Proper Understanding of the Natures of Electric Charges and Magnetic Flux

Abstract

According to an analogy between the laws that characterize the flow of heat, electric charges, and magnetic flux, and to results of Faraday’s experiments, the electric charge and the magnetic flux were defined and visualized in previous research as energy flux in the form of electromagnetic waves (EM) that have electric or magnetic potentials and that all potentials can be measured by the Volt. The proofs of such statements will be enlightened in this chapter. Recognizing the nature of electric charges as energy; the electric current, defined traditionally as the rate of flow of electric charges would have the unit of power, i.e., Watt. As the ammeter does not measure the power but measures, according to its definition, the quotient of the electric power divided by the electric potential, then its unit should be “Watt/Volt.” So, the ammeter does not measure an electric current if it is defined as the rate of flow of electric charges. However, the unit “Watt/Volt” of the ammeter’s readings is distinguished as a unit of a property of the electric field that defines the capacity of the electric field to allow flow of a definite rate of electric energy by force of a unit of the electric potential, i.e., by 1 Volt. It will be shown in the presented study that this capacity measures also the rate of growth of one of the physical properties of the electric field which is called “entropy.” Hence, the ammeter measures acceptability of the electric field to the flow of electric power and measures the rate of generation of entropy, or destruction of exergy of the measured electric field. By analogy between the electric and magnetic energies, it will be proved that the magnetic fluxmeter measures also the quotient of the magnetic power divided by the magnetic potential and its unit “Watt/Volt” represents the rate of entropy generation in the magnetic field. So, recognizing the electric charge and magnetic flux as forms of energy, the SI system of units can be modified by deleting the Ampere as unneeded base unit. Such modification removes, as will be shown, redundancies in the traditional SI system of units and homogenize the units of thermal, electric, and magnetic fields. This chapter will present a study of the impacts of the new definitions of electric current and magnetic flux on proper explanation of phenomena in the field of electromagnetic and photoelectric effects, on proper understanding of the duality confusion and on the wireless power transfer that has a long history. At the end of this chapter, it will be shown how such proper understanding of fluxes leads to proper understanding of the nerve impulses and of the techniques of stimulating the neural systems for diagnosis of diseases of the neural systems.

1. Introduction

While we are reaping the fruits of our progress in electrical and magnetic engineering in this era, we cannot find clear definitions and units of basic entities in these sciences as the electric charges and magnetic flux. The electric current is defined in literature as a stream of charged particles, such as electrons or ions, moving through an electrical conductor or space [1]. This definition denies the fact that the measured speed of electrons in good conductors does not exceed 1 cm/second while the velocity of flow of electric current in conductors or space approaches the speed of light in addition to the impossibility of flow of electrons or any charged particles through space. Similarly, magnetic flux is defined in literature as a static region around a magnet in which the magnetic force exists [1]. This definition also ignores the meaning of the word “flux” as a part of such identity which indicates a dynamic flow of a flowable entity and not a static region of its effect.

In this study, it will be discussed analogy of laws that characterize the flow of heat, electric charges, and magnetic flux in addition to results of Faraday’s experiments to show the common nature of these entities as energy in transfer by the force of their corresponding potentials [2]. The analogy of the laws governing the flow of heat and of electric charges is normally applied in simulating the thermal networks by electrical networks where the potential in both fields is measured by the same unit, Volt, and their flow is also measured by the same unit, Joule [3]. The success of Faraday in converting a ray of light into a beam of electric current when passing through an electric field and converting another ray of light into magnetic flux when passing through a magnetic field represents a proof of the common nature of all energy fluxes as EM waves driven by their corresponding potentials [4]. Faraday also discovered the phenomena of electromagnetic induction where the magnetic flux linked with a closed coil induces flow of electric charges into another coil [4]. The results of Faraday’s experiments prove the similarity of natures of the electric and magnetic fluxes as convertible energies where each flux may replace the other quantitively and qualitatively. According to previously explained analogy and analysis, the electric charges and the magnetic flux can be considered as EM waves which moves independently by the force of their electric or magnetic potentials as the thermal radiation which moves independently as EM waves by the force of its own thermal potential [5].

The ammeter is traditionally defined in literature as a device whose reading is multiplied by the potential difference across a conductor to find the power passing through such conductor according to the following equation:

$$\mathit{\text{Electric Power}}(\dot{W)=\mathit{\text{Ammete}}{r}^{\prime }s\mathit{\text{reading}}x\mathit{\text{Potential difference}}\left(\mathit{\text{Volt}}\right)}$$ E1

Accordingly, the unit of the ammeter’s reading is Watt/Volt. Recognizing the electric charge as energy, according to the previous analysis, then the unit of its rate of flow should be Joule/sec or Watt. If the ammeter measures the electric current, traditionally defined as the rate of flow of charges, its unit should be the Watt. Such unit determines the power passing through the conductor according to the following equation:

$$\mathit{\text{Electric power}}\left(\dot{W}\right)=\mathit{\text{Rate of flow of energy or elect}}.\mathit{\text{charges}}\left(\dot{W}\right)$$ E2

Comparing Eqs. (1) and (2), we get to the conclusion that the ammeter’s reading does not determine the traditionally defined electric current but another entity. Investigating the entity measured by the ammeter which has the unit Watt/Volt, it is found as a property of the electric fields (or conductors) which defines the capacity of such electric field to pass a definite rate of flow of electric energy or charges by the force of a unit potential, i.e., by 1 Volt [6]. However. this capacity is also known as function of one of the fundamental physical properties of fields which is called “Entropy” [7]. As a concluded postulate, the ammeter measures a property of the field which determines its capacity to allow the flow of a definite rate of electric charges by one unit of electric potential. According to the definition of entropy, this capacity also measures the ability of the field to destruct its exergy or to generate entropy by the measured rate [8]. So, it is possible to state that if the ammeter’s reading is $\dot{\mathit{S}}$ Watt/Volt, then the tested electric field has the capacity to pass $\dot{\mathit{S}}$ Watt by the potential difference of 1 Volt and it means also that this electric field allows the growth of its entropy or destruct its exergy by the rate of $\dot{\mathit{S}}$ W/Volt. The following equality may express better understanding of the entropy as fundamental property of the electric fields:

$$\begin{array}{l}\text{The}\text{ammeter}’\mathrm{s}\text{reading}\dot{S}\equiv \left(\text{the field}\mathrm{has}\text{the capacity to allow the flow of}\dot{S}\text{Watt}\right)/\\ \left(\mathrm{by}\text{the force of potential difference of}1\text{Volt}\right)\end{array}$$ E3

Relying on the new definitions of the electric and magnetic fluxes as EM waves and recognizing the ammeter’s reading as the rate of growth of entropy of the tested field; it was followed an exclusive entropy approach to represent all energy fluxes analytically and graphically by a modified form of the Maxwell’s wave equation that replace the time in these equations by entropy [9]. The approach depends on a fact that the entropy is mainly an arrow of time [10]. Such replacement casted the Maxwell’s equation into an energy frame of reference where the planes of the three coordinates of the modified eq. E (Electric Potential), H (Magnetic Potential), and S (Entropy) represent fundamental energy parameters [11]. Such representation is necessary to follow the interpretation of the devices that record the characteristics of electric charges and magnetic fluxes as E.M. waves in a frame of energy and entropy coordinates [12].

