The Role of the Non-Governmental Organisations and Volunteers in Organising Support for Ukrainian Refugees: The Case Study from Slovakia

Abstract

This chapter examines the role of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and volunteers in organising support for Ukrainian refugees, focusing on a case study from Slovakia. Since the onset of unprovoked Russian aggression, more than 13 million individuals have fled Ukraine, leading to a massive refugee crisis. Civil society, including NGOs, volunteers and active citizens, played a crucial role in Slovakia. The study analyses the structure of the support system for people arriving from Ukraine to Slovakia, focusing on spontaneous assistance, adaptation and integration stages. It also explores the involvement of NGOs in communication with the government and data from representative research on volunteer engagement in the Ukrainian refugee crisis. These analyses demonstrate that NGOs and volunteers played a pivotal role in responding to the crisis, providing humanitarian aid and supporting the integration of Ukrainian refugees in Slovakia. The chapter also emphasises the importance of a sustainable financial environment for NGOs and the need for a more systematic response from public authorities to support refugees.

1. Introduction

Since the commencement of the unprovoked Russian aggression, more than 13 million individuals have fled Ukraine. Approximately 6.3 million are officially recognised as refugees, while another 5.9 million benefit from temporary protection or similar national safeguard programmes in various European countries [1]. In Slovakia, the crucial role in the first stages of the war and later in the Ukrainian refugee integration was played by civil society—its formal part consisted of non-governmental organisations, and the informal part consisted of volunteers, active citizens and informal groups. Also, Ukrainians living in Slovakia before the war had an essential role. The civil society filled the gap in the crisis and migration management systems and influenced the national policy and strategies in several cases. The chapter contains an analysis of the structure of the support system for people coming from Ukraine to Slovakia, focusing on the scope of actions taken by the non-governmental organisations and volunteers. The chapter reflects the stage of spontaneous assistance, the adaptation stage and the integration stage. It also analyses the involvement of NGOs in communication with the government and data from representative research about the involvement of volunteers in the Ukrainian refugee crisis.

2. Specifics of the Ukrainian crisis in the Slovakian context

While the refugee crisis triggered by the war in Ukraine is not the inaugural instance in EU countries, its nature sets it apart. In the case of Slovakia, this crisis represents its first encounter with a natural refugee crisis. The distinct characteristics of the Ukrainian refugee crisis stem from several factors elucidated by Bird and Amaglobeli [2], Garcés Mascareñas [3] and OECD [4]. Firstly, the departure’s size, speed and proximity mark a significant departure, distinguishing it from distant conflicts. Secondly, cultural and social proximity plays a pivotal role, evident in the atypical profile of arrivals, primarily highly skilled women with children and a notable proportion with tertiary education. Thirdly, recent migration history, including prior Ukrainian worker migration to the EU and visa-free travel since 2017, has fostered strong Ukrainian social networks across Europe, particularly in bordering countries like Slovakia. These networks proved invaluable during the initial spontaneous response to the war and subsequent months of local-level refugee support—Slovakia’s adoption of an open border policy also marks a significant departure this time. EU member states have decided to enforce the long-unused Temporary Protection Directive, allowing collective temporary protection without individual asylum assessments. This streamlines immediate access to protection and a wide array of rights, encompassing work, education and healthcare. Furthermore, the Directive permits the territorial distribution of refugees, considering not only member states’ reception preferences but also the refugees’ desires. Additionally, there is a widespread expectation that Ukrainians fleeing the war will eventually return post-conflict.

Moreover, the response in recipient countries like Slovakia has been unprecedented. The crisis has elicited remarkable political and public support, triggering an extraordinary mobilisation of institutions, organisations and individuals within host communities, surpassing familial and friendship networks. Instances of volunteers assisting at borders, information points and train stations and offering transportation or accommodation underscore this exceptional solidarity, a phenomenon hitherto unseen in Slovakia.

Before the Ukrainian refugee crisis, Slovakia lacked experience in hosting large-scale war and humanitarian refugees compared to other European countries and was not a traditional destination country for migrants. It is a culturally homogeneous country, untouched by the dramatic increase in migration during the twentieth century. Until recently, Slovakia was almost exclusively a country of origin of migrants, that is, a country from which citizens migrated abroad for various reasons. Even though the growth in the population of foreigners in Slovakia was the second highest among all EU Member States between 2004 and 2008, the representation of foreigners in the population remains low compared to other EU countries. The population development of foreigners in Slovakia from 2020 until 2023 is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Foreigners and foreigners from Ukraine in Slovakia since 2020. Source: [5].

