Transitional Typologies of Refugee Camps in Jordan

Abstract

This chapter critically examines the dynamic nature of refugee camps within Jordan’s unique socio-political context. Focusing on architectural, social, and environmental dimensions, the chapter unveils transitional typologies that challenge conventional ideas of permanence. Architecturally, it explores adaptive design solutions, emphasizing flexibility and sustainability. Socially, it delves into community-led initiatives and participatory planning, highlighting the agency and resilience of displaced populations. Environmentally, the chapter investigates the ecological impact of refugee settlements and advocates for sustainable practices. Through case studies and interdisciplinary analysis, this chapter offers insights into the transitional processes of refugee camps from temporary shelters to long-term dwellings, aiming to inform policymakers, practitioners, and researchers on enhancing the dignity, agency, and sustainability of displaced communities in Jordan and globally.

1. Introduction

The global refugee crisis has forced countries to welcome a surge of displaced populations, offering safety, security, and respect to individuals seeking a safe haven away from conflict. Jordan has been at the forefront of humanitarian efforts as a host country, providing shelter and assistance to a sizable number of displaced people. The complex dynamics of refugee camps within Jordan’s distinct socio-political and geographical context are examined closely in this chapter. With an emphasis on the architectural, social, and environmental aspects, our analysis reveals typologies of transition that subvert traditional ideas of permanence and temporality in the planning and management of refugee camps.

Architecturally, the chapter explores adaptive design alternatives and highlights the importance of flexibility and sustainability when deploying emergency shelters.

Selected case studies from Jordan illustrate how creative architectural solutions can aid the transition of temporary shelters into permanent dwellings.

Socially, through community-led projects and collaborative planning, we investigate the agency and adaptability of displaced communities in their host countries. An investigation of successful projects and initiatives reveals the profound influence that community engagement has on the development of refugee camps. This offers insight into the empowerment of displaced communities and the observable outcomes of participatory planning practices.

Furthermore, our analysis strongly emphasizes environmental issues as we assess the ecological impacts of refugee settlements and promote sustainable strategies. Through examining the environmental issues faced by refugee camps in the Jordanian context, we hope to highlight the necessity of eco-friendly solutions to protect both the environment and the welfare of the people living there.

This chapter provides a thorough overview of transitional processes within refugee camps by utilizing a multidisciplinary approach. Through the integration of social, architectural, and environmental viewpoints, this research offers key insights to scholars, practitioners, and policymakers. Our research contributes to the discourse on refugee camp typologies and provides useful suggestions for improving the sustainability, dignity, and agency of displaced populations in Jordan and worldwide.

2. Methodology

This research bases itself on theory and relies on primary as well as verified secondary sources. The research employs a qualitative approach in the form of a rigorous literature review of previous research on refugee camps in Jordan, as well as primary data collected through field visits, observations, and insights from refugees, camp administrators, researchers, and responsible government officials.

2.1 Literature review

A comprehensive literature review is conducted to understand the history of refugee camps in Jordan, their current state, as well as their transition from temporary shelters to long-term settlements. The review encompasses studies related to urban planning, spatial organization, humanitarian architecture, as well as emerging technology applications, mainly artificial intelligence and digital twins, in settlement and housing development and their potential in humanitarian relief contexts. This review will inform the research context, identify gaps, and guide the understanding of the refugee situation in Jordan.

Based on the conducted literature review, the types and typologies of refugee camps in Jordan are extracted and systematized according to their physical attributes and characteristics. This will inform the stage of data collection in order to relate the transition process to each typology.

2.2 Case study selection

Refugee camps in Jordan are selected as case studies for in-depth analysis. The selection is based on factors such as camp size, demographic diversity, infrastructure availability, and the potential for camp transition to permanent dwellings. Detailed data on the selected camps is collected, including spatial layouts, facility distribution, population demographics, and available resources. This data serves as the basis for qualitative analysis and is collected from open-source UNHCR databases as well as verified websites and sources.

2.3 Data analysis

Qualitative data from case studies is analyzed using thematic analysis, with a focus on identifying the typologies of refugee camps based on planning and shelter types as well as status. The initial categorization of refugee camps is based on the patterns and themes that emerge from the data analysis. The categorization is validated and refined through additional observations by the authors and feedback from experts in the field of refugee camp planning and policy.