Analyzing the stopping potential phenomena of photocells in experiments that determine the Planck’s constant, it was possible to measure the potential of the electric charges emitted by incident radiation [13, 14]. Such electrical potential is discovered when light of high frequency, determined by the temperature of the source of radiation according to Wien’s law, falls on a metal plate or the cathode of a photocell, Figure 1 . Electric charges were ejected from the surface of the metal plate which have definite electric potential [15]. The flow of electric charges from the cathode to the anode is found to stop when the potential of the ejected charges is resisted by an equal potential of the anode. Accordingly, the potential of the ejected charges depends on the thermal potential of the incident radiation as shown in Figure 2 [16]. So, the electric charges should have a potential whose polarity determines the sign of the charge, positive or negative, and its magnitude determines the strength of the source of radiation, i.e., the thermal potential or the temperature of the source of radiation.

Figure 1.

The photocell experiment is designed to measure the stopping potential on the anode (collector) that stops the flow of electric current from the cathode by applying a negative potential on the anode.

Figure 2.

Dependence of the stopping voltage in a photoelectric cell on the temperature of the source of light.

The found slope for Sodium plate, as found in the current measurement in Figure 1 , is found to be identical to the measured slope for potassium plate as measured by other authors [13, 15]. However, the wavelength in the abscissa of the cited references is replaced in Figure 2 by the temperature of the source of radiation according to Wien’s law of radiation in order to show the correspondence between the thermal and electric potentials [16].

The linear dependence of the electric potential of the ejected charge as a function of the thermal potential of the incident EM waves, as shown in Figure 2 , can be considered as a base for calibrating the scale of electric potentials as function of the naturally defined thermodynamic scale of temperature. Such thermodynamic scale depends on physical laws which should not be violated [17]. However, the scale of the electrical potential has only one natural point that set its absolute zero to be defined by the earth’s potential.

By analogy between electric charges and magnetic flux, it was possible to use the magnetocaloric effect (MCE) as defined in literature as a reversible temperature change of a magnetic material upon the application or removal of a magnetic field [18]. Such definition serves to find another scale for the magnetic potential in terms of the thermodynamic scale of temperature [19]. Recognizing the magnetic flux as a form of energy, the application of magnetic field on a magnetic material act as pumping or transferring magnetic flux into the material that leads to increasing its stored internal energy, and hence to increasing its magnetic potential. According to the principles of thermodynamics, the state of the magnetic material during a magnetocalorific process can be determined by its thermal and magnetic potentials, i.e., its temperature T and its magnetic strength H. So, the internal energy, as a function of the state, can be expressed as follows [9]:

$$U=U\left(T,H\right)$$ E4

Accordingly, the differential of the internal energy U can be expressed as follows:

$$\mathit{dU}={\left(\frac{\partial U}{\partial T}\right)}_H\mathit{dT}+{\left(\frac{\partial U}{\partial H}\right)}_T\mathit{dH}$$ E5

Eq. (5) is applied in processing magnetic materials through magnetocalorific cycles which uses mutual inductions between the thermal potential (ΔT) and the magnetic potential (Δ H) for cooling of materials [19]. When applying a magnetic field (+Δ H) during a magnetizing step in the cycle, the thermal potential will increase, allowing the magnetic material to be cooled by surroundings at normal temperature. Then the removal of the applied field as demagnetizing step of the cycle will tend to a subcooling effect (−ΔT) which can be used for cooling of any medium. The cooling step ends the magnetocalorific cycle where the magnetic material will return to its initial state. So, the net change of internal energy of the magnetic material, as a function of state, will be zero, i.e.,

$$\mathit{dU}=0$$ E6

Substituting in Eq. (5), we get:

$${\left(\frac{\partial U}{\partial T}\right)}_H\mathit{dT}=-{\left(\frac{\partial U}{\partial H}\right)}_T\mathit{dH}$$ E7

Defining the thermal and magnetic capacities C_thermal and C_mag of the magnetic material by the following equations:

$$C_{\mathit{\text{Thermal}}}={\left(\frac{\partial U}{\partial T}\right)}_H$$ E8

and,

$$C_{\mathit{mag}}={\left(\frac{\partial U}{\partial H}\right)}_T$$ E9

Substituting in Eqs. (8) and (9); the following relation between dH and dT will be:

$$\mathit{dH}=-\frac{C_{\mathit{\text{Thermal}}}}{C_{\mathit{mag}}}\mathit{dT}$$ E10

The experimental verification of Eq. (10) is seen in Figure 3 which shows the influence applying magnetic field of specific intensity “H” on the rise of temperature of magnetic materials, “T” known as the magnetocaloric effect [20]. Such measurement results can be considered also as a method of calibrating the magnetic potential, according to the thermodynamic temperature scale as reference potential, which is defined by the magnetocaloric effect, Eq. (10) [21]. Accordingly, all kinds of energy in transfer, as thermal or electric or magnetic energies may have the absolute temperature scale as a reference or a unique scale of measurement for their potentials, or the electric and magnetic potentials.

Figure 3.

Rotation of a light ray by a magnetic field [4].

This chapter will also show the impacts of the introduced understanding, as proper understanding, of the natures of the electric charges and magnetic flux on creating a modified SI system of units that removes redundancies in the traditional SI system. However, proper understanding of electric charges and magnetic flux will lead, as will be shown, to a proper understanding of the thermoelectric and the photelectric effects. Similarly, the new understanding will help in adopting the wireless power transmission starting from Nikola Tesla tower to the long-distance wireless power transfer by beamed microwaves and the magnetic resonance. Such proper understanding may also save the neurologists from their blunder in understanding the proper interpretation of nerve impulses as electric charges moving independently by the force of their associated potentials. The reprint of their stimulating devices assures the neural networks perform normally as electric networks whose nerve impulses move as electrified wave packets of energy determined by the integral: ${\int }_{\mathbf{0}}^{\mathit{\lambda }}\mathit{E}\mathit{dS}$ , where $\mathit{\lambda }$ is the wavelength of the nerve impulse as an EM wave and E is its electric potential.