In December 2020, the number of foreigners with a residence permit in Slovakia was 150,012. Their share in the population of Slovakia was 2.75%. In 2021, this number was 167,519, with a share in the population of 3.08%; in 2022, it was already 278,595 foreigners, which accounted for 5.13% of the population of Slovakia. In 2023, it was 311,406 people. This represented a 5.74% share of the total population of Slovakia. Of the number of foreigners granted residency, a significant majority were citizens of Ukraine. For example, in 2023, they accounted for 56.69% [5]. Before the influx of Ukrainian refugees, Slovakia had also never encountered such many foreigners who did not speak their native language and was known for its long-standing, hard-line policies against receiving migrants and refugees. Between 2010 and 2023, 5203 asylum applications were submitted in Slovakia, of which 406 were granted asylum, and 650 were granted subsidiary protection as an additional form of international protection [6]. In 2020, alongside Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic, Slovakia opposed a Commission plan to distribute asylum seekers across EU member states and criticised proposals for overhauling the European Union’s flawed migration and asylum rules. However, as Mesežnikov [7] highlighted, Slovakia’s approach to the war in Ukraine differed significantly. Slovakia unequivocally supported Ukraine in the conflict, offering comprehensive assistance, including military aid, vehemently condemning Russian aggression and taking a proactive stance against the standard EU policy. The situation remains uncertain; it is unclear what will be declared and implemented by the Slovakian government regarding the support to Ukraine, given the potential shift towards a more pro-Russia direction following the 2023 elections.

Slovakia shares approximately 730 kilometres of border with Ukraine, which has witnessed the passage of over 2.29 million Ukrainian refugees since February 2022. While the majority continued westward, the number remaining in Slovakia remains relatively high, notably surpassing the local average of migrants from the previous year. By the end of December 2023, Eurostat [8] reported 114,225 refugees from Ukraine registered with temporary protection in Slovakia. Even those who eventually journeyed westward still required vital assistance during their initial hours or days, including provisions such as food, water, healthcare, basic shelter or transportation.

The crucial role during the early stages of the war and later in the integration process of Ukrainian refugees was played by civil society. This included formal actors such as non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and informal participants such as volunteers, active citizens and informal groups. Additionally, pre-war Ukrainian residents in Slovakia played an essential role. Slovakian civil society filled critical gaps in crisis and migration management systems and influenced national policies and strategies.

The chapter is prepared based on the analysis of the literature and existing reports in the field and the experiences of authors from the field. The analysis of the volunteer involvement during the crisis is based on the selected results of the research ‘Volunteering in Time of Crisis in Slovakia’. The research coordinator is the co-author of the chapter. The survey was carried out using the method of personal inquiry recorded in an electronic device (CAPI). The selection was carried out using the quota sampling method, with sex, age, education, nationality, size of the place of residence and region of residence as the quota characteristics. The collection took place from 31 October to 8 November 2023. Data was collected on 1020 Slovak residents aged 18 and older (48% male, 52% female; age groups: 18–24 years 9%, 25–34 years 17%, 35–44 years 20%, 45–54 years 18%, 55–64 years 16%, 65 and more 21%).

2.1 Non-governmental organisations’ contribution to organising support for Ukrainian refugees in Slovakia

The NGO sector in Slovakia, considered ‘modern’, is relatively nascent, experiencing a resurgence after the dissolution of socialism in 1989. However, the country boasts a rich history of non-governmental and volunteer activities dating back to the twelfth century. Throughout the twentieth century, Slovakia underwent numerous regime changes, enduring eight currency reforms and nine constitutions, navigating through various political systems, including parliamentary democracy, fascism, Stalinism, ‘normalisation’, socialism and the post-communist return to democracy. Despite this tumultuous history, NGOs flourished in Slovakia [9]. Presently, there is a discernible shift in the perception of the NGO sector, transitioning from its institutionalised form to a landscape characterised by a multitude of non-institutional and informal initiatives and processes [10, 11, 12]. These initiatives undergo rapid changes, disappearances and emergences over time. Slovakia is home to approximately 60,000 registered NGOs; however, based on research in 2019 [13], only one-third are active, operating across various domains such as public health, social services, sports, culture, education, welfare and the environment. One of the essential fields of the NGO sector is working with migrants and in humanitarian help. However, before the Ukrainian crisis, only several organisations were active in this area [13].

