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This chapter thoroughly explores microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) in oilfields, highlighting a holistic approach to address its complicated nature. The chapter explores microbial processes, corrosion mechanisms, and environmental influences. It delves into detection techniques, mitigation strategies, ongoing research, and future directions. Environmental conditions such as anaerobic environments, elevated salinity, hydrocarbons, and high temperatures are critical factors shaping the landscape of MIC. Detection and monitoring techniques, including microbiological analysis and advanced inspection technologies, are revealed as vital tools for proactive intervention. Mitigation strategies include cathodic protection, materials selection, corrosion inhibitors, biocide treatments, and ongoing inspection, providing a robust framework against MIC. The chapter highlights the industry’s need to welcome technological advancements, including innovations in environmental monitoring, nanotechnology, and microbial ecology. Ongoing research initiatives, collaborative partnerships between industry and academia, and sustainable biocide strategies demonstrate the industry’s commitment to staying ahead of MIC challenges. The chapter presents vital steps for fortifying infrastructure against MIC, emphasizing innovation, sustainability, collaboration, and knowledge dissemination.
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1. Introduction
The exploration and extraction of hydrocarbons from oil fields are essential parts of the global energy landscape, fueling economies and societies worldwide [1]. As the demand for energy resources continues to increase, the dependence on intricate infrastructure within oil fields increases [2]. This infrastructure, which comprises storage tanks, pipelines, and several other equipment, is faced with a daunting challenge called microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC). However, there is a need for ample exploration of MIC within the context of oil fields to unveil the intricate interplay between corrosion mechanisms, microbial processes, and subtle strategies for detection and mitigation.
MIC is a prevalent and complex challenge in the oil and gas industry, where the coexistence of microorganisms and metal surfaces results in an untold corrosion process [3]. The influence of MIC is beyond mere structural degradation; it poses a substantial threat to operational integrity, safety, and economic viability. As hydrocarbons traverse the intricate network of pipelines and reside in storage tanks, the conditions within oil field environments are conducive to microbial activity, making MIC a persistent and growing concern [4]. At the heart of MIC in oil fields lies several cast of microorganisms. Archaea, fungi, and bacteria, each playing a unique role, form complex biofilms on metal surfaces [5]. Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) are of particular concern as they produce hydrogen sulfide (H2S) as a metabolic byproduct [6]. This H2S is a corrosive agent, expediting the degradation of metal infrastructure. Understanding the intricacies of microbial communities in oil fields is fundamental to developing targeted strategies for MIC mitigation [7].
Biofilm formation on metal surfaces is a vital aspect of MIC, contributing to the initiation and propagation of localized corrosion. These biofilms act as a protective shield for microorganisms, enabling their survival in aggressive environments [8]. Simultaneously, they create corrosive microenvironments by secreting metabolic byproducts. This symbiotic relationship between metal surfaces and microorganisms highlights the need for an insight into biofilm dynamics and their role in MIC. MIC occurs due to the production of corrosive metabolic byproducts by microbial activity [9]. Sulfides and organic acids are formed due to microbial metabolism, undermining the protective films on metal surfaces [10]. The resulting breakdown of these protective layers makes the metals susceptible to corrosion, contributing to the overall degradation of infrastructure. Therefore, understanding the chemistry behind these corrosive byproducts is vital to formulating effective mitigation strategies.
Oil field environments present numerous challenges that worsen MIC. The omnipresence of hydrocarbons, elevated salinity, and high temperatures create an environment where microbial activity booms, escalating corrosion processes [11]. Additionally, the occurrence of anaerobic conditions in specific zones of oil field infrastructure further complicates the corrosion landscape [12]. Revealing the intricate relationship between environmental factors and MIC is fundamental to developing strategies to address the unique challenges of oil field conditions.
In the subsequent sections, this chapter explores the depths of MIC in oil fields, delving into detection and monitoring techniques, environmental conditions affecting MIC, and a detailed array of mitigation strategies. By combining research and current knowledge, this study aims to equip engineers, researchers, and industry professionals with the knowledge essential to confront and mitigate the complex challenges of MIC in dynamic and critical oil field environments.
Oil field environments serve as expansive microbial playgrounds, teeming with a diverse array of bacteria, archaea, and fungi [5]. Predominantly found in water and sediments linked to oil reservoirs, these microorganisms become pivotal players in the intricate dance leading to MIC [13]. Bacteria take center stage as primary protagonists, leveraging their adaptability and metabolic diversity to initiate corrosive processes on metal surfaces. In parallel, often overlooked archaea contribute stealthily by thriving in anaerobic conditions and actively participating in biofilm formation. Though less conspicuous, fungi play a role in biofilm formation and corrosion processes, adding complexity to the MIC narrative [5].
The collaborative efforts of these microbial communities lead to biofilm formation, structured citadels that boost the corrosive potential of MIC [12Z]. These biofilms adhere to metal surfaces and create an environment conducive to microbial proliferation and corrosive byproduct accumulation [5]. The knowledge of this microbial symphony is imperative for crafting effective mitigation strategies against MIC in oil fields, acknowledging the subtle contributions of bacteria, archaea, and fungi in shaping the corrosion landscape.
2.2 Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB)
The anaerobic bacteria known as SRB plays a critical role in the process of MIC in oil fields. SRBs are classified into archaea, proteobacteria, thermodesulfobacteria, and firmicutes [5]. SRB has a unique ability to utilize sulfate as a terminal electron acceptor in their metabolic process, leading to hydrogen sulfide (H2S) [14]. This byproduct is known for its corrosive nature, causing a chain reaction that accelerates the corrosion of metal infrastructure [15]. SRB also showcases adaptability by utilizing various organic compounds as energy sources, making them formidable adversaries for oil field integrity.
Understanding the complexities of SRB metabolism is essential to mitigate the impact of MIC in oil fields [16]. Due to their ability to flourish in low-oxygen environments, targeted strategies are needed to curb their influence. As key players in the MIC narrative, SRB demands a nuanced approach to safeguarding oil field infrastructure against their corrosive alchemy [17].
According to a recent study, a mechanism called MIC occurs on stainless steel within the biofilm created by sulfate reducer bacteria. Iron oxidation takes place outside sessile cells, while sulfate reduction occurs within the bacterial cell cytoplasm, using the electrons released by the oxidation process. Cross-cell wall electron transfer is achieved by an electrogenic biofilm. The most critical step in MIC is electron transfer. Riboflavin and flavin adenine dinucleotide are two common electron mediators that enhance electron transfer and accelerate the process of pitting corrosion [5, 18].
In order to comprehend the way in which SRBs (Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria) can speed up corrosion, the equations given below illustrate the primary reactions that take place in the presence of iron and SRB. The most significant reactions are the metal dissolution on the anode and the reduction on the cathode [5]. These anodic and cathodic reactions are summarized as follows:
anodic reaction:4Fe→4Fe2++8e−E1
water dissociation:8H2O→8H++8OH−E2
anodic depolarization:3Fe2++6OH−→3FeOH2E3
dissociation of hydrogen sulfide:H2S→S2−+2H+E4
anodic depolarization:Fe2++S2−→FeSE5
cathodic reaction:8H++8e−→4H2E6
hydrogen oxidation:SO42−+4H2→H2S+2H2O+2OH−E7
overall reaction:4Fe+SO42−+4H2O→FeS+3FeOH2+2OH−E8
The presence of microorganisms enhances the rate of corrosion, as demonstrated by the formation of FeS and Fe(OH)2 solids.
2.3 Biofilm formation
Biofilms are resilient communities formed by microbial cells embedded in extracellular polymeric substances (EPS). Within oil fields, these biofilms play a dual role in MIC [19]. On the one hand, they function as protective refuges, shielding microorganisms against external threats and safeguarding their survival on metal surfaces [5]. However, biofilms also create an environment conducive to microbial metabolic activities, which produces corrosive byproducts such as organic acids and hydrogen sulfide [8]. This catalytic role significantly contributes to the initiation and propagation of localized corrosion, presenting a formidable challenge to the integrity of metal infrastructure.
As biofilms mature and accumulate, their impact intensifies, creating a cohesive matrix that amplifies the corrosive potential within oil fields [5]. While crucial for microbial persistence, the protective aspect of biofilms underscores the need for targeted strategies that address the intricate dynamics of biofilm maturation. Balancing the protective and corrosive facets of biofilms is essential in formulating effective measures to manage their impact on localized corrosion, ensuring the longevity and integrity of metal infrastructure within the challenging environments of oil fields [19].