2. Faraday’s experiments as an approach for a common understanding of the energy fluxes

Faraday held many experiments whose results made him convinced that he had succeeded in magnetizing and electrifying a ray of light and in illuminating a magnetic line of force [4]. He postulated that such identities are so directly related and mutually dependent that they are convertible, possess equivalents of power in their actions, and have a common origin. Faraday wrote this postulate as the introduction to the nineteenth series of his “Experimental Researches in Electricity” [4]. The influence of the magnetic field on the beam of light that Faraday observed is now known as Faraday’s rotation because his experiment illustrated the rotation of a ray of light by the action of magnetic field, whatever the magnet’s configurations are, as seen in Figure 3 . This was the first definitive evidence that light and electromagnetism are related [4].

According to his successful experiment of electromagnetic induction, Figure 4 [22], Faraday succeeded in 1831 to lay the groundwork to James Clerk Maxwell to formulate his own electromagnetic theory of light, predicting that both light and radio waves are electric and magnetic phenomena and led to important inventions such as electric motors, transformers, inductors, and generators [23, 24].

Figure 4.

Faraday’s induction coil where the flow of electric current in the primary coil induces magnetic flux in the iron core, and the core’s magnetic flux induces electric current in the secondary coil [22].

In his theory of EM waves, Maxwell predicted that EM disturbances traveling through empty space have electric and magnetic fields at right angles to each other and that both fields are perpendicular to the direction of the wave as a time coordinate [25]. He also concluded that the waves move at a uniform speed equal to the speed of light and that light is a form of the EM waves. So, EM waves are described as simultaneous oscillating motions of electric and magnetic perpendicular waves, Figure 5 [26].

Figure 5.

Maxwell’s description of EM waves as simultaneous oscillating motions of electric and magnetic perpendicular waves [1].

Maxwell described the electric and magnetic fields arising from the propagation of the EM waves by the following equations as a standard wave form [1]:

$$\left({\nabla }^2-\frac{1}{{\mathrm{c}}^2}\frac{{\partial }^2}{t^2}\right)\mathrm{E}=0$$ E11

$$\left({\nabla }^2,-,\frac{1}{{\mathrm{c}}^2},\frac{{\partial }^2}{t^2}\right)\mathrm{H}=0$$ E12

3. Entropy approach for proper understanding of the fluxes

Literature that dealt with thermodynamic systems are concerned mainly by transfer of mechanical and thermal energies [27]. Similarly, literature which dealt with flow of electric or magnetic energies were concerned mainly by solids which have mainly electric or magnetic interactions [28]. Both analyses are ineffective when dealing with a general thermodynamic system that may involve fluid flow while it is subjected to transfer of heat, electric, magnetic, and mechanical energies. However, literature that dealt with the transfer of electric and magnetic energies gave a narrow space to association of the energy transfer by flow of entropy as an effecting energy property in any physical system [29]. Such truncations paralyze explanation of different electromagnetic phenomena where the entropy is the key to the general analysis of any energy interaction, transformation, and conservation [2].

The flows of energy in physical systems, in general, are driven by forces in conjugate pairs [30]. So, the heat flow is driven by differences in temperature between the system and the surrounding, volume flow is driven by differences in pressure, electric charge flow by differences in electrical potential, magnetic flux by difference in magnetic potential, and mass flow by differences in concentration. According to literature, the flow of heat is associated mainly by production of entropy and the total rate of entropy production, $\sum {\mathit{S}}_{\mathit{i}}$ , is not limited by equilibrium theory. According to analogy between heat, as thermal energy, and electric and magnetic energies, electric and magnetic energies should be also associated by entropy production according to the equation [30]:

$${\dot{S}}_{\mathit{tot}}=\sum p_i{J}_i$$ E13

Where ${\mathit{J}}_{\mathit{i}}$ represents an energy flux associated by a driving force, or potential ${\mathit{p}}_{\mathit{i}}$ . However, such entropy production is equal to the destruction of the exergy of the systems or fields [30]. Accordingly. it was introduced a fundamental equation for a system embracing thermal, electrical, and magnetic energy interactions as follows [2]:

$$\mathit{dU}=T\mathit{dS}+Ed\mathrm{S}+H\mathit{dS}-P\mathit{dV}$$ E14

Eq. (14) expresses the flows of electric and magnetic energies as a potential force times a differential of the corresponding increase entropy of the system whose integrals can be expressed in property diagrams between the entropy and the electric or magnetic potentials of the system [2]. The differentials of entropy are exact differential as the entropy is a property of the system. Hence, Eq. (14) can be considered as a fundamental equation as it involves only properties of the system [2].

Maxwell had succeeded in describing the flow of thermal radiation by the standard wave form represented by Eqs. (11) and (12). For a visualizing the natures of the electric charges and magnetic flux, it is introduced an entropy approach that casts the Maxwell’s wave equations into an energy frame of reference through replacing time by entropy as a unique function of time as follows:

$$\left({\nabla }^2-\frac{1}{{\mathrm{c}}^2}\frac{{\partial }^2}{{\mathrm{s}}^2}\right)\mathrm{E}=0$$ E15

$$\left({\nabla }^2-\frac{1}{{\mathrm{c}}^2}\frac{{\partial }^2}{{\mathrm{s}}^2}\right)\mathrm{H}=0$$ E16

Such modification of the Maxwell’s equations enables the representation of all energy fluxes in planes formed by the three energy related coordinates found in the modified Maxwell’s equation: E (Electric Potential), H (Magnetic Potential), and S (Entropy).

Figure 6 shows the graphical representation of the modified wave equations. In this figure, the imparted electric energy per wave of length ${\mathit{\lambda }}_{\mathit{s}}$ is represented by the swept blue area of the EM wave in the E-S plane and the magnetic energy per wave of length ${\mathit{\lambda }}_{\mathit{s}}$ is represented by the red swept area of the EM wave in the H-S plane. The sum of the two areas represents the imparted energy by one EM wave of wavelength ${\mathit{\lambda }}_{\mathit{s}}$ . This energy is denoted by the symbol “Ћ” and has the unit Joule/cycle and can be calculated by the following equation [31].

Figure 6.