NGOs are indispensable partners in governance during crises, often assuming roles as first responders and service providers. According to Sandberg [14], traditional theories regarding the non-profit sector suggest that NGOs emerge in response to the absence of necessary social welfare and support typically not provided by public or private institutions during non-crisis periods. During refugee crises, NGOs serve as frontline responders due to their capacity for swift and reactive action, offering humanitarian aid and social support and advocating for refugees in the public sphere [15]. They play a pivotal role in managing refugee protection by bridging the gap that commonly exists between normative frameworks for refugee protection and the unwillingness or inability of state authorities to fulfil their corresponding obligations. Various civil society networks, ranging from loosely organised social movements to established NGOs dedicated to refugee protection, are prevalent in this context. The research underscores the ambiguous role and function of NGOs in refugee protection. While NGOs undoubtedly contribute to refugee protection efforts, they also grapple with concerns about potential exploitation and being burdened with tasks that ideally should be undertaken by public authorities and state agencies. Moreover, research highlights diverse characteristics and arrangements within organised civil society engagement [16].

Examining the scale of help and support for refugees from Ukraine from NGOs and volunteers in Slovakia, it is also essential to reflect on the stage and degree of advancement of the ongoing refugee crisis and expectations concerning when the conflict will end. The needs, their scale and how they are met, and provided support and activities of NGOs vary at different stages. The information below reflects the stage of spontaneous assistance and, in part, the adaptation stage, which, depending on how the situation on the frontline develops and whether the refugees from Ukraine stay in Slovakia, is gradually turning into the integration stage.

2.2 Support of NGOs in the first stages of the Ukrainian crisis

The spontaneous aid stage after the war in Ukraine started in February 2022 was dominated in Slovakia by grassroots initiatives, an unprecedented, rapid social effort on a massive scale and ad hoc support for these processes from local governments and the central authorities. Managing the beginning of the refugee crisis in Slovakia took immense effort; it was speedy, flexible and based on cooperation among non-profit sectors, volunteers and governmental structures.

During the initial phase of the crisis, the primary focus was on supplying clothing, food and hygiene products and funding immediate expenses, alongside crucial logistics such as transporting refugees from border areas to towns within Slovakia or beyond. Providing accommodation for thousands of refugees emerged as one of the most daunting challenges. Additionally, refugees required basic information about their rights and available options, often necessitating psychological support during the crisis. Over time, the needs of Ukrainian refugees opting to remain in Slovakia underwent evolution.

Mishchuk and Vlasenko [17] underscored the critical role of NGOs in complementing government support for Ukrainian refugees and, in instances where governmental efforts were lacking, substituting them altogether. As primary service providers, NGOs acted as frontline responders during the Ukrainian migration crisis in Slovakia. In the initial days and weeks following the outbreak of the Russian invasion, NGOs in Slovakia swiftly mobilised to aid refugees both at the borders and within local communities, outpacing the central government’s response. Their pragmatic approach and extensive networks facilitated rapid and efficient provision of immediate assistance to those affected. Moreover, NGOs in Slovakia possessed valuable expertise in working with refugees and managing crises, cultivated through partnerships with international organisations.

As Bryan et al. [18] concluded, NGOs play a crucial role in collaborating, mobilising supporters and offering direct financial and material assistance in response to refugee crises. The adaptability and agility of NGOs are attributed to their flexible management structures, the absence of bureaucratic hurdles and their commitment to core values. The dedication of NGO personnel fosters a willingness to work tirelessly and selflessly, driven by pro-social values, even without adequate resources and tangible rewards. While NGO workers may demonstrate a readiness to extend beyond their comfort zones to aid forced migrants during crises, a sustainable governance framework cannot rely solely on such efforts in the long run.

NGOs in Slovakia engaged not only in providing humanitarian aid at border points, information centres and local communities but also in facilitating housing, language education, employment services and various forms of psychological and social support for Ukrainian refugees, aiding in their adaptation and integration into host societies. Many NGOs also focused on fostering social cohesion, directing their efforts towards Ukrainian refugees and the host community. Notably, several pivotal NGOs were established by Ukrainians already residing in Slovakia or by refugees from Ukraine themselves.