The interaction between sulfate reducers and sulfur oxidizers exemplifies symbiotic coexistence. Among the essential microorganisms contributing to aggressive corrosion, anaerobic sulfate reducers metabolize sulfate ions, producing H2S/S2− as a primary byproduct [5]. This forms an insoluble black precipitate with Fe2+ ions, resulting in a distinctive blackish biofilm on the surface. The presence of this biofilm signifies the formation of FeS and the activity of anaerobic microorganisms. The prominent blackish biofilm deposits indicate the primary sulfate reducer colonies, revealing more severe metal damage beneath them. In other words, heightened metabolic activity makes the metal dissolution more apparent.
2.4 Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
Microbial processes, specifically those controlled by SRB, generate H2S in oil fields [14]. Although it is a colorless gas, H2S is a double threat as it is highly toxic to human health and a potent corrosive agent. When it encounters moisture, H2S undergoes chemical reactions on metal surfaces, converting it into sulfuric acid [15]. This corrosive transformation weakens the protective oxide layers on metals, making them more susceptible to corrosion and creating a significant risk to the integrity of oil field infrastructure.
The impact of H2S goes beyond direct corrosion, as it can also cause stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in materials vulnerable to such phenomena [20]. This further weakens the structural integrity of metal components within oil fields, highlighting the importance of careful monitoring and targeted mitigation strategies. The fact that SRB can both produce and thrive in environments rich in H2S emphasizes the vital nature of these strategies in preventing the corrosive consequences of this microbial byproduct, ensuring that oil field infrastructure remains reliable and functional in challenging conditions [14].
2.5 Challenges posed by environmental conditions
Microbial processes in oil fields occur in a challenging environment marked by unique factors that amplify the intricacies of MIC. High temperatures, elevated salinity, and the omnipresence of hydrocarbons all shape a milieu that promotes microbial activity and significantly intensifies corrosion processes [11]. This synergistic interplay between microbial metabolic activities and environmental challenges acts as a catalyst, magnifying the corrosive potential within the intricate infrastructure of oil fields [21].
The prevalence of anaerobic conditions in certain oil field equipment zones adds complexity. These anaerobic microenvironments provide ideal habitats for SRB and other anaerobic microorganisms to thrive, contributing further to MIC dynamics [14]. Recognizing the profound impact of environmental conditions on microbial processes is crucial for developing effective mitigation strategies. Addressing the unique challenges, the oil field environment poses requires a nuanced approach, ensuring that protective measures align with the intricate interplay between microbial activities and the complex conditions prevalent within oil field infrastructure.
Understanding the collaborative nature of microorganisms, the experimentation of SRB, the dynamics of biofilm formation, and the corrosive nature of hydrogen sulfide provides a foundational framework for unraveling the complexities of MIC in oil fields [22]. As we navigate this microbial landscape, the following sections will delve into detection and monitoring techniques that allow us to decipher the microbial symphony and the mitigation strategies essential for orchestrating harmony between microorganisms and metal infrastructure within oil fields.
The metabolic activity of microorganisms lies at the heart of MIC, a process that produces corrosive byproducts capable of instigating metal degradation. In oil field environments, microorganisms, particularly SRB, thrive and engage in complicated metabolic pathways that release compounds like organic acids and H2S [14]. It is critical to monitor the types and concentrations of these byproducts and recognize their unique corrosive potentials and the different responses of various metals to their presence to understand the corrosion puzzle in oil fields.
3.1.1 Organic acids
Generating powerful corrosive agents, particularly organic acids like acetic, formic, and propionic acids, is a significant consequence of microbial metabolism in the complex world of MIC. Microorganisms such as bacteria and SRB produce these acids through their metabolic activities, which initiate a corrosive process that seriously impacts metal infrastructure. Organic acids act as corrosive catalysts and degrade the protective oxide layers that usually safeguard metal surfaces from corrosion [21]. Their corrosive strength lies in their ability to initiate the breakdown of metal components, which can compromise the integrity of critical infrastructure within oil fields. As these organic acids accumulate near metal surfaces, they create microenvironments that promote corrosion, leading to accelerated degradation [23].
Organic acids in MIC directly attack metals and undermine the protective layers, facilitating localized corrosion. It is crucial to recognize the corrosive potential of these metabolic byproducts to implement specific mitigation strategies that address the challenges posed by organic acids in the complex corrosion landscape of oil field environments.
3.1.2 Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
Microbial activity in oil fields produces H2S, a highly toxic gas. When sulfate is reduced during anaerobic metabolism, H2S is released into the environment [14]. This gas reacts with metal surfaces and moisture, forming corrosive sulfuric acid, which leads to surface corrosion and potentially induces SCC in susceptible materials [22].
The corrosive effect of H2S is twofold. Firstly, the gas undergoes chemical reactions on metal surfaces, causing the formation of sulfuric acid that compromises the metal’s protective layers, increasing the corrosion rates. H2S can induce SCC, a severe form of degradation under the combined influence of tensile stress, corrosive environments, and susceptible materials [22]. Vigilant monitoring and targeted mitigation strategies are necessary to counteract the detrimental consequences of H2S in the complex corrosion landscape of oil field environments.
3.2 Impact of environmental factors
3.2.1 High temperatures
In oil fields, it is common for temperatures to be higher than usual. Combined with microbial activity, this creates a synergy that significantly accelerates corrosion within the infrastructure [11]. The increased kinetic energy of molecules at higher temperatures makes corrosion reactions happen more quickly. This critical factor must be considered when assessing corrosion risks in oil field operations [24].
According to a report by Obot, Sorour [24], when it comes to sweet corrosion, the corrosion rate initially increases with temperature but eventually decreases beyond a certain point. Iron carbonate (FeCO3), a common byproduct of corrosion, provides limited protection against corrosion, particularly under low pH conditions. At temperatures below 90°C, amorphous and non-protective forms of FeCO3 precipitate lead to the penetration of corrosive agents and the initiation of localized corrosion. Although FeCO3 can form at all temperatures, its precipitation and protective properties are mainly observed above 60°C. Therefore, the corrosion rate decreases beyond this temperature threshold, as observed in previous studies [25, 26, 27].
Amorphous corrosion products at low temperatures (>60°C [28]):
2FeOH2S+HC03−aq↔Fe2OH2CO3s+H2Ol+OHaq−E9
2FeCO3s+2OHaq−↔Fe2OH2CO3s+CO3aq2−E10
Gradual precipitate of FeCO3 at high temperature (90–150°C) [29]:
Fe2OH2CO3s+CO2g→2FeCO3s+H2OlE11
Fe2OH2CO3s+CO3aq2−↔2FeCO3s+2OHaq−E12
Formation of Fe3O4 at elevated temperatures (150–200°C) due to either the siderite decomposition or direct reaction of a ferrous ion with water or by the reaction of ferrous hydroxide with oxygen [27, 30]:
3FeCO3s→Fe3O4s+2CO2g+COgE13
3Feaq2++4H2Ol↔Fe3O4s+8Haq++2e−E14
3FeOH2+12O2↔Fe3O4s+3H2OE15
Formation of hematite (Fe2O3) in the presence of oxygen which oxidizes ferrous ions in the ferric ions or FeCO3 degradation under the aerated condition at >200°C (Table 1) [31]:
Effect of temperature on sweet corrosion rate reported.
2Feaq2++12O2g→2Feaq3++Oaq2+E16
2Feaq3++3H2O→2FeOH3s+3Haq+E17
2FeOH3s→FeOOHs+H2OlE18
FeOOHs→Fe2O3s+H2OlE19
4FeCO3s+O2g→Fe2O3s+4CO2gE20
The high temperatures in oil fields make MIC even worse. This means it is essential to understand this complex interaction to prevent corrosion from causing too much damage [11, 32]. The oil and gas industry must acknowledge temperature as a significant factor in corrosion risk assessments. This ensures that they can develop protective measures tailored to address the accelerated corrosion rates that result from the combined influence of high temperatures and microbial activity.
3.2.2 Salinity effects
The presence of salts in oil field environments significantly impacts the electrochemical processes underlying MIC [11]. The salts have a dual role as they affect both the conductivity of aqueous solutions and the solubility of corrosion products [37]. This modulation of the nature and extent of corrosion damage accentuates the corrosive impact of MIC in the presence of elevated salinity. Therefore, it is essential to have a nuanced understanding of this environmental factor in corrosion assessments. The salts in oil field environments enhance conductivity in aqueous solutions [38]. This heightened conductivity facilitates more efficient electrochemical processes, increasing corrosion rates [11].