Flow of electromagnetic waves in an energy frame of reference that show the electric energy flow in an electric field- entropy plane and the magnetic energy flow into a magnetic field – Entropy plane [2].

$$\mathrm{Ћ}={\int }_0^{{\lambda }_s}\left|Ed{S}_{\mathit{\text{elect}}}\right|+{\int }_0^{{\lambda }_s}\left|Hd{S}_{\mathit{mag}}\right|$$ E17

${\mathit{\lambda }}_{\mathit{s}}$ is the wavelength in the entropy coordinate, as an arrow of time, which is determined by the measured rate of entropy flow according to the following equation: [2]?

$$\dot{S}={\lambda }_{s}x\nu$$ E18

ν represents the frequency of the EM wave. Denoting the amplitudes of the energy waves in the electric and magnetic planes as ${\mathit{E}}^{\mathbf{0}}\mathit{\text{and}}{\mathit{H}}^{\mathbf{0}}\mathit{,}$ and considering a form of sinusoidal wave for both energies, the imparted energy per wave according to Eq. (18) can be found as follows:

$$\mathrm{Ћ}={\int }_0^{{\lambda }_s}\left|E^{0}sinsd{S}_{\mathit{\text{elect}}}\right|+{\int }_0^{{\lambda }_s}\left|H^{0}sin\mathit{sd}{S}_{\mathit{mag}}\right|$$ E19

Mathematically, such integrals is estimated as follows [31]:

$$\mathrm{Ћ}=1.414{\lambda }_s\left(E^0+H^0\right)\frac{\mathit{\text{Joule}}}{\mathit{\text{cycle}}}=1.414\frac{\dot{S}}{\nu }\left(\left(E^0+H^0\right)\right)\frac{\mathit{\text{Joule}}}{\mathit{\text{cycle}}}$$ E20

Hence, the power of this wave is calculated as follows:

$$\dot{W}=\mathrm{Ћ}.\nu =1.414.\dot{S}.\left(E^0+H^0\right)\text{Watt}$$ E21

According to Eq. (21), the EM waves flow in wave packets at a rate of energy flow: Ћ x ν Watt. Eq. (20) shows the energy packet per wave Ћ is proportional to the sum of the wave’s amplitudes of the electric and magnetic components of the EM wave and to the capacity of the medium that allows the flow of the power $\left({\mathit{E}}^{\mathbf{0}}\mathit{+}{\mathit{H}}^{\mathbf{0}}\right)\mathit{.}\dot{\mathit{S}}$ Watt by the force of 1 Volt.

According to Eq. (21), the energy of the EM wave packets does not depend on the frequency of the EM waves but on properties of the medium and amplitudes of the wave. Such proved conclusion violates Planck’s postulate that the energy of the wave packets, or photons, is proportional to the frequency of the EM wave and the claim that these packets behave as particles which can eject electrons to produce electricity [31]. Such statement was postulated by Einstein and was violated by S. AbdelHady as the momentum of the claimed energy particle is negligible if compared to the momentum of an electron [32]. However, the term “h ν” should not identify a quantity of energy as it contains the frequency “ν” that has the dimension $\raisebox{1ex}{$\mathbf{1}$}\!\left/ \!\raisebox{-1ex}{$\mathit{T}$}\right.$ which defines a rate of flow. However, according to the results of Planck’s experiment in Figure 2 , the rate of flow of energy is found to be the most effective parameter in the thermoelectric and photoelectric effects and it is not the quantity of energy [33]. The Einstein’s postulate of dual natures of the wrongly defined electric current as electrons and his explanation of the ability of the EM waves to eject electrons paved a way to the quantum mechanics and the uncertainty principles of Heisenberg [34]. However, S. AbdelHady found an entropy approach that depends on Boltzmann’s principle is more realistic than the quantum approach that depends on Schrodinger’s equations of imaginary terms and leads to virtual, or unreal, solutions [35, 36]. Additionally, Shannon found, through another entropy approach, a more adequate uncertainty measures than the Heisenberg’s uncertainty measures of the indefinite quantum distributions [37].

The followed entropy approach in the presented study realizes the role of entropy as a main property of thermal, electric, and magnetic fields that characterize the flow of such energies though the corresponding fields. Casting Maxwell’s wave equations into the E-H-S frame made it possible to represent the positive or negative charges as energy of positive or negative electrical potentials. Figure 7 represents a positive electric charge of positive potential where the “E” coordinate of the entropy axis is not at zero potential, but it has a positive value “+Δ E” which determine the charge’s polarity. The mathematical formulation of such wave is written as a solution of the modified Maxwell’s equation that considers the wave starts by initial positive potential Δ E at τ = 0, that corresponds to the zero time and the zero entropy, i.e., at s = 0, as the entropy is a direct function of time [39].

Figure 7.

Graphical representation of a positive electric charge distinguished by the oscillation around an entropy axis whose E coordinate “electric field” has a positive value + Δ E [38].

Assuming the following initial condition:

$$E_{\tau =0\equiv s}=\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{E}$$ E22

So, the solution of the modified Maxwell’s wave equations will be as follows [38]:

$$\mathrm{E}\left(\mathrm{r},\mathrm{s}\right)=g_1\left(\mathrm{\omega }\mathrm{s}–\mathrm{k}\mathrm{r}\right)+\mathrm{\Delta }\mathrm{E}$$ E23

$$\mathrm{H}\left(\mathrm{r},\mathrm{s}\right)=g_2\left(\mathrm{\omega }\mathrm{s}–\mathrm{k}\mathrm{r}\right)$$ E24

Similarly, the negative electric charge can be represented by EM wave whose electric wave has a negative potential - Δ E. Additionally, the magnetic flux can be also represented by EM wave whose magnetic wave has positive or negative potentials +/− Δ H and represented analytically by the following equation [40].

Figure 8 shows a stimulator record of a stimulus charge used in neural diagnosis recorded as a wave oscillating about an axis of positive potential ordinate, i.e., it is a positive charge. The abscissa records the growth of the entropy of the field, or in tissues of the body, during the flow of the charge in n. joule/volt, and the ordinate records the variation of the potential of the injected charge during the process in Volts. According to the data on the record, it is possible to read the recorded growth of entropy during one wave = ∆ S = 3 nano-Joule/volt and the recorded time duration of the pulse = 0.2 milli Second.

Figure 8.

A plot of the stimulating signals from a stimulation device as an E-s record of the signal. [hospital plot].

However, the rate of growth of entropy inside the body tissues during stimulation process represents a property of such tissues that may help in the diagnosis or therapy processes.

$$\dot{S}=\frac{∆S}{∆\tau }=\frac{3x{10}^{-9}}{0.2x{10}^{-3}}=15.10{}^{\mathrm{-6}}\text{Watt/Volt}.$$ E25

Such capacity of the neural tissues to pass high power by the force of 1 Volt proves that the neural axons are very conductive and prove the ability of the neural cells to pass electric current. Additionally, it is a proof that the electric current is not flow of electrons, otherwise, it will not pass through the neural cells. This result also proves the nature of electric current as EM waves that have electric potential as represented by the stimulator record in Figure 8 .