As Baszczak et al. [19] indicated, the adaptation phase witnessed an increase in the state’s involvement and a corresponding decrease in the role of civil society. During this stage, refugees are integrated into the state and welfare systems, accessing essential services within the existing public policy framework. Given that a significant portion of Ukrainian refugees comprise women, children and the elderly, their primary needs at this juncture include access to healthcare, education and legal employment opportunities. Consequently, the second phase of assistance necessitates additional resources, institutional support and considerably higher financial investments, which must be provided systematically, continuously and continuously monitored. NGOs in Slovakia remained active during this stage, enabled by support from the EU and major international organisations such as UNICEF, UNHCR and MIOM, to offer more comprehensive services to aid in the adaptation process for Ukrainian refugees.

An essential stride during this period involved the adaptation of strategic documents addressing the impact of the conflict in Ukraine. These documents were developed in Slovakia through close collaboration between the state, local governments and NGOs. As underscored by several NGOs, the refugee influx from Ukraine marked a new phase of cooperation between NGOs and the state in Slovakia. Although Slovakia had an existing strategy for integrating foreigners on its territory (the Migration Policy of the Slovak Republic with a view to 2025), the government of Slovakia formulated an Action Plan for Managed Integration, developed in cooperation with public administration bodies, municipalities and NGOs. The Action Plan encompasses 12 key integration areas, defining 36 tasks for state and local authorities while also leveraging the capacities and expertise of non-governmental organisations. These tasks encompass coordination, data collection and evaluation, public and migrant communication, housing, education, employment, healthcare, mental health support, legislation, community and social work, access to justice and cultural integration. In October 2022, the Ministry of the Interior of the Slovak Republic approved a comprehensive Contingency Plan for the period October 2022–March 2023 to address the emergency arising from the mass arrival of Ukrainian refugees. Furthermore, the Ministry of the Interior of the Slovak Republic entered into a Memorandum of Cooperation with 11 NGOs actively engaged in the refugee crisis, outlining a coordinated approach between the state and the NGO sector in response to potential escalations in the influx of refugees fleeing the military conflict in Ukraine.

Two years following the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Slovakia is currently navigating the integration phase of its refugee crisis. During this period, stakeholders across various levels are collaboratively devising strategies to facilitate the permanent and effective inclusion of refugees into society. This involves fostering seamless integration within schools, public institutions, the labour market and other spheres while also mitigating tensions between host communities and Ukrainian refugees. The overarching objective of this phase is to cultivate a cohesive society where individuals from diverse ethnic and cultural backgrounds amalgamate into a unified entity, underpinned by equality.

Community work emerges as a pivotal instrument for integration, historically evolving in response to the repercussions of migration. Its primary aim is to nurture and fortify the collective fabric of communities. Central to community work is the promotion of empowerment and motivation within existing communities or the construction of nascent ones. Community work focusing on interconnection and cooperation between communities can help achieve social inclusion and reduce stereotypes and prejudices. Such community work is essential not only for minority communities but also for the majority community, as it contributes to diversity, tolerance and social cohesion in society. Cooperation and understanding between communities can lead to mutual benefits and harmonious coexistence [20].

The lion’s share of services facilitating the integration of Ukrainian refugees in Slovakia is orchestrated by NGOs with extensive experience in community work with refugees and other marginalised groups. Additionally, informal groups of proactive individuals, spurred by the conflict in Ukraine, and composed of foreign community members or organisations primarily uniting Ukrainian citizens, play a significant role in integration efforts. To bolster integration, NGOs in Slovakia collaborate with relevant stakeholders to organise cultural exchanges, intercultural workshops and training sessions; establish safe and inclusive spaces; coordinate collective community endeavours; implement mentoring programs; encourage participation in volunteer initiatives and deliver services for disadvantaged groups of Ukrainian refugees.

Since in Slovakia, there were no stable conditions for the functioning of NGOs and their financial sustainability, it was necessary to set up a system of systematic financial support for organisations at the national and local level that provide these services, whether they are organisations that have been providing these services for a long time or emerging initiatives that come from active citizens or foreigners, in order to sustain these activities. The recommendations summarised in the policy paper ‘Proposals for Solutions’ [21] as a result of the cooperation of organisations with long-standing experience and know-how in the area of the integration of foreigners and the provision of humanitarian aid stated that when setting the financial-administrative framework, it is vital to support communities in their functioning, self-realisation and development—for example, through various support schemes aimed at the establishment of community integration centres and the creation of projects and events, artistic collaborations, capacity building and awareness raising.