In addition, the salts influence the solubility of corrosion products. This influence can alter the nature of the corrosion byproducts and the extent of corrosion damage [37]. The interplay between salts and corrosion products adds another layer of complexity to the MIC dynamics, necessitating thorough consideration in developing corrosion mitigation strategies within oil field operations.
3.2.3 Hydrocarbon presence
The coexistence of hydrocarbons and microbial activity in oil fields adds more complexity to corrosion dynamics. Microorganisms use hydrocarbons as a carbon source, fueling their growth and metabolic activity [39]. This interaction leads to a higher chance of localized corrosion in infrastructure, which challenges managing microbial-induced corrosion. Microbes utilize hydrocarbons as readily available carbon reservoirs, which creates a symbiotic relationship that promotes their growth and metabolic activity [40]. This relationship creates microenvironments conducive to localized corrosion, and the corrosive potential is heightened as microbial processes, facilitated by the presence of hydrocarbons, initiate corrosive reactions on metal surfaces.
To manage this complexity, it is essential to have a comprehensive understanding of the intricate corrosion landscape within oil fields. Targeted strategies that consider the dual influence of microbial activity and hydrocarbon presence are needed to address the symbiotic relationship between microorganisms and hydrocarbons. By doing so, the oil and gas industry can strengthen its infrastructure against the challenges posed by localized corrosion in this intricate interplay.
3.3 Corrosion under biofilms
3.3.1 Microbial metabolism in biofilms
Microorganisms within biofilms release corrosive byproducts, intensifying the corrosion landscape [8]. These byproducts accumulate in the confined space beneath biofilms, creating microenvironments where corrosion rates can be accelerated. As a result, corrosion is often more severe under biofilms than bare metal surfaces [22]. The metabolic activities of microorganisms, including the production of organic acids and corrosive gases, contribute to the corrosive potential of these structured communities [19, 22]. This phenomenon makes biofilms protective shields for microorganisms and potent amplifiers of corrosion processes.
Understanding the intricate dynamics within biofilms to address this issue is crucial. The severity of corrosion beneath biofilms necessitates targeted mitigation strategies that account for the unique challenges posed by these microbial citadels [8]. By comprehending the role of biofilms in corrosion amplification, the oil and gas industry can implement measures to safeguard infrastructure and mitigate the enhanced corrosion risks associated with these structured microbial communities [22].
3.3.2 Breakdown of protective films
Biofilms amplify corrosion and play a crucial role in breaking down protective surface films on metals in oil field environments. The EPS matrix in biofilms traps corrosive agents, preventing their removal by fluid flow [19]. This prolonged exposure weakens the protective surface films, making metal surfaces more prone to degradation. The EPS matrix acts as a protective shield for microbial communities but also hinders the protective mechanisms of metal surfaces [41]. Corrosive agents such as organic acids and hydrogen sulfide are trapped within the biofilm matrix, impeding their dispersion.
Telegdi et al. [5] reported that, in their planktonic and biofilm-embedded states, microbial cell walls are enveloped by exopolymeric substances (EPS) that possess adhesive properties (refer to Figure 1(a)). These sticky substances facilitate the adhesion of microorganisms to solid surfaces. The accumulation of microorganisms on metals, leading to the formation of biofilm (depicted in Figure 1(b)), induces alterations in the microenvironment, affecting factors such as wettability and electrostatic charge. This, in turn, aids in the colonization of microbes on surfaces.
Figure 1.
(a) Leptospirillum ferrooxidans surrounded by EPS S, (b) microbes embedded into EPS (NanoScope III, digital instrument).
Understanding the dual role of biofilms is crucial for developing effective corrosion mitigation strategies [42]. By addressing the dynamics within biofilms, the oil and gas industry can protect metal infrastructure from the corrosive consequences of these microbial communities.
3.4 Stress corrosion cracking (SCC)
3.4.1 Role of hydrogen sulfide
In the complex interplay of MIC in oil fields, H2S is a significant player in SCC [20]. H2S, known for its corrosive nature, can cause more than surface corrosion. It can embrittle metals and make them more susceptible to cracking when subjected to mechanical loads or stresses [14]. This interaction between H2S and tensile stresses is dangerous, highlighting the importance of considering the potential for SCC in oil field environments [22]. When exposed to H2S, metals become vulnerable to cracking, which can compromise the structural integrity of critical infrastructure [14].
H2S in oil and natural gas is decomposed to H+ and HS−. HS ion acts as a hydrogen recombination poison and prevents formation of hydrogen molecules [20]. The following reactions occur:
H2S→HS−+H+E21
HS−→S2−+H+‑E22
Hydrogen atoms in the forms of protons get electrons from the iron and converted to the hydrogen atoms based on the following equations:
H++e−→E23
Hads+Hads→H2E24
The synergy between corrosive environments, microbial activities, and applied stresses underscores the multifaceted nature of corrosion risks in oil fields. That is why, it is crucial to monitor them carefully and implement targeted mitigation strategies to avoid the insidious consequences of SCC. Understanding the role of H2S in inducing embrittlement and stress corrosion cracking is pivotal for safeguarding the longevity and reliability of metal infrastructure within the challenging conditions of oil fields.
3.4.2 Susceptible materials
In the complex realm of oil field operations, it is crucial to consider the susceptibility of materials to stress corrosion cracking (SCC) to prevent catastrophic failures. Certain materials, alloys, and welding configurations exhibit a higher propensity for SCC, highlighting the importance of understanding this susceptibility and designing infrastructure accordingly [43]. Not all materials respond uniformly to environmental factors, microbial activities, and applied stresses in oil field environments. Some materials are more prone to SCC than others, requiring a nuanced approach to material selection and infrastructure design [44]. Neglecting the susceptibility of materials to SCC can result in severe consequences, leading to structural failures that endanger both personnel safety and operational continuity. To mitigate these risks, it is essential to conduct comprehensive assessments of material susceptibility to SCC during oil field infrastructure design and selection processes [43]. This proactive approach enables the identification of materials that can withstand the corrosive challenges posed by microbial activity, ensuring the durability and reliability of equipment in the demanding conditions of oil fields. By integrating a thorough understanding of material susceptibilities, the oil and gas industry can strengthen its infrastructure against the insidious threat of SCC, ultimately improving the safety and performance of oil field operations [45].
In oil field microbiology, the traditional approach involves a systematic cultivation, isolation, and characterization process [46, 47]. This approach is used to understand the dynamics of microbial populations in diverse sources within oil field systems. The first step involves cultivating microorganisms from collected samples under favorable growth conditions. This allows for isolating viable microbial populations, which are then separated into distinct groups for detailed examination. Identification techniques such as morphological, biochemical, or molecular analyses categorize and classify these microorganisms. Characterization provides insights into microbial diversity, metabolic activities, and contributions to processes like MIC [46]. However, traditional methods have limitations in capturing the full microbial spectrum, leading to advanced techniques, including molecular methods, for a comprehensive understanding of oil field microbial communities [48].
4.1.2 Molecular techniques
Advancements in molecular biology have brought about a significant transformation in microbiological analysis. Two key technologies leading this revolution are polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and next-generation sequencing (NGS), which enable rapid and precise identification of microorganisms based on their genetic material [49]. PCR amplifies specific DNA sequences from microbial samples, allowing for unparalleled detection and identification of microorganisms like SRB, contributing to MIC [50]. On the other hand, NGS provides high-throughput sequencing of microbial DNA, allowing for an unbiased approach that can detect known and novel microorganisms. This technology enhances our understanding of microbial diversity and abundance in oil field environments. These advancements overcome the limitations of traditional methods, thus empowering the oil and gas industry with proactive monitoring and targeted mitigation strategies against MIC.
4.2 Corrosion monitoring
4.2.1 Weight loss coupons
Weight loss coupons are one of the most effective ways to assess corrosion rates. These coupons are sacrificial metal samples that undergo the same conditions as the surrounding infrastructure, accurately representing the overall corrosion severity [51, 52]. Weight loss coupons are cost-effective and provide valuable insights into general corrosive tendencies, making them invaluable in corrosion monitoring protocols. While they may not provide detailed insights into localized corrosion, they remain widely used to obtain practical measures of corrosion rates. Despite its limitations, weight loss coupons are valuable for obtaining a practical measure of corrosion rates and widely used in corrosion monitoring protocols [53].