Reading the data of the involved electrical potential of the resource of electric power during the stimulation process was found = 5 Volt. Hence, the rate of flow of electric charges into the tissues during the charge pulse is calculated as follows:

$$E.\dot{S}=5\times 15.10{}^{\mathrm{-6}}=75\text{μWatt}.$$ E26

The similarity of the stimulator records in Figure 8 , as an actual record of the stimulating charge in neural system, and the theoretical solution of the modified Maxwell’s equation in Figure 7 represents the evidence of the truth of the introduced entropy approach for representing the electric charges in the E-s plane. Other faces of truth of the new definition of electric charges as EM waves is found in: a). similarity of the shape of the EM wave as a sinusoidal wave and the plotted shape of the wave also as a sinusoidal wave; b). the unit of measurement of the rate of growth of entropy as found by the ammeter’s readings in joule/volt and as found on the abscissa of the measurement record in n. Joule/sec; and c). the measured electric potential of the charge as identified by Maxwell’ s equation in Volts and, as plotted on the ordinate of the machine record in Volts too. So, the ammeter does not measure a rate of flow of electrons that should be expressed by a mass flow rate or by units of power, but it is an energy related parameter that is represented in an energy frame tied by the rate of entropy growth.

4. Impact of the proper understanding of fluxes on proper modifications of the SI system of units

As a matter of fact, declared by many authors, it is impossible to accept the found redundancies in the SI system of units [41]. According to the proper understanding of the electric charge as energy measured by the Joule, its rate of flow should have the unit “Watt.” Additionally, the ammeter’s reading as previously discussed has the unit Watt/Volt. Hence, there is no need to the “Ampere” which does not define the ammeter’s reading, it is a unit of unidentified entity, and is wrongly defined as the rate of flow of electric charges. So, modifying the SI system by deleting the Ampere as a meaningless basic unit represents, as will be shown, a successful modification step. So, the seven basic unit of traditional SI system of units will be reduced to six units only. As another important result of recognizing the natures of electric charge and magnetic flux as forms of energy, it is the previously found dependence of the scales of their potentials on the thermodynamic temperature scale which is determined by fundamental laws of thermodynamics [42]. However, the “Volt” is also selected as a basic unit for all potentials where the Volt is already used in measuring the electric and thermal (by using thermocouples) potentials. The induction transformer can be also used to define the mutual dependence between the electric and magnetic potentials and the result of the experiments of determination the Planck’s constant, Figure 2 , can be used to define the dependence of the electrical potential scale on the thermodynamic temperature scale [43, 44]. However, the earth represents the “Zero” reference point of the scale of electric potential due to its high capacity. Finally, the base units of the modified SI system will be stated as follows:

Basic Units	Dimension	Unit
Length	L	m.
Time	T	sec.
Mass	M	kg
Amount of Substance	N	Mole
Energy Potential	P	Volt
Luminous intensity	J	cd

Accordingly, the derived units in the modified SI system would have the following dimensions and units:

Dérivéd Unit	Dimension	Unit
Velocity	L T^−1	m/sec
Accélération	L T^−2	m/sec^−2
Force	M L T^−2	Newton
Pressure	M L^−1 T^−2	Pascal
Energy (All Fluxes)	M L^2 T^−2	Joule
Power (All Fluxes)	M L^2 T^−3	Watt
Resistance (All Fields)	M^−1L^−2T^3V	Ω
Conductivity (All fields)	M L T^−3 V^−1	Watt/V. m

The units in the scope of the thermal, electric, and magnetic energies are as follows: The thermal potential T, and the electrical potential E, and the magnetic potential or the magnetic field intensity H have the same dimension “P” and all are measured by the same unit “Volt.”

The heat Q_thermal, The electric charge Q_electricpal, and Magnetic flux B have the dimensions “M L² T⁻²” and measured by the same unit “Joule.”

All powers as the rate of flow of energy have the dimensions “M L² T⁻³ and are measured by the same unit “Watt.”

All resistances (or Reluctances) have the same dimensions as “V M⁻¹ L⁻² T³ and the same unit “Ω.”

Many conflicts are found in the traditional literature when searching the SI units and dimensions of resistance, potentials, and permeability of different energy fields [1]. However, the presented modified system realizes the homogeneity of the units of the analogical parameters of different fields, i.e., the analogous parameters in the energy field have the same units and dimensions. Such result confirms the convertibility and unity of the origin of the three known forms of energy as Faraday described and expected [4].

As a comment on the versality of the modifications, S. Abdelhady discovered by using such homogenous system of units a dimensional error in Ampere’s law [45]. Comparing the dimensions of the R.H.S. and L.H.S. of Ampere’s law that estimates the electromotive force “E” resulting from the time-rate of change of magnetic flux “((dB)/(d t))“crossing a specific area “A” which reads:

$$A.\frac{dB}{dt}=-E$$ E27

Such equation is dimensionally incorrect as the dimensions of both sides of the equation are unequal. To correct the dimensions of this equation such that the dimensions of both sides of this equation would be similar, the L.H.S. of the equation should be multiplied by the Reluctance of the magnetic field or the magnetic resistance of air as follows:

$$A{\mathrm{m}}^2.R_{\mathit{mag}}\frac{\mathit{\text{Volt}}}{\mathit{\text{Joule}}}\frac{dB\frac{\text{joule}}{{\mathrm{m}}^2}}{dtsec}=-E\text{Volt}$$ E28

In this way, the Ampere’s equation is dimensionally correct where its error is corrected by adopting the modifications introduced by the proper definitions of electric current and magnetic flux as forms of energy of analogical potentials.

Additionally, it is possible to use the new definition of the electric charge as energy to find a relation between the “Volt” as a selectable unit of measuring the electric potential and the “Newton” as a determined unit of measuring the force according to Newton’s law of motion. According to literature, the following equation determines the force applied on a suspended electric in an electric field as follows [1]:

$$F=Q.E$$ E29

Recognizing the nature of the electric charge as energy of electric potential, it is possible to determine the force between two charges A and B according to considering the electrical force like the gravity force that is inversely proportional to the distance between the charges while keeping the dimensional homogeneity as follows:

$$F=\frac{1}{k}\sqrt{\frac{⌈\left(Q_a{E}_a\right)\left(Q_b{E}_b\right)⌉}{r^2}}\text{Newton}$$ E30

If the two charges have the same energy and potential, the force between them will be:

$$F=\frac{1}{k_e}\frac{QE}{r}$$ E31

Substituting the units of the involved parameters in Eq. (31) by units of the modified SI system of units, the dimensions of the constant of k_e is found to be the “Volt.” So, its value may be selected to fit the correct relation between the fixed scale of force and a selected scale of the electric potential. However, the force determined by Eq. (31) may be repulsive or attractive force according to the sign of both charges.

