10.14
Time of residence in Lima	—		.33*		−.41*		—		—		—
	—		Mdn	STD	Mdn	STD	—				—
More than 10 years	—		31	6.30	32	9.89	—		—		—
Less than 10 years	—		24	7.7	41	10.66	—		—		—
Civil status	−.30**		—		.26**		.18**		—		.21**
	Mdn	STD	—		Mdn	STD	Mdn	STD	—		Mdn	STD
Single	29.5	6.57	—		29	8.59	18	5.27	—		62	14.82
In a relationship	29	6.32	—		28	8.87	17	4.80	—		61	14.74
Cohabitant	26.5	6.09	—		43	7.97	26.5	7.00	—		88.5	17.63
Married	23.5	5.70	—		40	10.44	24.5	7.98	—		77.5	20.05
Separated	18	2.08	—		38	8.51	24	4.04	—		73	14.64
Divorcee	17.5	4.98	—		3.5	5.6	17.5	5.24	—		61.5	12
Do you have sons or daughters?	.38**		—		−.35**		−.26**		.15*		−.28**
	Mdn	STD	—		Mdn	STD	Mdn	STD	Mdn	STD	Mdn	STD
Yes	22	5.36	—		39	8.53	24	6.03	13	3.56	76	15.20
No	29	6.52	—		28.5	9.17	18	5.9	15	4.47	61	16.45
Number of sons and daughters	.38**		—		.34**		.28**		−.14*		.28**
	Mdn	STD	—		Mdn	STD	Mdn	STD	Mdn	STD	Mdn	STD
0	29	6.52	—		28.5	9.17	18	5.90	15	4.47	61	16.45
1	23	5.50	—		40	9.67	23	6.61	12	3.36	74	17.05
2	21	5.07	—		37	7.41	25	6.01	14	4.02	77.5	14.44
3	22	6.18	—		39	8.30	24	4.50	16	2.41	75	13.46
4	26	—	—		29	—	26	—	11	—	66	—
Number of daughters	.34**				.34**		.28**		−.13*		.29**
	Mdn	STD	—		Mdn	STD	Mdn	STD	Mdn	STD	Mdn	STD
0	29	6.61	—		29	9.31	18	5.82	15	4.51	61	16.50
1	21.5	4.96	—		40	7.88	26	6.42	13	3.34	77.5	14.68
2	22	4.84	—		41	8.93	25	5.22	14	2.70	81	15.15
3	32	—	—		39	—	20	—	16	—	75	—
Number of male children	−.26**				.21**		.23**		—		.19**
	Mdn	STD	—		Mdn	STD	Mdn	STD	—		Mdn	STD
0	28	6.66	—		30	9.56	18	6.06	—		63	16.65
1	22	6.18	—		40.5	7.85	27	5.43	—		80	14.33
2	20	4.07	—		32	8.63	19	3.47	—		65	12.88
3	26	—	—		29	—	26	—	—		66	—
Length of relationship	−.30**				.31**		.30**		—		.28**
	Mdn	STD	—		Mdn	STD	Mdn	STD	—		Mdn	STD
Up to 10 years	28	6.66	—		29	9.49	18	5.98	—		61	16.78
Up to 20 years	25	5.48	—		40.5	8.51	26.5	5.03	—		80.5	12.64
Up to 30 years	22.5	4.97	—		38	6.70	24.5	6.75	—		74.5	14.59
Up to 40 years	18.5	2.87	—		39.5	2.45	26.5	2.08	—		79.5	4.55
More than 40 years	19.5	6.36	—		36.5	10.61	24.5	4.95	—		74	16.97
Relationship type	−.26**		—		.28**		.22**		−.20*		.20**
	Mdn	STD	—		Mdn	STD	Mdn	STD	Mdn	STD	Mdn	STD
In love	29	6.58	—		28	9.13	18	5.2	15	4.35	61.5	15.29
Engagement	26	6.44	—		28	8.02	16	5.72	11	2.71	57	15.27
Cohabitants	31	5.62	—		41	6.70	27	5.78	15	3.27	82	13.51
Marriage	22	5.04	—		28	10.02	24	7.85	13	4.44	75	19.70
Informal relationship	29.5	5.04	—		32	5.31	18.5	4.93	13	3.35	60	11.38
Is it your current relationship?	—		−.14*		−.13*		—		—		—
	—		Mdn	STD	Mdn	STD
Yes	—		27.5	6.91	33.5	10.04	—		—		—
No	—		26	7.58	29	9.02	—		—		—
Educational level	−.21**		—		—		—		—		—
	Mdn	STD	—		—		—		—		—
Completed secondary	31.5	5.22	—		—		—		—		—
Complete university STDgree	25.5	6.42	—		—		—		—		—
Incomplete university superior	22	2.89	—		—		—		—		—
Complete technical superior	24	5.51	—		—		—		—		—
Superior technical incomplete	22	2.89	—		—		—		—		—
Postgraduate	21	6.38	—		—		—		—		—
Religion	.14*		—		−.30**		−.16*		−.19**		−.19**
	Mdn	STD	—		Mdn	STD	Mdn	STD	Mdn	STD	Mdn	STD
Catholic	26	6.64	—		35	9.40	19	6.53	14	4.14	68	17.21
Evangelical	26	8.39	—		41	9.80	24	4.06	14	2.28	79	13.37
Agnostic/atheist	30	6.7	—		34.5	8.57	17	3.99	16	4.75	58	12.83
Other	31	6.94	—		25	7.48	19.5	5.24	17	4.40	74	15.02