4.2.2 Electrochemical techniques
Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) is a non-destructive technique commonly used in the study of corrosion. It involves applying a small amplitude alternating current to a metal surface and monitoring the impedance [54]. EIS is highly sensitive to changes in protective layers and can reveal electrochemical processes occurring on the metal surface, offering real-time monitoring capabilities [55]. On the other hand, potentiodynamic polarization sweeps the potential of a metal surface while measuring the resulting current. It generates polarization curves that assess material corrosion resistance [56]. Deviations in these curves indicate corrosive processes. EIS and potentiodynamic polarization complement each other and contribute to a holistic approach, empowering the oil and gas industry to promptly detect and address corrosion issues, enhancing infrastructure integrity and longevity [57].
The report of Wang et al. [58] presents two plots (Figure 2): the Bode and Nyquist plots of the EIS spectra. For the scratched SMC coating, the impedance amplitude was drastically reduced. After undergoing a two-step healing process, the SMC coating fully recovers its barrier properties. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) results confirm that the coating can only restore its full barrier properties and provide adequate corrosion resistance when the defect is closed and re-bonded.
Figure 2.
EIS spectra of coatings before and after self-healing process: (a) Bode plot and (b) Nyquist plot [58].
4.2.3 Localized corrosion monitoring
Cutting-edge techniques such as scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) and microelectrode arrays play a pivotal role in detecting localized corrosion, especially in challenging oil fields [59]. SECM provides high-resolution imaging, visualizing and quantifying electrochemical processes at the microscale. By scanning a fine electrode tip across a surface, SECM maps variations in local corrosion activity, which is crucial for pinpointing corrosion hotspots, particularly beneath biofilms [60]. Microelectrode arrays, deploying miniature electrodes in an array format, offer comprehensive mapping of corrosion dynamics, detailing hotspots and variations in electrochemical activity [61]. These techniques provide invaluable insights into localized corrosion’s spatial distribution and intensity, empowering operators to address corrosion hotspots in oil field environments promptly. The high spatial resolution positions SECM and microelectrode arrays as indispensable assets in preserving the integrity and reliability of critical infrastructure [62].
The results of Wang et al. [58] show the current distribution around a scratch on different coatings (Figure 3). The shape memory effect narrows the corroded area of the wax-free coating, but it cannot completely suppress corrosion activities. The scratched self-healing SMC coating regained its barrier properties, and no localized corrosion activity was detected on the healed surface, thanks to gap sealing by carnauba wax microparticles.
Figure 3.
SECM measurements of the coating defect area before and after the self-healing process. (a) Original defect in wax-free coating, (b) defect in wax-free coating after two-step healing, (c) original defect in SMC coating, and (d) defect in SMC coating after two-step healing [58].
4.3 Advanced inspection technologies
4.3.1 Ultrasonic testing (UT)
Ultrasonic testing (UT) is an essential tool for detecting MIC. It uses high-frequency sound waves to inspect material integrity without damaging it. Traditional UT involves transmitting and measuring ultrasonic waves to determine material thickness. It can detect corrosion-induced wall thinning, a common outcome of MIC [49]. Phased array ultrasonic testing (PAUT) is an advanced form of UT that uses multiple controllable elements to improve imaging and inspection capabilities. PAUT provides a real-time, detailed assessment of internal material conditions, making it more accurate in detecting corrosion-related anomalies [50]. In the fight against MIC, UT techniques, incredibly advanced methods like PAUT, play a critical role in ensuring the structural integrity of oil field infrastructure. These non-destructive testing methods provide vital information about material thickness changes, enabling proactive measures to mitigate corrosion impact and safeguard the reliability of essential assets in the oil and gas industry [51].
4.3.2 Electromagnetic inspection
Eddy current testing (ECT) and magnetic flux leakage (MFL) are two of the most advanced non-intrusive techniques to detect corrosion-related issues in oil field infrastructure. ECT, for instance, induces eddy currents in conductive materials, which can reveal variations such as corrosion-induced defects [63]. This technique benefits non-ferrous materials and offers a non-invasive way to detect localized metal loss [64]. In contrast, MFL magnetizes materials and monitors the leakage of magnetic flux caused by variations in thickness, offering an effective way to inspect ferrous materials in pipelines and storage tanks [65]. Using both techniques, one can proactively assess the infrastructure and identify corrosion-related anomalies before they escalate. ECT and MFL provide a detailed understanding of the extent and location of metal loss, which contributes to targeted corrosion mitigation strategies, ensuring the integrity and reliability of critical oil field infrastructure.
4.3.3 Real-time monitoring systems
Continuous monitoring systems with sensors are a state-of-the-art approach to proactive corrosion management in oil field operations. These systems capture real-time data on parameters such as corrosion rate, temperature, and microbial activity, allowing for immediate intervention upon detecting abnormal conditions [66]. Corrosion sensors offer insights into real-time corrosion rates, enabling operators to assess mitigation strategies and implement timely interventions. Temperature sensors play a crucial role in understanding the environmental influences on corrosion processes, with real-time data allowing for the correlation of temperature variations with corrosion events [67]. This correlation enhances predictive capabilities, proactively enabling operators to anticipate and respond to potential corrosion challenges. The inclusion of microbial activity sensors, especially relevant for MIC, allows for targeted interventions by identifying areas prone to MIC [68]. In summary, continuous monitoring systems with multi-parameter sensors provide a holistic and real-time approach to corrosion management, empowering operators to enhance the integrity and reliability of critical infrastructure in the oil and gas industry.
4.4 Integration of techniques for comprehensive monitoring
4.4.1 Correlating microbial activity with corrosion rates
Correlating the changes in the microbial community with corrosion rates is an important strategy to combat MIC in oil fields [46]. This involves identifying the specific microorganisms associated with an increased corrosion potential. By doing so, we can gain crucial insights and design targeted mitigation strategies that address the root cause of MIC [46]. Molecular biology techniques such as NGS and PCR allow for the precise identification of microorganisms linked to MIC, giving us a better understanding of MIC dynamics [49]. Armed with this knowledge, operators can develop targeted mitigation strategies, such as controlling the population of corrosion-inducing microorganisms, modifying environmental conditions, or developing inhibitors [69]. This approach allows for efficient and sustainable corrosion management, which mitigates the impact of MIC on oil field infrastructure. By correlating microbial dynamics with corrosion rates, we can enhance our understanding and empower the industry with actionable insights, preserving the integrity of critical infrastructure in oil field operations.
4.4.2 Incorporating environmental parameters
To fully comprehend and manage MIC, it is essential to incorporate environmental data into monitoring systems. Temperature, salinity, and hydrocarbon concentrations are vital factors that influence microbial activity and corrosion rates in oil fields [11]. The dynamic interplay of these factors with microbial communities significantly impacts corrosion rates. Any changes in temperature, salinity, or hydrocarbon concentrations can alter microbial metabolic rates and affect microbial populations, which can, in turn, affect corrosion rates. By integrating these parameters into monitoring systems, we can better organize the conditions that influence MIC [70]. This approach improves our contextual understanding and allows for more precise corrosion risk assessments. Environmental data provide early indicators of potential shifts in microbial activity and corrosion rates, allowing for proactive measures to be taken before significant degradation occurs. Continuous monitoring systems with environmental sensors contribute to proactive corrosion management by providing real-time data on microbial activities and environmental conditions [71]. This facilitates informed decisions and targeted interventions based on specific environmental influences, optimizing corrosion mitigation strategies.
4.4.3 Machine learning and data analytics
In corrosion management, integrating machine learning and data analytics has brought in a new era of smart corrosion management [72]. Machine learning algorithms use artificial intelligence to analyze extensive and varied datasets collected from monitoring systems in oil field operations [73]. These intelligent tools can detect subtle correlations between environmental conditions, microbial activities, and corrosion rates. By identifying patterns that indicate imminent corrosion events, predictive analytics enable operators to adopt a proactive and preventive approach to corrosion management.
Data analytics and machine learning support real-time decision-making by continuously collecting and analyzing data from various sources [74]. This capability provides insights into the evolving dynamics of corrosion within oil field environments, enabling timely decision-making and the implementation of optimal corrosion mitigation strategies tailored to specific conditions.
One of the significant advantages of machine learning is its adaptive capabilities. As algorithms continuously learn from new data, they can adapt and refine their predictions, enhancing the effectiveness of corrosion mitigation strategies in response to changing environmental conditions, microbial behaviors, and corrosion patterns [73]. This results in an optimized and responsive approach to corrosion management in the oil and gas industry.