According to the similarity of the electric and magnetic fields, it is possible to also expect a similar equation that determines the force of attraction, or repulsion, between two identical magnetic identities each of magnetic flux “B” and magnetic potential of “H” to be:

$$F=\frac{1}{k_m}\frac{B.H}{r}\text{Newton}$$ E32

Substituting the units of the involved parameters in Eq. (30) by units of the modified SI system of units, the dimensions of the constant of k_m is found to be the “Volt.” So, its value may be selected to fit the correct relation between the fixed scale of force and a selected scale of the magnetic potential.

5. Impact of the proper definitions of the fluxes on proper understanding of thermoelectric and photoelectric effects

Recognizing the electric charge as energy of electrical potential, it is possible to find plausible explanations of newly discovered phenomena in the fields of thermoelectric and photoelectric effects [46, 47, 48]. It will be summarized in this section such plausible explanations.

Considering the thermocouple in Figure 9 , it is constructed of two different metals “A” and “B.” If its junctions are placed into two heat reservoirs “1” and “2” where the difference in temperature between them is “∆ T,” defined as $\mathit{∆}\mathit{T}\mathit{=}{\mathit{T}}_{\mathbf{2}}\mathit{-}{\mathit{T}}_{\mathbf{1}}$ , 1, then an open circuit voltage, “∆ E” will be obtained between the two junctions [28]. The measured output electric potential is found proportional to the temperature difference between the junctions of the two conductors A and B according to the following Seebeck equation [1]:

Figure 9.

A thermocouple of two different materials “A” and “B.” that has a reference junction and a measuring junction [1].

$$∆E={\propto }_{\mathit{AB}}∆T$$ E33

where “∝_AB” is the relative Seebeck coefficient, between the conductors A and B, expressed in μ V/K. This coefficient depends mainly on the choice of the two materials used in the thermocouple and the temperature of the junction at the higher temperature “T_max”. The magnitude of the relative Seebeck coefficient of the junction between the two materials or metals A and B can be evaluated as the difference between the Seebeck coefficient of the two metals as follows [1].

$${\propto }_{\mathit{AB}}={\propto }_B-{\propto }_A$$ E34

The direct relation between the produced electric potential and the difference of the thermal potentials between the two junctions plays the main role in the use of thermocouples in temperature measurements and in thermoelectric generators. However, there is a relation between the Seebeck coefficient “α” and the energy bandgaps of materials “E_g” which was found by Goldsmid and Sharp as follows [49]:

$$E_g=2e\left|{\alpha }_{\mathit{max}}\right|T_{\mathit{max}}$$ E35

Where e is the electron’s charge = 1.602.10⁻¹⁹ Joule. Eq. (35) signifies a relation between the Seebeck coefficient and the energy- bandgaps of materials of the junction that characterize the transitional effect from thermal potential “∆T” to electric potential “∆V.” The tables of Seebeck coefficients of materials and the tables of its energy bandgaps indicate a direct relation between these two physical properties [15].

Recognizing the flow of electric charges as a flow of EM waves of electric potential, it is possible to interpret the transition of the thermal potential of the flowing heat “ΔT” across the thermocouple junction into electric electrical potential “ΔE” to be done by the Seebeck effect which is expressed by Eq. (33). Such transition can be explained as exchanging the thermal potential of the input heat “∆T” by electric potential “∆V”. Such transition occurs when the input radiation crosses the junction between the materials “A” and “B” of different bandgaps into electrical potential by the force of a thermopower resulting from the difference of temperatures and the difference of bandgaps of the two materials of the junction [50].

However, the emf produced in the operations of thermocouples, as a tool to measure the temperature, is usually very low. To increase the voltage difference, it is used thermopiles where several junction-pairs are connected in series as shown in Figure 10 .

Figure 10.

A thermopile made of thermocouple junction-pairs of two metals connected electrically in series to increase generated EMF [51].

As the thermocouple junction pairs are placed in series between a source of heat at high temperature “T_h” and a heat sink at low temperature T_l,as shown in Figure 11 , then the output voltage can be estimated as tsum of the gained electric potentials during the flow of the electromagnetic waves of thermal potentials in a unique direction across the successive junctions. So, their thermal potentials, (T_h – T_l), will be converted by the Seebeck effect into electric potentials which will be accumulated in as the sum of the unit potential [51]. So, it is possible to estimate the total gain of electric potentials as the sum of these individual gains at successive junctions as follows:

Figure 11.

A schematic diagram of a thermoelectric generator where the p-type and n-type legs have been bonded together as seen by upper and lower conducting plates to accumulate the gained electrical potentials of the output electric current [15, 52].

$$∆V={\propto }_{\mathit{AB}}\left(T_h-T_l\right)+{\propto }_{\mathit{BA}}\left(T_l-T_h\right)+{\propto }_{\mathit{AB}}\left(T_h-T_l\right)+{\propto }_{\mathit{BA}}\left(T_l-T_h\right)+{\propto }_{\mathit{AB}}\left(T_h-T_l\right)+\dots .$$ E36

Substituting the Seebeck according to Eq. (34) as:

$${\propto }_{\mathit{AB}}={\propto }_B-{\propto }_A,{\propto }_{\mathit{BA}}={\propto }_A-{\propto }_B=-{\propto }_{\mathit{BA}},\left(T_h-T_l\right)=-\left(T_l-T_h\right)$$ E37

So, the total accumulated electrical potential will be:

$$∆V=\sum \left[{\propto }_{\mathit{AB}}\left(T_h-T_l\right)\right]=n{\propto }_{\mathit{AB}}\left(T_h-T_l\right)$$ E38

Eq. (38) indicates that the electric potential of a thermopile is duplicated by the number of the used junctions. Such equation is applied in measurement of temperature and in thermoelectric generators for predicting the amplified electric potential. Without recognizing the electric charge a EM wave of electric potential, we cannot find a plausible explanation of accumulation of the electric potentials of such energy when crossing successive junctions and measuring its potential according to Eq. (38).

A classical TEG is shown in Figure 11 . According to recognizing the electric current as a flow of EM waves that have electric potential, it is possible to conclude the operation of the shown TEG module would follow the same principles of operation of the thermopile in Figure 10 . As the junction pairs in this module are connected in series; then the output potential of the electric current will be similarly estimated as the sum of the gained electric potentials across the successive junctions by the Seebeck effect. So, if the flow of electric current is defined as flow of electromagnetic waves of accumulating potentials, it is possible to estimate the total gain in the electric potential as the sum of these individual gains at successive junctions as found by Eq. (38).