Thanks to the active involvement of the cooperation of the Ministry of Interiors Slovak Republic, the Office for Plenipotentiary for Civil Society Development and representatives of NGOs established the EU CARE in 2022. The program was created as a response of the state and independent foundations to the crisis situation after the outbreak of Russian war aggression in Ukraine and represented a unique model of cooperation between the state and the non-governmental sector, which provided a significant amount of funding for humanitarian and integration activities. In addition, it set a major precedent—an independent consortium of 6 foundations redistributed European money from Slovak public funds for the first time in history. The Open Society Foundation Bratislava, as the leader of the consortium, together with five other foundations, redistributed more than EUR 9.5 million in 2023 to NGOs assisting refugees from Ukraine. Within the national EU CARE project (Assistance to persons from Ukraine in their entry and integration in the territory of the Slovak Republic—NGOs), 110 organisations have received financial support. The financial aid form included more than just a contribution to the performance of professional and assistance activities. Organisations that involved volunteers in their activities could also apply for a flat-rate contribution for their coordination as partial compensation for the costs incurred by the organisations in assisting. On 14 December 2023, a new plan for the national project ‘Integration of third-country nationals, including migrants’ was approved, which should continuously build on the activities of the EU CARE project. This national project should be implemented between 2024 and 2026 under the leadership of the Ministry of Labour, Social Affairs and Family in partnership with the Office of the Government Plenipotentiary for Civil Society Development [22].

2.3 Role of volunteers in response to the Ukrainian refugee crisis

Aid for sudden events such as the refugee crisis often emerges spontaneously, disorganised and involving creativity. In the initial phase, aid was spontaneous and very little organised [19]. On 25 February, volunteers started to bring the first supplies of water, food and clothing to the border crossings, but they also started to set up tents, which was inevitable given the time of year [23]. In addition to humanitarian aid, money was also collected. These often served as pocket money for refugees who continued westward [24]. Slovakia has also had to focus much more on internal transport and the movement of refugees, not only on the transfer of refugees within the country but also on their transfer outside Slovakia [25]. An essential element, although very limited, was mainly the provision of at least basic information by volunteers. The information concerned how and where they could travel, whether any accommodation was possible and so forth. Over time, with the addition of legislation, accommodation and other options, the information started to become more comprehensive. Also, many volunteers were Ukrainians who had voluntarily immigrated before the war and provided essential information and support. Volunteers could join NGOs or municipalities that operated on borders or at the local level.

According to a representative survey conducted as part of the Volunteering in Slovakia in Times of Crisis 2023 project, 20.7% of respondents over 18 have volunteered to help resolve the crisis in Ukraine. Most volunteers have been involved in informal volunteering activities without being mediated or managed by an organisation. Of the people volunteering to help resolve the crisis in Ukraine, 40.3% were engaged in informal volunteering, 28.4% were volunteering within organisations and 31.3% were carrying out formal and informal volunteering activities.

Table 1 provides an overview of the time volunteers were involved in helping.

Involvement over time	Valid percent	Cumulative percent
Immediately after the outbreak of war, within two weeks	35.5	35.5
After 3 weeks after the war started	25.6	61.1
After more than a month	19.4	80.6
After more than 2 months	10.0	90.5
More than 3 months after the outbreak of the war	9.5	100.0

Table 1.

Involving volunteers in helping to resolve the crisis in Ukraine.

In the first four weeks, 61.1% of volunteers were involved in the crisis caused by the war in Ukraine. Within three months, 90.5% of them were involved, so it is clear that this is a response to a crisis. According to the research conducted in Slovakia in recent years on people’s involvement in volunteering activities, approximately one-third of the population has been involved in volunteering. According to research results in 2019, 36% of the adult population has engaged in formal volunteering, and 55% has been involved in informal volunteering in the last 12 months [13]. In 2023, according to the research Volunteering in Slovakia in Times of Crisis, 34.2% of the adult population was involved in formal and 52.7% in informal volunteering. Although the percentage of people involved in volunteering for the resolution of the crisis in Ukraine is lower than the overall percentage of people involved in volunteering activities, since the surveys always track involvement over a more extended period (12 months) and in the case of the crisis, it is involvement in a short time and for a specific purpose, the data shows an actual increase in solidarity in the form of volunteering [13].

In addition to volunteering activities, people in Slovakia have also engaged in other forms of assistance in favour of the resolution of the Ukraine crisis. 36.5% of respondents to the Volunteering in Slovakia during the crisis survey declared that they made a financial or material donation in favour of the resolution of the Ukraine crisis, 2.2% provided premises or accommodation, 28.4% made a material donation and 14.2% made a financial donation.