Oil fields are challenging environments for infrastructure due to high temperatures caused by geothermal reservoir properties and hydrocarbon extraction [11]. These temperatures accelerate corrosion kinetics and microbial metabolism, posing significant risks to pipelines and storage tanks. The increased thermal energy leads to higher corrosion rates, and the combination of high temperatures and microbial activity, particularly from SRB, amplifies corrosive processes [75]. To mitigate these threats, robust strategies are required, including proactive monitoring, targeted corrosion inhibitors, and selecting materials resistant to high-temperature corrosion. Understanding the synergistic effects of temperature, microbial activity, and corrosion kinetics is crucial to developing effective measures that can withstand the demanding conditions of oil fields.
5.1.2 Thermophilic microorganisms
In oil fields with high-temperature environments, the growth of thermophilic microorganisms can make it challenging to manage the problem of MIC. These microorganisms survive in extreme heat and contribute to MIC by producing corrosive byproducts such as organic acids and hydrogen sulfide. Accurate assessments of corrosion risks associated with elevated temperatures require a good understanding of the prevalence and activity of thermophilic microorganisms [22]. These thermophiles, consisting of bacteria, archaea, and fungi, have adapted to the geothermal nature of oil field reservoirs and the additional heat generated during extraction. Their metabolic activities produce corrosive substances, which can instigate and accelerate MIC processes [23]. To address these challenges, a thorough microbial analysis is essential, including identifying thermophilic species and evaluating their metabolic pathways. This knowledge is vital for developing targeted mitigation strategies that are tailored to the specific risks posed by thermophilic MIC.
5.1.3 Materials considerations
When designing infrastructure for oil fields, it is important to consider the impact of high temperatures on materials. The heat generated by geothermal properties and extraction processes can affect the corrosion resistance of materials. This means careful selection of materials and tailored corrosion management strategies are crucial. High temperatures can speed up corrosion reactions and harm protective layers on metal surfaces, which can compromise the integrity of critical components [76]. To address this, materials that resist high-temperature corrosion, such as nickel-based alloys, stainless steels, and corrosion-resistant coatings, should be chosen [77]. Corrosion management strategies should also be tailored to the thermal environment and involve proactive monitoring, the use of high-temperature corrosion inhibitors, and routine inspection and maintenance [78]. This comprehensive approach aims to mitigate the impact of elevated temperatures on materials and ensure the reliability and longevity of critical components in the oil and gas industry.
5.2 Elevated salinity
5.2.1 Increased conductivity
High salinity can complicate matters in oil field environments by introducing complexities to MIC. The salts present in these settings have a dual role, where they enhance the conductivity of aqueous solutions, facilitating electrochemical reactions on metal surfaces, and at the same time, actively participate in corrosion reactions, aggravating the corrosive impact on metal infrastructure. The report of Smith et al. [79] revealed that increasing salinity elevates the corrosion rate in steel grades, as observed through potentiodynamic polarization scans. Higher salinity enhances solution conductivity, leading to intensified anodic metal dissolution. Stainless steels exhibit marginal increases in total volume loss and outer area volume loss, indicative of the corrosion-enhanced mechanical damage (CEMD) mechanism dominance. Conversely, low-alloy steel experiences significant total volume loss up to 3.5%NaCl, indicating mechanical damage-enhanced corrosion (MDEC) dominance at lower salinities, suppressed at 10%NaCl due to a protective oxide layer. Surface analysis shows smoother surfaces in stainless steels and rougher surfaces in low-alloy steel, except at 10%NaCl, where the surface becomes smoother and more compact.
The heightened electrochemical activity, induced by the synergy of high salinity and microbial byproducts, can lead to accelerated corrosion rates [11]. Microbial metabolic activities usually produce corrosive substances such as organic acids and hydrogen sulfide [80]. When these byproducts are present in high salinity, they have an even more pronounced corrosive effect, contributing to localized corrosion and potentially compromising the integrity of critical infrastructure within oil fields [79]. It is crucial to understand this interplay and tailor effective corrosion management strategies that address the combined challenges of high salinity and microbial activities to manage corrosion effectively in such an environment.
5.2.2 Formation of corrosive salts
High-salinity oil field environments are affected by the levels of salinity, which impact the types of salts present and electrochemical processes. Chlorides are highly corrosive salts that can cause corrosion reactions on metal surfaces by penetrating protective oxide layers [81]. The report of Abbas and Shafiee [82] revealed that seawater contains chloride ions that can speed up the process of corrosion by creating corrosive salts on the surface of the metal. These salts can infiltrate the protective oxide layer and destabilize the passive film, which can lead to pitting corrosion. The concentration of chloride ions varies depending on the depth, temperature, and salinity of the seawater, as well as the location and seasonal changes. Therefore, the creation of corrosive salts is highly influenced by the environmental conditions of the marine structure.
Salinity is a crucial factor that affects the diversity and composition of microbial communities in oil and gas pipelines. It can also impact the availability of nutrients and electron acceptors for microbial metabolism. SRB use sulfate as an electron acceptor and produce hydrogen sulfide, which can cause corrosion to metal. MIC occurs at the metal surface and biofilm interface. The article proposes that high salinity may hinder the growth and activity of SRB, thereby reducing the risk of MIC. However, the effectiveness of this strategy may depend on various factors such as the type and concentration of salts and the ability of SRB to adapt to different salinity levels [82]. The accumulation of chlorides and other corrosive byproducts creates a corrosive environment that demands careful attention to the complex interactions between salinity and microbial activities [81]. Addressing these challenges is essential for developing tailored and reliable corrosion management approaches in the harsh conditions of oil field environments.
5.2.3 Corrosion of specific materials
In environments with high salinity, the risk of corrosion becomes a critical concern, especially in oil fields. Carbon steel, a commonly used material in oil field infrastructure, is particularly vulnerable to corrosion in the presence of chloride ions [83]. The abundance of chloride ions in saline conditions increases the risk of corrosion, leading to issues such as pitting corrosion and stress corrosion cracking in carbon steel components [84]. The susceptibility of materials varies based on different salinity conditions, requiring a detailed understanding of how salinity, chloride ions, and microbial activities interact. To manage these challenges, a material-centric approach is crucial for effective corrosion management in high-salinity environments. This approach includes selecting corrosion-resistant materials, such as stainless steels and nickel-based alloys, applying protective coatings, and using inhibitors designed for chloride-rich conditions [85]. Regular inspection and maintenance routines further contribute to the longevity and reliability of materials in the demanding saline landscapes of oil field operations.
5.3 Hydrocarbons
5.3.1 Hydrocarbon-induced microbial activity
In oil fields, the coexistence of hydrocarbons and microbial activity creates a complex environment for corrosion. Hydrocarbons, abundant in oil-rich settings, are a vital carbon source for microorganisms, promoting their growth and metabolic activity [40]. This symbiotic relationship leads to the formation of microenvironments where the risk of localized corrosion is significantly higher. Microorganisms that thrive in oil fields feed on hydrocarbons, which sustain their populations and drive metabolic processes [39]. The utilization of hydrocarbons is fundamental to the oil field ecosystem, with various bacterial and fungal species adapting to thrive on these organic compounds. Hydrocarbons not only sustain microbial populations but also contribute to their metabolic activities. Microorganisms break down hydrocarbons into byproducts through hydrocarbon degradation [40].
According to a study by Groysman and Groysman [86], microbial activity induced by hydrocarbons can lead to corrosion in metallic constructions and equipment used in petroleum products. This is caused by the production of organic acids which lower the pH and make the environment more aggressive. Additionally, biofilms can form which create differential aeration cells and crevices, trapping corrosive substances. Furthermore, the production of hydrogen sulfide reacts with iron, forming iron sulfide. This is a porous and non-protective layer that enhances galvanic corrosion by creating anodic and cathodic areas on the metal surface. The article also suggests some preventive measures to control microbial corrosion. These include using biocides to kill or inhibit the growth of microorganisms, corrosion inhibitors to form a protective film on the metal surface, cathodic protection to reduce the corrosion potential of the metal, and coatings to isolate the metal from the corrosive environment [86].
5.3.2 Formation of microbial mats
Microbial mats are complex communities of microorganisms that form on surfaces that come in contact with water or moisture. They can cause the deterioration of metals through metabolic activities of microorganisms, such as fungi, algae, and bacteria. This phenomenon is known as microbial corrosion [40, 86]. If fuels are contaminated with microorganisms, it can result in microbial corrosion of metallic constructions and equipment in petroleum products, such as tanks, pipelines, and pumps. Microbial mats can cause localized corrosion by forming anodic and cathodic areas on the metal surface, producing acidic metabolites that reduce the pH and blocking oxygen access to the metal [86]. Additionally, microbial mats can also increase the corrosion caused by other factors, including water, oxygen, chloride, and sulfate. To prevent microbial corrosion, biocides, filters, coatings, cathodic protection, and regular cleaning of the equipment can be used.