The Solar cells or photovoltaic “PV” cells are known as tools to convert solar energy into electricity by the PV effect. Such PV effect was traditionally defined in literature of physics as bouncing electrons by the incident photons of light across the cell’s junction [1]. Such definition was found to violate the principle of conservation of momentum where the momentum of any incident photon is negligible when compared to the momentum of any orbiting electron in an atom [53]. Additionally, such explanation does not offer plausible explanations in case of multi-junction thin films or organic solar cells as such electrons cannot jump freely from one junction to hit electrons in another junction and the fact that electrons cannot flow through organic tissues in case of organic PV cells [54]. However, the gained potential in the PV cells depends on the difference of the energy bandgaps of the junction’s materials, i.e., the difference between bandgaps of semiconductors of free electrons and semiconductors of holes [3]. As Eq. (33) states a direct relation between the energy bandgap and the Seebeck coefficient of materials, it was possible to also postulate the conversion of the incident radiation of thermal potential into EM waves by Solar cells into electric current or EM waves of electrical potential by the Seebeck effect after crossing the p-n junction between two dissimilar materials of different Seebeck coefficients [55]. Truth of this postulate can be proved by investigating the measurement of the open voltage potential of output current from a single crystal silicon solar PV cell under variable intensity of incident solar radiation, shown in Figure 12 .

Figure 12.

Typical I-V characteristics of an illuminated single crystal silicon solar cell at different values of solar radiation 100 mW/cm² (I), 60 mW/cm² (II) and 40 mW/cm² (III) respectively.

According to the shown dependence in Figure 12 , the open voltage potential is affected only by the temperature of the source of radiation, the sun, while the intensity of solar adiation influences the current density [43].

According to the seen results, the open voltage potential, V_oc = 0.7 Volt is found to be affected only by the temperature of the source of radiation, T_sun = 6100 K. Such potential is found as a Seebeck effect according to Eq. (31) by substituting the value of the relative Seebeck coefficient between the materials of the p-n junctions, ∝_pn according to table of the Seebeck coefficients and substituting the incident thermal radiation has the thermal potential = 6100 K.

$$\text{So},\left(T_{\mathit{sun}}-T_{\mathit{env}}\right)=6100–300=5800K.$$ E39

$$\text{Hence};\mathit{∆}\mathit{V}={\propto }_{\mathit{pn}}=6100–300=5800K.$$

$$\text{Hence;}\mathit{∆}\mathit{=}{\propto }_{\mathit{pn}}\mathit{.}\mathbf{6100}\approx \mathbf{0.7}\mathrm{Volt}$$ E40

Such results indicate the truth of defining the photovoltaic effect as a Seebeck effect and the nature of electric charges as flow of EM waves of definite electrical potential. However, Planck postulated that the energy of light moves in packets whose magnitude is proportional to the frequency where the constant of proportionality the Planck’s constant “h” [56]. As previously explained, the effective parameter in the thermoelectric and EM wave’s interactions is the power of the flow which depends on the frequency not on the quantity of energy [57]. As previously discussed, recognizing the definition of the electric charges as EM waves ends the duality confusion and the quantum imagination [58].

Considering I-V performance of triple junction solar cell that consists of successive layers of GaInP, GaAs and GaInNAs and the performance of four junctions – solar cell consisting of successive layers of GaInP, GanAs and GaInNAs and Ge stacked on top of each other [59]. It was possible to prove the validity of such PV phenomena as a Seebeck effect according to applicability of Eq. (38) for calculating the accumulated potentials of the output electric power [60]. The measured potential of the output current from multi-junction solar cell is found to be the sum of the converted thermal potentials into electric potential at the successive junctions [61]. The estimated efficiency of such multijunction cells according to Eq. (38) fits the measurement results that exceeds the found limit by Shockley and Queasier which was wrongly determined by considering the flow of electric charges is a flow of electrons [62].

6. Impacts of proper understanding of energy fluxes on plausible explanation of wireless power transmission

Recognizing the natures of electric and magnetic flux as EM waves that have electric or magnetic potentials, the electromagnetic power transmission looks like a viable natural process for the transfer of power through space. In a wireless power transmission system, a transmitter device, driven by electric power from a power source, generates a time-varying electromagnetic field, which transmits power as EM waves of electric or magnetic potential across space to a receiver device. The receiver device receives EM waves that have a high electric potential from the field and supplies it to an electrical load [63]. The technology of wireless power transmission is also a key to increasing the mobility, convenience, and safety of electric and electronic devices for all users.

Wireless power techniques that depend on such EM nature of all energies fall into two categories, near field and far-field. In near field or non-radiative techniques power is transferred as EM waves, as have been defined, over short distances through magnetic fields that uses mainly inductive coupling between coils of wire [8]. In far field or radiative techniques, also called power beaming, power is transferred either as energized EM waves in the form of microwaves done by magnetron, or as Excited EM in the form of Laser beams as done by laser systems [64]. These techniques can transport energy longer distances but must be aimed at the receiver. Proposed applications for this type are solar power satellites, and wireless powered drone aircraft [65].

However, the magnetron is a cross-field device which uses an electric field in conjunction with a magnetic field whose field-energy lines are at right angles to each other [66]. Accordingly, the magnetron pumps electrical and magnetic potentials into the EM waves passing through it which increases their amplitudes E^O and H^O to produce high energy wave packets. As the power of the flowing microwaves or micro-EM waves equals the product of such high energy per wave times the high frequency of the microwaves, the result will be extremely high-power wave packets, or photons, according to Eq. (38) which reads:

$$\dot{W}=\mathrm{Ћ}.\nu =1.423.\dot{S}.\left(E^0+H^0\right)\text{Watt}$$ E41

Such beam of high-power packets is used also in the microwave ovens to heat food where the energized EM waves are sent through the cavity of the oven to fill its volume with extremely energized wave backets flowing at extremely high frequency. Figure 13 shows the glowing packets of energy inside the microwave oven interpreted as electric or magnetic charges. Such high energized backet with extremely high potentials at high rate of flow cooks the food in extremely short time if compared to normal electric heating by Joule’ s effect.

Figure 13.

Electric field distribution (V/m) of a microwave oven. The applied input power P = 500 W and time 60 sec. [66].