Table 2.

Correlations and Medians (Mdn) between emotional intelligence, symbolic violence and sociodemographic variables.

^*

p < .05.

^**

p < .01.

Note: N = 225.

5. Discussion

First, to address the main objective of the investigation, we will discuss the relationship between EI and symbolic violence according to the theoretical review and the results of the present study. Then, we will revise the correlation between the constructs and the sociodemographic data to identify potential differences. Finally, we will address the limitations of the study and further suggestions for future research.

An inverse relationship was found between the emotional perception subscale and the interpersonal and internalized aspects subscales, as well as the total symbolic violence scale. The internalized aspects refer to socially assigned characteristics and obligations that are naturalized and subsequently considered as innate [5]. On the other hand, the interpersonal aspects include behaviors that are usually exhibited to avoid the questioning one’s femininity or masculinity. Therefore, the results may be linked to the fact that women with high scores of emotional perception tend to look for more equitable relationships, and hence, do not grant significant importance to usually normalized inequalities [36].

So, it is observed that, despite the patriarchal organization of society, micro-level changes can be distinguished in the form of “patriarchal negotiations,” in which women usually look for a greater sense of autonomy within the family unit [37, 38]. Therefore, it is suggested that women, whether consciously or unconsciously, develop different strategies that allow them to reach more equitable interactions in the context of a romantic relationship, prioritizing their own goals [39, 40]. It is stated in previous studies that women grant significant value to their autonomy and the equitable conditions in relationships give them a greater sense of satisfaction in that context [39, 41].

On the other hand, differences were found in the constructs chosen for the study according to sociodemographic data. In the first instance, regarding age, the adolescent participants scored higher in emotional perception, compared to the young and average adults. This does not coincide with previous research, which found a tendency for EI to increase with age [42, 43, 44]; however, other studies conducted with university students find that, rather, EI is maintained for a time without significant differences [45, 46]. Therefore, it is hypothesized that EI develops mainly in childhood and stabilizes in early adulthood [46]. The inverse occurred in relation to symbolic violence since the average adults reached the highest scores in the subscales of internalized and interpersonal aspects and in the total scale. This result is in line with what was found by Pecho-Ricaldi [5], who suggests that older people could have a less critical view regarding the naturalization of violence. The same thing can happen in the context of a couple relationship [1].

In addition, differences were found according to the sexual orientation of the participants. Thus, bisexual women showed higher scores of emotional perception and homosexual participants showed higher scores of symbolic violence on the subscales of internalized and interpersonal aspects and on the total scale. Regarding what was found about EI, it should be considered that the bisexual community goes through a series of negative experiences for not fitting into the categories of absolute homosexuality or heterosexuality [47, 48], such as the myth of bisexuality as a transition stage [49, 50]; social demand to establish a monogamous relationship that forces them to “choose” only one sex [51], among others.