The results obtained from the analysis provide valuable insights into the typologies of refugee camps in Jordan as well as their transition over time. Additionally, they demonstrate the potential benefits of using emerging technologies in understanding and optimizing the identified typologies during the transition from temporary to permanent settlements.

3. Background on the refugee crisis in Jordan

The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan has long served as a safe haven for refugees fleeing conflict and persecution in neighboring countries, notably Palestine, Iraq, and Syria. The nation’s strategic geographic location, bordering conflict-ridden regions, coupled with its historical commitment to humanitarian principles, has positioned Jordan as a key player in providing sanctuary to displaced populations [1, 2]. However, the influx of refugees has placed immense strain on Jordan’s resources, infrastructure, and socio-political landscape, presenting multifaceted challenges to the government, humanitarian agencies, and host communities.

Beginning with the Palestinian Nakba in 1948 and subsequent events such as the 1990 Gulf War and the US-led invasion of Iraq in 2003, Jordan has faced waves of displacement which significantly impacted its demographic composition and socio-economic structure [3]. As a result of the Syrian civil war in 2011, Jordan sheltered over 1.3 million Syrian refugees, which equates to almost 10% of Jordan’s population [4]. The prolonged stay of the refugee population in Jordan has led to significant socio-political consequences, impacting public services, the job market, and social cohesion. The strain on essential services, such as healthcare and education, heightens the competition for resources and exacerbates the socio-economic disparity between refugees and local communities [1]. Additionally, the prolonged displacement of refugees raises issues about their integration into Jordanian society as well as the possibility of social unrest and xenophobia [5].

The Jordanian government and international humanitarian organizations have taken several measures, which include setting up refugee camps such as Za’atari and Azraq, providing humanitarian aid, and enhancing access to education and employment for refugees [6].

4. Transitional typologies in refugee camps

Refugee camps can be defined as temporary solutions to humanitarian crises and natural disasters, with a focus on providing basic needs such as shelter, food, and water. However, these temporary solutions have often lasted for decades, resulting in the development of distinct communities with their own social dynamics and cultural practices [7]. These communities have been shaped by the refugees themselves, who have taken ownership of their spaces and transformed them into livable communities.

Jordan hosts almost 3 million registered refugees from Palestine, Iraq, and Syria [8]. The majority of these refugees live in camps, which have evolved over time from temporary shelters into more permanent settlements which have become home to generations of refugees, with some camps existing for over 70 years.

The current form of refugee camps dates back to the early twentieth century, particularly in response to conflicts and humanitarian crises that resulted in large-scale displacements. Such emergency shelters were deployed based on the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) handbook guidelines. These camps, including those in Jordan, have served as essential spaces for providing shelter, protection, and basic services to refugees. Emergency humanitarian settlements as the case of refugee camps aimed to provide immediate relief and support to displaced individuals until they could be resettled or repatriated. The temporary nature of these camps was emphasized, assuming that displaced populations would eventually return to their homelands [9].

Over time, the temporary nature of refugee camps became more complex due to prolonged conflicts, political instabilities, and challenges in finding durable solutions. This shift led to the emergence of protracted refugee situations, where camps continued to exist for extended periods. The Palestinian refugee camps established in Jordan after the Israeli occupation of the West Bank in 1948 are significant examples of such situations [10]. The evolving nature of conflicts and political complexities transformed the concept of temporary camps into long-term settlements, with subsequent impacts on the design and management of such spaces.

The evolving nature of refugee crises necessitates a nuanced understanding of transitional typologies within refugee camps, reflecting the dynamic interplay between socio-political, environmental, and humanitarian factors. Recognizing the temporality inherent in displacement, transitional typologies offer valuable insights into the adaptive strategies employed by displaced populations and the evolving nature of refugee settlements.

The definition of transitional typologies emphasizes architectural flexibility and adaptability in refugee camp settings. Traditional approaches to shelter construction as outlined in the UNHCR emergency handbook [11] often focus on immediate needs rather than long-term sustainability or evolving community dynamics; in contrast, transitional typologies emphasize customizable, scalable, resource-efficient designs which can adapt over time as demographics, preferences, or environmental conditions change.