These metabolic activities produce corrosive substances in some cases, initiating and progressing corrosion on metal surfaces within oil field infrastructure [39]. The interaction between hydrocarbons and microbial activity creates biofilm-covered surfaces that act as protective shields for microorganisms while simultaneously providing a corrosive environment. This intensifies the corrosive potential, accelerating localized corrosion within oil field components.
5.3.3 Corrosion in hydrocarbon processing facilities
In the transportation and processing of hydrocarbons, there are two main challenges to infrastructure—corrosion caused by hydrocarbons and microbial activity that thrives in their presence. Pipelines, crucial for hydrocarbon transport, are vulnerable to corrosion caused by the corrosive nature of conveyed fluids and microbial activities [87]. Hydrocarbons, especially those with impurities, can cause metal loss, pitting, and stress corrosion cracking on pipeline surfaces. At the same time, microbial communities fueled by carbon-rich hydrocarbons form biofilms and mats on the inner surfaces of pipelines, producing corrosive byproducts [88]. Tailored corrosion management involves proactive monitoring, corrosion-resistant materials, and inhibitors to address both chemical and microbial corrosion. Routine inspection and maintenance help maintain infrastructure integrity. Routine inspection and maintenance help maintain infrastructure integrity. To prevent microbial ingress, preventive measures such as biocide treatments and advanced monitoring are taken, safeguarding pipelines from microbial-induced corrosion. This creates a comprehensive approach to address the unique challenges posed by hydrocarbons and microbial activity in oil field environments [87].
5.4 Anaerobic conditions
5.4.1 Microbial preferences for anaerobic environments
In anaerobic oil field environments, SRBs thrive and contribute significantly to MIC. These bacteria have a unique metabolic pathway involving sulfate reduction, which produces corrosive H2S [20]. This colorless and toxic gas reacts with metal surfaces, forming corrosive sulfuric acid and accelerated corrosion processes. The adaptability of SRBs to anaerobic conditions makes their corrosive impact on oil field infrastructure even more significant [14].
Aside from direct metal attack, SRBs foster localized microenvironments conducive to corrosion. To mitigate MIC, it is essential to understand the metabolism of SRBs. Targeted strategies are crucial in limiting the corrosive consequences of SRBs driven by H2S production [22]. Proactive measures such as monitoring and inhibiting the activities of SRBs are vital to preserve the integrity of critical infrastructure. Understanding the complex interplay between SRBs, anaerobic conditions, and the formation of corrosive byproducts is fundamental to developing effective corrosion management strategies, thereby ensuring the longevity and reliability of oil field assets [14].
5.4.2 Localized corrosion in anaerobic zones
In the anaerobic zones of oil field infrastructure, a complex interplay occurs, which leads to localized corrosion, especially pitting [89]. These areas, which lack oxygen, become breeding grounds for microbial activity and biofilm formation, accumulating corrosive byproducts. Combining these factors creates an environment conducive to various forms of localized corrosion [69]. The hotspots within pipelines and underground reservoirs, where anaerobic conditions are prevalent, provide an ideal environment for microorganisms, particularly SRB, to thrive [14].
Microbial activity in anaerobic zones initiates the development of biofilms on metal surfaces, which contain microbial cells embedded in EPS [41]. As these biofilms mature, they act as protective shields for microorganisms and reservoirs for corrosive byproducts. The architecture of biofilms intensifies microbial metabolism, creating a battleground for localized corrosion [22]. Pitting corrosion, characterized by small yet deep cavities on metal surfaces, finds a suitable environment within these biofilm-covered anaerobic zones [89]. The collaboration of microbial activity, biofilm formation, and corrosive byproduct concentration heightens the vulnerability of critical components in oil field infrastructure to the risks of localized corrosion [22]. Understanding and managing these complexities become paramount for preserving the integrity and reliability of the infrastructure.
5.4.3 Importance of oxygen scavenging
To prevent corrosion in oil field infrastructure, it is essential to manage anaerobic conditions carefully. Oxygen can accelerate corrosion, so measures must be taken to limit intrusion [90]. This can be achieved by restricting oxygen ingress, using oxygen scavengers, and employing tailored corrosion inhibitors for anaerobic environments. Restricting oxygen infiltration involves sealing and maintaining the integrity of infrastructure. This emphasizes the importance of using corrosion-resistant coatings and tight seals, especially in pipelines and storage tanks [91].
Oxygen scavenging techniques can remove residual oxygen and prevent its intrusion. Compounds like sodium sulfite or hydrazine can be used, and regular monitoring and replenishment of these scavengers can enhance their effectiveness [92]. Al Helal et al. [92] explored erythorbic acid’s efficacy as an oxygen scavenger in 85% Thermally Aged Lean Mono Ethylene Glycol (TAL-MEG). The combination of erythorbic acid, manganese, and diethylethanolamine performed well under field conditions, indicating potential as a sulfite-based scavenger alternative in the oil and gas industry. However, its performance in TAL-MEG lagged compared to fresh MEG. The scavenger’s effectiveness was influenced by pH, with optimal results at pH 9 and 11. The presence of acetic acid, mineral salt ions, and organic acids had minimal impact at these pH levels, showcasing its potential for oxygen removal in specific conditions.
Corrosion inhibitors, specifically designed for anaerobic conditions, mitigate microbial activities. Nitrate or molybdate can disrupt microbial metabolic pathways or form protective layers on metal surfaces [93]. A holistic approach to corrosion management involves integrating these strategies, regular inspection, monitoring, and proactive maintenance. This multifaceted strategy ensures the prolonged integrity of critical infrastructure within the intricate landscapes of oil field operations.
5.5 Integrating environmental monitoring
5.5.1 Continuous environmental monitoring
Real-time monitoring of critical environmental parameters is crucial in assessing and mitigating corrosion risks in oil field environments. Advanced monitoring systems with sensors provide continuous surveillance by decoding correlations between changing environmental conditions and corrosion events [66]. Temperature, salinity, and hydrocarbon presence are the three parameters that shape the environmental backdrop and influence corrosion processes within oil field infrastructure [11]. Real-time monitoring of these parameters offers a comprehensive understanding of the conditions impacting critical components, influencing microbial activity, electrochemical reactions, and overall corrosive potential [67].
Continuous monitoring systems with precision sensors track temperature, salinity levels, and hydrocarbon influx [11]. These real-time data points, when analyzed, provide a holistic view of the environmental surroundings, enabling proactive corrosion management. The true strength of real-time monitoring lies in unraveling correlations between environmental parameters and corrosion events [66]. By scrutinizing large datasets, patterns and trends can be identified, offering valuable insights for predictive corrosion risk assessments.
With real-time data and a nuanced understanding of environmental influences, oil field operators can proactively respond to emerging corrosion risks [66]. Immediate adjustments, targeted corrosion mitigation, and timely maintenance become possible through insights gleaned from continuous monitoring, minimizing the impact of corrosion events and contributing to the overall integrity of oil field infrastructure.
5.5.2 Predictive modeling
In managing corrosion in oil field environments, it is essential to integrate environmental data into predictive models to prevent potential corrosion events. Real-time data combined with machine learning algorithms’ analytical capabilities allows operators to predict changes in environmental conditions, facilitating proactive and targeted corrosion management [66]. The first step is to incorporate diverse environmental data into comprehensive predictive models beyond temperature, salinity, and hydrocarbon presence [11, 94]. This includes microbial populations, pressure fluctuations, and soil composition.
Machine learning algorithms are highly effective in processing data and analyzing intricate interactions between environmental variables and corrosion events. They discern patterns that conventional analyses might overlook, employing supervised learning for pattern recognition or unsupervised learning for uncovering hidden correlations [73]. By training on historical data, these algorithms can identify precursors to corrosion events, allowing for proactive intervention [83]. With predictive insights, operators can implement strategies such as adjusting operational parameters and fine-tuning inhibitor programs, minimizing the impact of corrosion events, and preserving the integrity of oil field infrastructure [95].
In the ongoing battle against MIC in oil fields, biocides play a crucial role in controlling microbial growth and mitigating the corrosive impact of microorganisms [87, 96]. The selection of biocides depends on understanding the specific microbial species present and their susceptibility to different chemical agents. Commonly used biocides include oxidizing agents, quaternary ammonium compounds (quats), and organic acids [97, 98, 99].