Now, it is known that high levels of emotional perception have been related to emotional maladjustment, since monitoring one’s own moods is not productive if its causes and consequences cannot be identified [52, 53]. Rather, a ruminative thinking style is developed, which promotes repetitively giving great importance to negative feelings or thoughts [54]. Therefore, in this case, reaching high scores on this subscale may be poorly adaptive, since it would indicate that these women direct their attention to the experiences discussed, as well as the consequent stigmas they face in daily life, which may bring more negative experiences. On the other hand, to understand the scores on the scale of symbolic violence, it is important to consider that, for homosexual people, developing a positive sexual identity is a significant challenge given the social stigmas they face [55], which can be internalized [56, 57]. This would explain the scores in the dimensions, and in turn brings negative effects both on their personal development and that their relationships [58].

Contrary to other studies, no differences were found in the constructs according to the place of birth; however, variations were found according to the time of residence in Lima. Thus, those women who resided in Lima for up to 10 years showed lower levels of emotional understanding and higher scores of symbolic violence. This coincides with research carried out in the mountains, which indicates that gender-based violence is a common practice within marriage when women do not comply with the imposed roles, such as taking care of their partner and children or household chores [59, 60]. Regarding EI scores, Borja [61] points out that the greater the belief that the use of violence is allowed to defend honor, the lower emotional understanding scores are recorded. Thus, the results make sense if it is suggested that the participants with the longest residence time in the province show a tendency to naturalize the use of violence.

Regarding marital status, single participants showed higher scores in emotional perception, as opposed to the study by Borja [61] in which those who were in a relationship perceived their emotions better. In the case of married and cohabiting women, they had higher scores in symbolic violence (internalized, interpersonal, and total scale aspects), which coincides with other studies [5]. This can be explained because cohabiting women tend to accept social demands regarding their role as women [62], so they take on domestic tasks while the man is the “head of the household” [5]. In addition, it is also known that a possible separation is associated with the failure of their role as wives or mothers, so they can minimize or even deny possible negative characteristics of their relationship in order to fulfill the ideal [63]. Taking all this into account, it is hypothesized that cohabiting and married women, who therefore have a more traditional relationship, could minimize or ignore various expressions of violence in order to fulfill their role.

Likewise, differences were found in EI and symbolic violence depending on whether the participant had sons or daughters. Thus, those who did not have children had a greater emotional perception and lower levels on the subscales of internalized and interpersonal aspects, in addition to the total scale. Although motherhood is considered an essential characteristic of women and that which provides identity [64, 65], it also brings socially imposed obligations according to which women must put aside their own needs to attend to those of the minor; and if they do not achieve it, they are “not good enough” mothers [66]. For this reason, it is suggested that the participants without children should not comply with those demands, for which they allow themselves to give greater importance to their own emotions and feelings, in contrast to the mothers, who prioritize the experience of their children. Regarding symbolic violence, what was found coincides with the research by Valencia [62], in which women mothers achieved higher scores for it. Since mothers usually accept, teach, and reinforce certain behaviors in their sons and daughters to reaffirm their masculinity or femininity [67], it is hypothesized that the transmission of this discourse is the product of a previous internalization of such information.

Following this line, differences were also found according to the number of sons or daughters, as well as whether they were women or men. Like what has already been mentioned, women without children showed higher scores for emotional perception, and lower scores for symbolic violence, in the interpersonal and internalized aspects subscales and the total scale. However, although there are significant differences, there is no clear pattern in the dimension of external aspects, which refers to discourses about men and women normally transmitted by religion, the media, etc. [5]. The media is one of the most important ways of perpetuating the patriarchal system since it helps to promote moral codes, rules of beauty, and forms of success typical of this context [68, 69]. Thus, they often maintain beliefs regarding motherhood through sales and promotional commercials, where phrases such as “the most important thing for a woman is to be a mother”, “life is worth it if you have children,” etc. are common [70, 71]. In this way, the impact that the spread of these ideas can have can be appreciated.

Regarding whether the children are women or men, similar relationships to those already raised are found. Women who do not have children show higher levels of emotional perception, except in the case of the participant with three daughters, who obtained a higher score on said subscale, however, being a single case, this would not alter the trend found. On the other hand, on the symbolic violence scale, the mothers of one or up to three female daughters showed higher scores than those without daughters on the subscales of internalized and interpersonal aspects and on the total scale. Thus, considering those women with sons and daughters also show high levels of the same dimensions, it is necessary to reflect on a possible intergenerational transmission of violence and the possible implications that this has. For example, it’s been reported that experiencing violence in the maternal home during someone’s childhood and adolescence is a determinant factor of marital violence [72]. Following this line, it is known that, in the upbringing of girls, a traditional family model is usually taught and various gender roles are transmitted that place them in a secondary place [73]. Thus, it is likely that the participants have been exposed to various stereotypes from an early age, so this information would be internalized and later transmitted in the case of being mothers. On the other hand, similarly to what was previously studied, this pattern was not fulfilled in the external aspect’s subscale.