This notion highlights the agency and resilience of displaced communities to shape their built environment and socio-cultural dynamics. Participatory planning processes and community-led initiatives allow refugees to demonstrate their ability to adapt, innovate, and self-organize in response to changing circumstances. Understanding these typologies challenges conventional narratives of vulnerability and dependency by illustrating how displaced populations have the power to actively contribute in planning, designing and managing their living spaces. Empowering refugees as active participants instead of passive recipients helps build ownership, belonging and dignity within refugee camps.

Moreover, conventional refugee camp infrastructure often fails to take into account environmental sustainability, leading to resource depletion, habitat degradation and pollution. Transitional typologies offer pathways towards more resilient and environmentally conscious refugee settlements by incorporating renewable energy systems, water recycling mechanisms and eco-friendly construction materials. This approach enables policymakers and practitioners to prioritize eco-friendly interventions which reduce environmental risks while simultaneously improving refugees’ well-being and contributing to long-term sustainable solutions.

5. Camp typologies in Jordan

Refugee camps in Jordan have been established since 1948 to accommodate refugees fleeing conflict and persecution in neighboring countries such as Syria, Iraq, and Palestine. According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees [8], there are currently over 760,000 registered refugees in Jordan living in camps. However, an estimated 1.3 million refugees are unregistered and live in urban areas. This prompts further study of refugee camp typologies in order to understand their shortcomings, and what would constitute an effective or ineffective emergency response.

The first image which comes to mind when imagining a refugee camp consists of standardized cabins laid out along a rigid grid, enclosed with a fence and gated by security checkpoints manned by guards. The 2019 UNHCR handbook titled “The Master Plan Approach to Settlement Planning” [12] provides a basis from which the master plan of refugee camps, as well as the types of different camps could be studied and analyzed on the physical level, which is essential for several reasons:

• Effective response planning: this enables humanitarian organizations and governments to devise and implement more effective strategies to address the needs of refugees. Each refugee camp has unique challenges and requirements, and understanding these distinctions enables the implementation of more targeted and efficient interventions [13].

• Designing an appropriate shelter: the ideal type of shelter for each camp may vary based on factors such as climate, location, and the duration of displacement. Comprehending these distinctions will allow for the development of more effective shelter solutions tailored to the specific needs of each camp [14].

• Promoting dignity and safety: traditional tent camps may not offer adequate protection from extreme weather conditions or other hazards, whereas upgraded/improved camps may provide more durable and secure shelter [15].

• Ensuring sustainable solutions: refugee camps tend to be long-term rather than short-term, and understanding the different typologies allows for more effective planning and design of camps that can fulfill the needs of refugees in the short and long term. Sustainable solutions can also facilitate the integration of refugees into the host community and reduce their impacts on the local environment and resources (Figure 1) [13, 15].

Figure 1.

The importance of studying the physical typologies of refugee camps (source: Authors).

The UNHCR categorizes settlement typologies in emergency situations based on their temporary or permanent status, as well as their location in urban or rural areas [11].

While there are several typologies of refugee camps in Jordan, each with its own characteristics and challenges, it is possible to categorize refugee camp systems based on their status and degree of permanence as follows:

• Traditional refugee camps are the oldest and most basic type of camp in Jordan. They consist of rows of tents or makeshift shelters surrounded by fences and are often located in remote areas far from urban centers. These camps lack basic infrastructure such as electricity, water, and sanitation, and an example is Al-Za’atari camp which was established in 2012 to accommodate Syrian refugees [14].

• Informal settlements, also known as “spontaneous settlements” or “unplanned settlements,” are formed when refugees settle (or squat) in areas that are not designated as official refugee camps. These settlements can be found in urban or rural areas and are often characterized by overcrowding, poor sanitation, and a lack of basic services, such as healthcare and education. An example of an informal refugee camp is Al-Baqa’a camp, established in 1949 for Palestinian refugees, which later transitioned into slums and operated under substandard living conditions [16].

• Most unregistered refugees in Jordan are integrated into host communities where they live with host families or are provided housing in existing communities. For instance, Syrian refugees were integrated into villages and cities around camp areas in North Jordan. This approach is preferred to traditional refugee camps because it promotes integration and social cohesion [17].

• Recently, there has been a shift towards establishing refugee camps with improved infrastructure, such as proper housing, schools, and healthcare facilities. An example of this type of camp is the Azraq refugee camp, which was opened in 2014 to accommodate Syrian refugees. The camp was designed to be more sustainable and environmentally friendly, with solar-powered streetlights and water-saving measures [18].