As an example of grassroots assistance and NGOs in the 1 year since the outbreak of war in Ukraine, we present data from a report prepared by the Office of the Government Plenipotentiary for Civil Society Development in Slovakia based on data collection from 160 NGOs. During the monitoring period February 2022 - February 2023, the following can be noted:

• the volume of financial collections in total amounted to 17.070.460 Euro;

• the volume of humanitarian aid totalled 13,782.71 tonnes;

• number of man-hours of volunteer work: 497,599 man-hours;

• man-hours of integration activities: 676,925 man-hours;

• Approximate total value of the work done by volunteers and integration experts: € 4,357,484.04 (calculated using the minimum wage coefficient of 3.71 Euro);

• Number of volunteers involved through NGOs by month: year 2022: February to April: 6944, May: 4380, June: 1284, July: 1053, August: 1015, September: 683, October: 634, November: 645 and December: 586. Year 2023: January: 682, February: 688 [26].

The support of volunteers continues in the integration phase of refugees. However, their involvement is more through the organisations and more managed, and volunteers are involved in various support programmes focused on integration.

3. Discussion and conclusion

The situation in the V4 countries, culturally close to Slovakia, was similar to Slovakia’s, but there were also some differences. The spontaneous aid stage was dominated in all V4 countries (Slovakia, Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic) by grassroots initiatives, an unprecedented, rapid social effort on a massive scale, and ad hoc support for these processes from local governments and central authorities. As stated by Mishchuk and Vlasenko in analyses dedicated to V4 countries, NGOs have proven to be critically important in supplementing government support to refugees from Ukraine (in the Czech Republic, Poland and Slovakia) or even substituting government efforts where the government has not been proactive (in Hungary) [17]. Despite the significant contribution of NGOs to the response to the Ukrainian refugee crisis and integration efforts, many organisations in V4 countries encountered numerous challenges. As highlighted in Kiss’s report [27], NGOs in Poland expressed concerns about volunteers feeling overwhelmed. The transition from volunteers to a professional workforce posed challenges, and all stakeholders struggled to scale up operations due to funding constraints, recruitment difficulties and organisational capacity limitations.

Hungary, Poland and the Czech Republic exhibited a robust initial display of solidarity in response to the influx of refugees, with ordinary citizens volunteering at border crossings and reception centres, offering spare rooms in their homes and donating money, food and clothing to refugees like Slovakia. As noted by Byrska, the mobilisation of Polish society and Ukrainians residing in Poland before the war played a crucial role in supporting war refugees from Ukraine [28]. According to the Polish Economic Institute, within the first 3 months following the onset of full-scale war, 77% of adult Poles engaged in aiding war refugees. Their contributions ranged from monetary donations, clothing and food to informal or formal volunteering, providing accommodation, assisting refugees in finding employment or organising transportation from the border [19].

NGOs in Slovakia played a pivotal role in responding to the immediate crisis triggered by the outbreak of the war in Ukraine, and their subsequent efforts in aiding refugees from Ukraine have been indispensable. However, this response has entailed significant changes for many NGOs. The infusion of financial resources into projects has substantially expanded their staff capacities, requiring sustained financial support for long-term viability. Even before the outbreak of the Ukraine war, NGOs in Slovakia grappled with financial instability and sustainability. Consequently, ensuring a stable financial environment is paramount if these organisations remain committed to supporting the integration of Ukrainian refugees.

Bryan et al. posit that the resilience strategies employed by NGOs during the Ukrainian crisis represent short-term fixes for systemic issues [18]. Their findings underscore the necessity for a more systematic response led by the government. Similarly, Ansell et al. contend that foresight, protection and resilience alone are insufficient in turbulent circumstances [29]. They advocate for robust strategies within the public sector, wherein adaptable and innovative public organisations forge networks and partnerships with the private sector and civil society to address emergent disruptive challenges.

As the analysis declares, the crisis associated with the war in Ukraine brought new challenges and opportunities for NGOs in Slovakia. Relationship building with the government proved to be mutually beneficial. On the other hand, the question remains about the future of these relations and cooperation with the government, which declares its negative attitude and often aggressive posture towards NGOs, which, even in times of crisis, play not only the role of service providers and community development but also an advocacy role in the direction of promoting people’s rights or effective public policies.

Acknowledgments

Affiliation: This chapter is part of a research project VEGA 1/0603/23 Volunteering in Slovakia in Times of Crisis co-financed by the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sports of the Slovak Republic.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.