In the case of having male children, those women with only one child showed higher scores in the subscales of internalized and interpersonal aspects and in the total scale of symbolic violence. In this way, it is argued that these participants internalized and transmitted to their sons’ certain gender stereotypes that probably fit the model of “hegemonic masculinity”, according to which, to be considered a man, he must meet a series of characteristics: be active and strong, not express emotions, be dominant, heterosexual, etc. [74, 75, 76]. Thus, from an early age, boys are part of a socialization process that facilitates the internalization of behaviors typical of a group that positions itself as superior and with authority over women [77, 78].

On the other hand, differences were also found in the dimensions of EI and symbolic violence according to the length of time they had been in a relationship. Those who were in a relationship of 6 months to 10 years showed higher levels of emotional perception. In contrast, this group obtained lower scores in the dimensions of internalized and interpersonal aspects and in the total scale of symbolic violence. This coincides with what was found by Valencia [62], since women in longer relationships showed greater internalization and normalization of gender roles since longer relationships have more traditional characteristics: children, marriage, etc. Likewise, although he does not propose a specific age range, Borja [61] indicates that the most satisfied couples with a duration greater than 6 months present high scores in EI, specifically in emotional perception.

Regarding the type of relationship between the participants and their partners, it was found that cohabiting women had higher emotional perception scores, as well as in all dimensions of symbolic violence. As mentioned, this group usually accepts the socially imposed demands; for example, taking on household chores.

In relation to whether the participants referred to their current relationship during the survey, it was found that those who did, reached higher levels of emotional understanding, but also greater symbolic violence, specifically in the subscale of internalized aspects. In the first case, emotional understanding, which is vital to understand one’s own and others’ emotional states, as well as to integrate what one feels and thinks, has been related to partner satisfaction [61]. Thus, it is hypothesized that they are less likely to identify violence in a relationship with which they are satisfied. In the same way, symbolic aggression usually comes from a person from whom love is expected, so making it visible is complicated [79]. For example, it is observed that aggressions justified by jealousy are not perceived in such a negative way, as they are understood as an act of love [80].

Regarding the level of education, the participants with completed high school showed higher levels of emotional perception than those with a higher level of studies. The participants with these scores are between 18 and 22 years old, and most of them fit into the category of adolescents, who were the group with the highest emotional perception scores in the sample.

Differences were also found in the constructs according to the religion of the participants. Thus, those who identified themselves as atheists/agnostics or professed to have another relationship scored higher in emotional perception and in the dimension of external aspects on the scale of symbolic violence. The evangelical respondents showed higher scores of symbolic violence in the dimensions of internalized, interpersonal, and total scale aspects, like other research [5]. This may be related to the schemes proposed by religion, which indicate an ideal model to be followed by women, who are usually located at home [18]. In addition, it is known that “active participation in certain religions can reinforce sexist ideologies that legitimize gender inequality” ([81], p. 17).

In conclusion, the main objective of the study is partially verified, given that a relationship is found between some of the EI subscales and symbolic violence. The second hypothesis is also partially fulfilled since correlations between the concepts and the sociodemographic variables are identified. It should be noted that the research contributes to studies of symbolic violence, which have not been approached in depth by psychology, and is the first approach to its relationship with EI, something not previously studied and that contributes to the fight against gender violence.

On the other hand, the study had certain limitations, such as little diversity in the sample due to being shared on social networks, for which an Internet connection was necessary. In addition, the term “couple relationship” was interpreted according to the criteria of each participant, which could affect their answers. Finally, as a recommendation for future research, a qualitative approach to the subject is proposed, in order to collect more detailed information that allows supporting or questioning what was found. In addition, it would be important to increase the sample and reach lower SELs to reflect a larger part of the population. Likewise, it may be useful to consider the conditions in which women experience motherhood (whether it was desired or not, how it affects their life plan, etc.), as well as to reflect on the possible intergenerational transmission of violence. On the other hand, the approach of programs aimed at the prevention of gender violence based on EI is considered important.