Considering the architectural and spatial quality of these typologies is essential for understanding and optimizing their transition over time. Based on this, refugee camps can also be categorized according to shelter types as follows:

• Tented refugee camps: the tents or makeshift shelters in these camps are arranged in a planned grid and surrounded by fencing. These camps are similar to traditional and formal refugee camps. One example is the Al-Za’atari camp, which is the largest refugee camp in Jordan and houses more than 80,000 Syrian refugees. The camp initially consisted of rows of tents and caravans, with basic services provided by international aid organizations. Another example is the Al Azraq Camp, which was established in 2014 to accommodate Syrian refugees. The camp, located in a desert, is home to over 30,000 refugees and is comprised of rows of tents and prefabricated shelters. Basic services such as water, sanitation, and healthcare are available in the camp. The camp was similar to traditional or formal refugee camps [19].

• Container or prefabricated shelter camps: the objective of these camps is to offer refugees a permanent housing solution by employing shipping containers or prefabricated materials. A case in point is the King Abdullah Park refugee camp, which caters specifically to unaccompanied Syrian minors. The camp, situated in the northern region of the country, was home to approximately 300 refugees. The living quarters are constructed from repurposed shipping containers, and the camp features facilities such as schools, recreational areas, and sports facilities [20].

• Upgraded or improved refugee camps: these camps aim to offer improved living conditions for refugees by providing more robust and sustainable housing, as well as better infrastructure and services. Marka, a refugee camp established in 1968 to house Palestinian refugees, is an example of an upgraded camp. Located in the capital city of Amman, the camp is home to approximately 15,000 refugees and comprises upgraded shelters and amenities, including schools, health clinics, and community centers [21].

• Slum: the informal camp classification is characterized by makeshift, dilapidated structures that lack essential services, such as electricity, water, and sewage. Since these camps are not recognized by relevant aid organizations or governments, they are not subject to formal regulations, leading to their makeshift appearance. For instance, Al-Baqa’a camp in Jordan is the largest Palestinian refugee camp, housing over 100,000 refugees, and is a prime example of this type of camp. The camp consists of rows of tents and basic facilities such as schools, health clinics, and community centers. Al-Jofeh camp, and most informal Palestinian refugee camps established in Amman are other examples of “slummified” refugee camps [22].

As with the case of a slum, it is important to note that some camps may use a combination of shelter types or may transition from one type of shelter to another over time as the situation of the refugees changes and the camp status shifts more towards permanence. It should also be noted that the situation of Palestinian refugee camps in Jordan differs from that of Syrian refugee camps only in terms of duration, as many Palestinian refugees have been living in Jordan for several generations and have established more permanent communities and structures. However, the same typologies and approaches can still be applied to both groups, since the planning of refugee camps follows the same guidelines (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Refugee camp typologies based on camp status and planning and shelter type (source: Authors).

6. Architectural shelter typologies

Refugee camp architectural typologies significantly impact the comfort and physical surroundings of displaced populations. From conventional tents to modular buildings, these typologies reflect migrants’ evolving needs, available resources, and goals shaped by socio-political and environmental factors. Understanding these typologies is essential for enhancing spatial planning; guiding design interventions; and promoting the sustainability, dignity, and agency of displaced populations.

6.1 Traditional tented settlements

Characterized by lightweight, temporary buildings made of canvas or tarpaulin, traditional tented settlements represent one of the most prevalent architectural typologies in refugee camps. These shelters enable quick deployment and scalability in emergency scenarios by providing instant relief and weather protection [23]. Tent settlements, however, frequently lack privacy, durability, and insulation, which makes them unsuitable for long-term occupancy and wellbeing [24]. Additionally, tented settlements may have an impromptu or informal spatial arrangement, which can lead to overcrowding, inefficiencies, and safety issues [25].

6.2 Transitional shelter solutions

Transitional shelter solutions that emphasize robust, semi-permanent structures that can suit changing demands and preferences represent a paradigm shift in the design of refugee camps. These solutions cover a variety of design approaches such as modular construction systems, containerized housing units, and prefabricated shelters [26]. Compared to typical tents, transitional shelters provide better insulation, security, and spatial flexibility, helping refugees feel more stable and respectable [27]. Furthermore, these structures are easily expandable, movable, or adjusted in response to shifting conditions, which promotes community empowerment and long-term resilience [28].