Oxidizing agents disrupt microbial cell structures and metabolic pathways, inhibiting microbial growth [97]. Quats deliver a precise strike against various microorganisms, and organic acids inhibit microbial growth while forming a protective layer on metal surfaces [99]. The choice of biocide depends on factors such as effectiveness, environmental compatibility, and targeted microbial species. Microbial analysis helps identify specific microbial challenges, guiding the selection of biocides that can effectively target identified microorganisms. Proactive biocide application, guided by continuous monitoring of microbial populations and environmental conditions, is integral to preventing microbial challenges from escalating and mitigating the potential for MIC in oil field infrastructure [100].
6.1.2 Continuous monitoring and adjustment
Understanding the complex interaction between microbes and proactive biocide applications is critical in preventing MIC in oil fields [98]. Biocides such as oxidizing agents, quats, and organic acids are used judiciously, catering to specific microbial species and environmental conditions [99]. Oxidizing agents disrupt microbial structures, quats target cell membranes, and organic acids inhibit microbial growth while forming protective layers on metal surfaces [97, 98]. Achieving optimal MIC mitigation requires regular monitoring, combining traditional microbiological analysis with advanced molecular techniques. Regular assessments enable recalibration of biocide concentrations, considering evolving microbial populations and potential resistance [101]. This symbiotic vigilance extends to corrosion dynamics, ensuring real-time insights into corrosion rates and susceptibility. Continuous monitoring forms the cornerstone of a proactive defense strategy, preserving oil field infrastructure integrity against the ever-evolving microbial landscape.
6.1.3 Biofilm disruption strategies
In the complex world of MIC, biofilms act as strong fortresses, providing a protected environment for microorganisms to thrive and worsen the corrosive conditions [89]. To enhance the effectiveness of biocide treatments, targeting interventions against biofilm formation is essential. When combined in biocide formulations, surfactants, enzymes, and biofilm-disrupting chemicals work together to dismantle biofilm matrices, strengthen the defense against MIC in oil field environments, and mitigate the harmful impact of microbial activities. Biofilms are complex structures of microbial cells surrounded by EPS that create a resilient defense, shielding microorganisms and fostering their corrosive activities [19]. Disrupting the biofilm fortress is critical for effective MIC mitigation. The combination of surfactants, enzymes, and biofilm-disrupting chemicals integrated into biocide formulations provides a comprehensive and sustained attack on microbial populations [87, 96]. This multifaceted approach establishes a proactive paradigm for MIC defense in oil field operations, fortifying the overall efficacy of biocide treatments and mitigating the corrosive impact of microbial activities within the intricate oil field environment.
6.2 Corrosion inhibitors
6.2.1 Types of corrosion inhibitors
In the fight against MIC, corrosion inhibitors play a crucial role by forming protective shields on metal surfaces. Film-forming inhibitors, such as amines and phosphonates, create impermeable barriers that impede corrosive reactions and strengthen metal infrastructure against MIC [102]. Amines are versatile and adhere to metal surfaces, creating protective films tailored to specific metal characteristics and enhancing corrosion protection precision. Phosphonates, conversely, bond with metal surfaces and provide a corrosion-resistant shield that is effective in environments with dissolved salts and ions [102].
Inhibitors have a protective influence beyond visible surfaces and extend to concealed spaces within oil field infrastructure. Volatile Corrosion Inhibitors (VCIs), which operate in the vapor phase, release inhibiting compounds in gas form [103]. This vapor-phase defense permeates enclosed spaces, creating a protective atmosphere that shields metal surfaces from corrosion, even in hard-to-reach areas. The strategic selection and application of corrosion inhibitors, addressing the specific challenges posed by MIC, demonstrate a precision in corrosion defense that accommodates prevailing environmental conditions and microbial interactions with metal surfaces in oil fields [23].
6.2.2 Compatibility with oil field conditions
The selection of corrosion inhibitors is crucial to maintain the integrity of the equipment and ensure safety. High temperatures, elevated salinity, and the presence of hydrocarbons demand a meticulous selection process [11, 94]. The inhibitors should be tailored to withstand these challenges and provide long-lasting protection against MIC. Elevated temperatures require inhibitors to withstand the heat and form a robust shield against thermal damage. In high-salinity environments, corrosion inhibitors must be tailored to the saline realms for adequate MIC protection. Inhibitors must also consider the coexistence of hydrocarbons and microbial activity [94].
Formulations should be crafted to withstand the corrosive potential of hydrocarbons. The selection of corrosion inhibitors for oil field environments demands precision to ensure resistance to corrosion initiation and long-lasting protection against the insidious advances of MIC. This contributes to the durability of corrosion defense strategies in the ever-evolving realm of oil field operations.
6.2.3 Injection and continuous monitoring
Corrosion inhibitors protect metal integrity in oil field operations against MIC (microbiologically influenced corrosion). These inhibitors are strategically injected into fluid systems at vulnerable points, targeting potential corrosion hotspots based on fluid dynamics and susceptibility [104]. Real-time monitoring, using techniques such as electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, allows for precise adjustments to the injection rates of inhibitors, ensuring an optimized defense against evolving corrosion dynamics [66, 105]. This dynamic response, facilitated by continuous monitoring, enables tailored and efficient use of inhibitors that can adapt to the fluid nature of oil field operations. Additionally, real-time monitoring allows formulation modifications, which enables customization of the defense arsenal based on ongoing corrosion challenges. This integrated approach of continuous monitoring, an adjustment in injection rates, and formulation modifications optimize corrosion mitigation, preserving the durability of metal surfaces amidst the complexities of oil field environments [106].
6.3 Surface modifications
6.3.1 Application of coatings and claddings
The use of coatings and claddings is an effective way to prevent MIC and chemical corrosion in various industries. Coatings are formulated with inhibitors and antimicrobial agents, creating a protective layer on metal surfaces as a barrier against corrosive elements and preventing microbial attachment [107]. Claddings, on the other hand, involve applying an additional layer of corrosion-resistant material to increase the system’s overall resilience [108]. These measures are designed to withstand environmental challenges such as high temperatures and elevated salinity. Regular inspections and maintenance are crucial to ensure the continued effectiveness of coatings and claddings [109, 110]. By using these protective measures, not only are metal infrastructures safeguarded from MIC, but also the longevity and reliability of critical components in various industrial environments are ensured.
6.3.2 Incorporation of nanomaterials
Nanotechnology offers a ground-breaking solution to fight against MIC in oil fields. Antimicrobial nanomaterials containing silver nanoparticles are uniquely effective in disrupting microbial attachment and preventing corrosive biofilm formation on metal surfaces. These materials can be used in surface coatings, and they act as potent biofilm disruptors by breaking down cell membranes and metabolic processes due to their small size [111]. The advantage of their nanoscale size is that they can cover the expanded surface area and provide thorough protection against microbial threats by minimizing spaces for attachment and biofilm initiation. Moreover, antimicrobial nanomaterials, such as silver nanoparticles, release ions that have long-lasting antimicrobial effects, providing sustained defense against MIC [112]. This nanoscale revolution represents a cutting-edge approach in the ongoing battle to prevent corrosion in the intricate environments of oil field operations.
In the fight against MIC in oil fields, choosing materials with inherent corrosion resistance is crucial. Corrosion-resistant alloys, such as stainless steel and nickel-based alloys, are vital in fortifying the metal arsenal against microbial attacks [113]. Stainless steels, which have a high chromium content, form a protective chromium oxide layer that shields against corrosive agents. This makes them resistant to microbial corrosion, helping to maintain the integrity of metal infrastructure in MIC-prone environments [114]. On the other hand, nickel-based alloys are crafted with nickel and other strategic alloying elements, which offer robust resistance to various corrosive challenges. They excel in the face of microbial corrosion and can enhance the longevity of critical metal surfaces [115]. Evaluating the corrosion resistance of alloys in oil field conditions characterized by high temperatures, elevated salinity, and hydrocarbons is essential for an effective defense strategy tailored to the unique challenges of oil field operations.
6.4.2 Protective coatings and linings
Protective coatings play a crucial role in the ongoing battle against MIC in oil field environments by serving as sacrificial defenses. These coatings function like armor by absorbing the corrosive impact of microbial byproducts and diverting it away from underlying metal surfaces. By forming a protective layer, these coatings reduce the direct exposure of metal to corrosive elements, mitigating susceptibility to MIC. As a result, the coatings extend the lifespan of critical infrastructure in oil field operations [116].
The efficacy of protective coatings relies on tailored formulations designed to withstand harsh oil field conditions, including high temperatures, elevated salinity, and the presence of hydrocarbons [83, 117]. Corrosion inhibitors, antimicrobial agents, and other additives are incorporated into these formulations to enhance their protective properties [118]. These coatings are indispensable in the fight against MIC as they contribute to prolonged infrastructure integrity, cost savings in maintenance, and the overall reliability and safety of oil field structures.