7. Impacts of proper understanding of energy fluxes on true understanding of nerve impulses

Neurologists find during their practice the nature of nerve impulses as electric signals identified by flow of charges at high speed and a measured electric potential and they measure the ability of the neural tissue to allow flow of electric current [67]. However, the traditional definition of electric current as a flow of electrons forced them to abandon such directly identified nature of the nerve impulse as electric signals due to believing the impossibility of electron to flow through organic nerves [68]. As a result of such confusion, the nerve impulse is traditionally defined in their literature as an ionic current that is moving along the length of the neurotransmitters by the force of an unknown “action potential” and they imagine a separate motion of such action potential. Such confusion can be ended by a proper understanding of the nature of the observed electric signals as a flow of electric charges properly defined as EM waves which have a definite electric potential [69]. Such innovation was discussed in a previous article by S. AbdelHady where the action potential is defined as the electric potential of the electric signal emerged from the brain as seen in Figure 14 [69]. Such electric signals of assigned electric potential are created in the brain which accounts for 25% of the body’s total glucose utilization and 20% of oxygen consumption [70]. It is a metabolically “demanding” organ with intense heat production [71]. It was discussed in a previous study the conversion of the heat produced electric to signal of action potential in the neural cells of the brain by the thermopower of such heat [50]. Such power is activated by the temperature difference across the cell membranes ∆T which is converted into electric potential when crossing sodium-potassium junctions at the sides of the membranes by Seebeck Effect [55]. Hence, the neural cell performs the function of thermoelectric generator to convert part of the heat produced by the metabolic operation of the neural cells into electric signals by converting its thermal potential ∆T, measured across the membranes of the neural cells, into electric potential ∆V [69]. However, the potential of the nerve impulse is magnified when crossing legs of the cell membrane formed of successive sodium - potassium junctions or legs by accumulating the gained electric potential [69].

Figure 14.

A plot of the stimulating signals and evoked signals from a stimulation device as a record for the nerve impulses from the arm and leg of a patient [A hospital print].

As a conclusion, the proper understanding of the electric charges as EM waves of electric potential may end the confusion of the neurologists regarding creation and motion of unknown action potential. As has been previously analyzed, Figure 8 shows the stimulating signal in electric field E - Entropy (s) plane where the entropy flow rate “ $\dot{\mathit{S}}$ ” measures the capacity of the neural tissues to allow the flow a definite electric power per unit potential.

At the right corner of the card in Figure 14 , it is seen the evoked signals as responses to the stimulating signals in Figure 8 . It is shown as a nerve impulse sent in the form of an electric signal or charge like the shape of the stimulus charge in Figure 8 . It is also an EM wave whose abscissa is the measured growth of entropy, measured by an ammeter in nano Joule/volt, and whose ordinate is the potential of the charge in milli Volts. The fast response of the stimulating signal by an evoked signal shows the speed of flow of both signals as EM waves and the impossibility to be a flow of electrons that should not flow through organic tissues. The power delivered by the flow by such nerve impulse can be calculated also by the same procedure followed to calculate the energy and power of the stimulus charge. It is a fundamental comment to neurologists to understand how the plot of the stimulating charge depends on the specification of the source of impulse and the properties of the tissues of the neural cell defined by the entropy, which is ignored by the neurologists, that has a great value in specifying the health of the neurons. Such data may also help in diagnosis of the defects in the neural system.

8. Conclusions

1. The heat, the electric charge, and the magnetic flux are forms of energy that have a common origin whose SI unit is the “Joule.”

2. The electric charges are EM waves which are derived by their electric potential, and the magnetic flux is EM waves which is derived by its magnetic potential as the thermal radiation which is derived by the force of its thermal potential. All potentials have a common reference scale, the thermodynamic temperature scale, and one common unit, the “Volt.” There are clear dependence of the electric and magnetic potential scales on the thermodynamic temperature scale.

3. The ammeter’s reading has the SI unit “Watt/Volt” that measures the capacity of the electric field to pass a definite rate of flow of electric energy, i.e., electric power, by the force of a unit electric potential power. This capacity measures also the rate of growth of the entropy of such electric field per unit electric potential.

4. The Ampere is a meaningless unit of a wrongly defined identity that should be dropped from the base units of the SI system of units as a necessary modification of the system to remove its confusing redundancies. The Kelvin will be the base unit for all potentials but its unit its will be the “Volt.”

5. The magnetic induction is a process of exchange the electric potential of the input electric charges by magnetic potential and the opposite exchange can be done.

6. The thermoelectric and photoelectric effects convert the thermal potential of the incident electromagnetic radiation into electric potential when crossing junctions of dissimilar materials due to differences in their energy bandgaps by the Seebeck effect.

7. Casting the Maxwell’s wave equation into an energy frame of reference that replaces the time by entropy as an arrow of time visualize the electric charges and magnetic flux as EM waves that have electric or Magnetic potentials.

8. The energy flow as EM waves is quantized into wave-packets or energy quanta each of energy: 1.423 λ_s (E^0 + H^0) Joule/cycle where λ_s is the wavelength along the entropy ordinate in the energy frame of the modified Maxwell’s equation. Such quanta are independent on the frequency of the wave. This statement violates Planck’s statement which wrongly assumes such quanta is proportional to the frequency as any multiple of frequency defines rates of flow and does not define a quantity of energy.

9. Einstein’s assumption that the claimed quanta of Planck may be particulated and hits the electron out of its orbit is a false statement according to the negligible momentum of the energy-quanta if compared to the momentum of a moving electron. This assumption fails to explain emission of electrons from organic PV cells or in multijunction cells and how the PV efficiency exceeds the limit determined by who followed Einstein’s assumptions. As a more plausible explanation, the thermal potential of the incident thermal radiation is converted when crossing junctions of dissimilar materials of different bandgaps into electric potential according to Seebeck equation (∆ V = ∝_AB ∆ T).

10. Neurologists saw and defined the nerve impulses as electric signals, but they wrongly interpreted such signals as a moving imaginary-action potential. They believed a definition of the electric signal should involve flow of electrons and denying their observation of the possibility of flow of electric current through a patch of cell membranes. Their solution is to believe the electric charges are not electrons as the electrons are particles, but they are EM waves that have electric potential which they call Action Potential.” So, the nerve impulses are electric signals, as they define, and such electric signals are electric charges which have “Action Potential.” [This approach will answer, as mentioned in previous research, all their inquiries concerning the generation of the nerve impulse as electric signal of action potential, correct interpretation of the stimulating signal and evoked signals, and the entropy as a property that determines the health of elements of the neural systems.

Acknowledgments

The author thanks Allah for his guide in writing this chapter I should also thank my Dear Son: Prof. Dr. Mohamed Salama, Dean of the Engineering College, Beni Suef University in Egypt, for his sincere belief of my ideas that encourages me.