6.3 Eco-friendly and sustainable design

The architecture of refugee camps progressively uses sustainable and eco-friendly design concepts to address environmental issues and improve the lives of displaced people. Passive solar heating, rainwater collection, natural ventilation, and renewable energy technologies are examples of sustainable design elements [29, 30]. Eco-friendly shelters improve the general sustainability and livability of refugee settlements by limiting resource consumption, reducing carbon emissions, and boosting resilience to climate change [31]. Furthermore, the use of sustainable design principles enables refugees to embrace eco-friendly habits and technologies, cultivating feelings of accountability and attachment to their environment [32].

7. Adaptive design solutions for transitional shelter typologies

In light of the constantly changing and developing nature of refugee crises, there has been an increasing focus on investigating adaptive design methods for refugee camps. Such methods involve the use of various architectural approaches that aim to improve the flexibility, sustainability, and durability of both shelter construction and urban planning.

7.1 Flexibility in shelter construction

Constructing shelters that can be easily adapted and modified is crucial for creating effective design solutions for refugee camps. Unlike traditional tented settlements, which may provide only short-term relief and fail to account for changing needs, preferences, and environmental conditions, modular and prefabricated shelters offer greater flexibility and adaptability. These shelters can be easily assembled, disassembled, and reconfigured, making them ideal for accommodating long-term inhabitation and evolving family structures [20].

7.1.1 Case study: Za’atari Refugee Camp

Established in July 2012 in Mafraq Governorate, Jordan as a result of Syria’s civil war, Za’atari camp eventually became one of the largest refugee camps in the world, with over 80,000 Syrian refugees at its peak [8]. The camp has transitioned from temporary tented settlements to a more permanent urban environment, featuring innovative architectural solutions such as prefabricated shelters and community-built infrastructure, as well as participatory planning initiatives such as community centers, schools, and marketplaces that directly involve refugees in shaping their living environments [33].

Za’atari Refugee Camp offers an invaluable perspective on adaptive design methods, community-led initiatives, and sustainable practices that are common in refugee camps’ transitional typologies. Through its development over time, researchers can gain insights and develop effective strategies to improve the dignity, self-reliance, and long-term viability of refugee settlements in Jordan and worldwide. Za’atari Refugee Camp has experienced significant architectural transformations since its inception. Initially, it was a vast tented settlement, but it has since been transformed into a dynamic semi-permanent urban environment that includes prefabricated shelters, modular housing units, and communal infrastructure [34].

The architectural landscape demonstrates a blend of innovation, pragmatism, and resilience. The use of prefabricated shelters in the camp provides refugees with a greater sense of stability and ownership over their homes, as these shelters offer better durability, insulation, and security than traditional tents [12]. Containerized housing units allow for greater flexibility in meeting the unique needs of individual residents. The construction of community infrastructure such as schools, health clinics, and marketplaces has fostered a sense of empowerment, belonging, and ownership among refugees. Furthermore, the inhabitants of the camp have adapted their shelters and the spatial organization of their camps to meet their individual needs, resulting in a non-uniform layout that better suits their daily lives [20].

However, Za’atari continues to pose a significant challenge in maintaining its sustainability and livability. Persistent issues, such as overcrowding, inadequate infrastructure, and limited access to essential services, remain unresolved and require ongoing attention and financial investment [8].

7.2 Sustainable architecture practices

Sustainable architecture practices play a critical role in designing adaptive design solutions for refugee camps, encouraging environmental stewardship, resource efficiency, and community well-being. Eco-friendly features like passive solar heating, rainwater harvesting, and natural ventilation help to minimize environmental impact while simultaneously increasing comfort and livability.

7.2.1 Case study: azraq Refugee Camp

Opened in April 2014 in Zarqa Governorate, Jordan, Azraq Refugee Camp was established to accommodate Syrian refugees fleeing the conflict in their homeland. Unlike Za’atari, Azraq was designed with a more structured layout based on lessons learned from Za’atari camp, featuring prefabricated shelters arranged in organized decentralized blocks [35].

Azraq Refugee Camp represents a departure from traditional tented settlements, emphasizing the use of durable and weather-resistant shelter structures. The camp’s layout facilitates efficient service provision and community cohesion, with designated areas for education, health, and livelihood activities. Moreover, Azraq has implemented innovative energy-saving initiatives, such as solar-powered street lighting and water conservation measures, reducing its environmental footprint [8].