6.5 Cathodic protection
6.5.1 Impressed current and galvanic systems
In the fight against MIC in oil field environments, cathodic protection is a powerful defense strategy. This technique involves applying a direct electrical current to metal surfaces, creating a strong barrier against microbial corrosion [119]. Both impressed current and galvanic systems use sacrificial anodes in oil fields to counter electrochemical reactions and provide a robust defense against MIC [120, 121]. Impressed current systems apply a controlled electrical current externally to protect vulnerable metal surfaces, while galvanic systems with sacrificial anodes sacrifice themselves to protect primary metal infrastructure [119]. Tailored for oil field challenges like high temperatures, elevated salinity, and hydrocarbon presence, cathodic protection disrupts electrochemical reactions caused by microbial processes and prevents corrosion progression [122]. This technique helps maintain infrastructure integrity, reduces maintenance costs, and enhances safety in oil field operations, showcasing its positive impact on metal resilience against microbial corrosion.
6.5.2 Monitoring and adjustment
Effective MIC prevention in oil field environments requires using cathodic protection systems. However, their efficiency depends on continuous monitoring. Potential measurements and current density assessments are the two key techniques used for this purpose [123]. Potential measurements indicate the potential difference between the metal structure and a reference electrode, which helps assess the level of protection. Any deviations observed prompt necessary adjustments to maintain effective shielding against MIC. On the other hand, current density assessments measure electrical current per unit area, which ensures optimal cathodic protection without risking under-protection or over-protection [124]. This proactive approach of continuous monitoring and necessary adjustments ensures the durability and reliability of metal infrastructure in oil field environments, countering the unseen microbial corrosion onslaught.
6.6 Inspection and maintenance
6.6.1 Regular inspection protocols
To combat MIC in oil fields, it is essential to have proactive inspection protocols in place for early detection and intervention. Ultrasonic testing, which uses high-frequency sound waves, can detect changes in material thickness caused by corrosion, enabling targeted interventions before MIC worsens [125]. Electromagnetic inspection also helps with early detection by identifying metal loss and irregularities in pipelines and tanks through methods like Eddy current testing and magnetic flux leakage [63]. Visual inspections are also crucial and involve direct observation to detect visible signs of corrosion and biofilm formation [126]. Proactive protocols also include biofilm surveillance through techniques such as microelectrode arrays and scanning electrochemical microscopy, which provide a detailed picture of the corrosion landscape [127]. Early detection, facilitated by these protocols, is crucial for mitigating the insidious progression of MIC and ensuring a resilient defense against the pervasive corrosion orchestrated by microorganisms in oil field environments.
6.6.2 Integrating MIC detection technologies
Including MIC-specific detection technologies in routine inspection procedures is a significant advancement in the fight against corrosion in oil field environments. This strategy combines microbial analysis using advanced techniques such as PCR and next-generation sequencing with corrosion monitoring techniques like EIS and potentiodynamic polarization [49, 128]. The use of MIC-specific detection technologies helps unravel the complexities of microbial and corrosion processes, providing operators with a comprehensive understanding of the corrosion landscape. By combining these techniques, maintenance efforts can be directed toward areas where microbial influences are most pronounced, enabling a proactive defense against the corrosive forces in oil field operations [128]. These technologies’ continuous refinement and seamless integration contribute to a resilient future, empowering operators to stay ahead of MIC and manage corrosion effectively within oil field landscapes.
6.6.3 Preventive maintenance practices
Preventive maintenance practices are crucial in the fight against MIC in oil field infrastructure [129, 130]. Reactive measures are insufficient; a proactive approach is necessary to anticipate and eliminate conditions that may lead to corrosion. Key strategies include cleaning and flushing systems to target biofilms, sediment, and corrosion byproducts, known triggers for MIC [46]. Preventive maintenance practices disrupt biofilm fortifications, making microorganisms vulnerable and impeding their corrosive orchestration [130]. Flushing systems and clearing sediment break the symbiotic relationship between microorganisms and their environment, preventing corrosion initiation [46]. By removing corrosion triggers, preventive practices create an environment that is not conducive to MIC.
Based on sustainability, this proactive approach systematically eradicates conditions favorable to microbial corrosion, thus safeguarding the structural integrity of oil field infrastructure. Preventive maintenance practices, integrated into holistic corrosion management, increase resilience against the persistent challenges posed by microbial influences. Operators and the environment share responsibility for a proactive defense in this collaborative approach, fostering a balanced ecosystem within oil field operations.
6.7 Research and development
6.7.1 Innovations in materials and technologies
In the ongoing battle against MIC, research and development (R&D) efforts play a crucial role in developing superior defense strategies. Nanotechnology, biocide formulations, and corrosion-resistant materials emerge transformative pillars in this dynamic landscape [107, 131].
Nanotechnology introduces engineered nanomaterials that actively deter microbial attachment and impede biofilm formation when integrated into coatings and surface treatments. Simultaneously, ongoing research refines biocide formulations, optimizing chemical agents to target specific microbial species associated with MIC [132]. The strategic integration of oxidizing agents, quaternary ammonium compounds, and organic acids enhances biocides, making them precision instruments in combating MIC [99].
Defenses are further fortified in corrosion-resistant materials, where ongoing research in metallurgy produces alloys engineered to withstand microbial corrosion. This paradigm shift emphasizes sustainability, aligning innovations with environmental stewardship. The collaborative efforts between industry and research reinforce the resilience of oil field infrastructure against MIC as breakthroughs find practical applications [133]. As ongoing research shapes a future beyond MIC, the commitment to nurturing innovation remains perpetual in the quest for materials and technologies capable of outsmarting microbial corrosion.
6.7.2 Integration of environmental monitoring
In the fight against MIC in oil fields, adaptability is becoming increasingly important with the introduction of innovative environmental monitoring technologies. Real-time sensors and predictive modeling act as conductors, fine-tuning data to enhance tailored mitigation strategies [134]. This integration represents a shift toward a responsive and adaptive approach, enabling the industry to adapt to the ever-changing conditions in oil fields.
Real-time sensors continuously provide valuable insights into critical parameters such as temperature, salinity, and microbial activity, transforming corrosion management into a dynamic process [135]. Fueled by historical data and real-time inputs, predictive modeling can forecast future microbial corrosion dynamics, empowering proactive strategy tailoring [94]. The combination of real-time sensors and predictive modeling creates a virtuous cycle of proactive and adaptive corrosion management [136]. By embracing these advancements, the industry can position itself for a future where technology works harmoniously with the dynamic rhythm of oil field conditions in the ongoing fight against MIC.
The industry has identified vital insights and imperative steps to tackle this complex phenomenon during the extensive exploration of microbiologically influenced corrosion (MIC) in oil fields. It is influenced by various factors, including microbial processes, environmental conditions, and material factors, and therefore requires a holistic approach. The industry must integrate multifaceted strategies such as biocide treatments, corrosion inhibitors, materials selection, cathodic protection, and ongoing inspection and maintenance to combat MIC challenges effectively. Environmental conditions, such as high temperatures, elevated salinity, hydrocarbons, and anaerobic environments, shape the corrosion landscape. It is crucial to monitor these conditions through advanced detection techniques for early intervention.
Detection and monitoring tools include microbiological analysis, corrosion monitoring, and advanced inspection technologies, providing the industry with indispensable tools to avoid potential MIC challenges. Mitigation strategies, such as biocide treatments, corrosion inhibitors, surface modifications, and cathodic protection, safeguard against MIC. Materials selection, incorporating corrosion-resistant alloys and innovative coatings, is pivotal for fortifying infrastructure against microbial attack. The industry is encouraged to adopt technological advancements in microbial ecology, nanotechnology, and environmental monitoring to enhance MIC management.
The industry and academia can collaborate on initiatives, advancements in microbial ecology, nanotechnology, and sustainable biocide strategies to underscore ongoing research efforts. Embracing innovation, fostering collaboration, prioritizing sustainability, and investing in talent and knowledge dissemination are imperative steps for the industry. By charting a course that integrates cutting-edge technologies, sustainable practices, and collaborative initiatives, the oil and gas sector can fortify its infrastructure against the persistent threat of microbiologically influenced corrosion, ensuring the integrity and safety of oil field operations.
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Written By
Olushola Olufemi Odeyemi and Peter Adeniyi Alaba
Submitted: 22 March 2024Reviewed: 23 March 2024Published: 28 April 2024
Open access peer-reviewed chapter - ONLINE FIRST