The case of Azraq Refugee Camp illustrates the importance of adaptive design, spatial planning, and environmental sustainability in shaping transitional typologies within refugee camps. By analyzing the successes and challenges of Azraq’s approach, policymakers and practitioners can glean valuable insights for improving the resilience and livability of refugee settlements in Jordan and other host countries.

Azraq Refugee Camp in Jordan exemplifies sustainable architecture principles through its use of energy-saving technologies and eco-friendly infrastructure, such as solar-powered street lighting, water recycling systems and insulated shelter designs—reducing operational costs while simultaneously cutting carbon emissions.

8. Considerations for successful transitional typologies in refugee camps

Successful architectural transitions in refugee camps are characterized by innovative, adaptable designs that enhance the longevity, functionality, and resilience of shelter infrastructure. Through the implementation of flexible, sustainable solutions, these case studies demonstrate the transformative impact of architectural interventions on the well-being and dignity of displaced populations.

A successful architectural transition in a refugee camp involves the evolution from temporary, inadequate shelters to more permanent, dignified dwellings that meet the evolving needs and preferences of residents. Key indicators of success include:

• Flexibility: the ability of shelter designs to adapt to changing demographic, environmental, and socio-economic conditions.

• Sustainability: integration of eco-friendly materials, technologies, and practices to minimize environmental impact and resource consumption.

• Community participation: engagement of residents in the planning, design, and implementation of shelter infrastructure to foster a sense of ownership and empowerment.

• Longevity: durability and resilience of shelter structures, ensuring their continued functionality and habitability over time.

8.1 Case study: iKEA Better Shelter

The IKEA Better Shelter is a modular, flat-pack shelter designed to provide durable yet dignified housing solutions for refugees and displaced populations around the world. Boasting lightweight yet easy-to-assemble components, its rapid deployment allows it to adapt quickly to different climate conditions and cultural preferences—up to three years of lifespan makes the IKEA Better Shelter an affordable and sustainable alternative to traditional tent settlements, giving refugees a greater sense of stability and security [36].

8.2 Case study: emergency Shelter Kit (ESK)

To aid communities affected by disasters, including refugees, the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC) created the Emergency Shelter Kit (ESK), a modular shelter system. Its assembly encourages community resilience by involving residents directly in its construction process and satisfying individual or communal shelter needs. It is made up of lightweight prefabricated components that fit together into various configurations to form individual and communal shelters quickly and easily [37].

The reviewed case studies showcase that architectural changes have a significant impact on the lifespan of refugee shelters, extending their occupancy while improving livability. Architectural transitions can enhance dignity, agency, resilience, and well-being in an otherwise challenging process by incorporating creative designs with adjustable features that better withstand environmental hazards, while providing amenities necessary for community cohesion. In addition, the application of sustainable architecture concepts such as waste reduction and energy efficiency enhances the resilience and general well-being of displaced communities by preserving their agency and dignity.

9. Social dimensions

Examining the social aspects of refugee camp typologies reveals the importance of community-led initiatives in helping refugees develop resilience, agency, and self-determination. Utilizing cooperative decision-making and participatory planning, refugees proactively participate in the planning, management, and administration of their living spaces, fostering a feeling of respect, ownership, and inclusion. Through these programs, displaced populations can take control of their environment and design their living spaces, improving their well-being, self-reliance, and community cohesion.

Community-led initiatives aid displaced people in taking back control of their lives through self-organized activities like income-generating ventures, education programs, and community gardens [38, 39]. These programs not only demonstrate the tenacity and inventiveness of refugees in overcoming the difficulties of displacement, but they also offer forums for dispelling stereotypes and promoting intercultural dialog inside the camp. Furthermore, community input and local expertise are given priority in participatory planning processes that involve meaningful collaboration between humanitarian agencies, host communities, and refugees. This guarantees that the needs of refugees are met, their perspectives are heard, and sustainable, contextually appropriate solutions are put into practice [40]. Refugee settlements that are inclusive, dignified, and sustainable are made possible by the active participation and agency of displaced populations.

Successful community-driven projects within refugee camps exemplify the power of collective action, resilience, and innovation in addressing the diverse needs and aspirations of displaced populations. By tapping into local knowledge, resources, and capacities, such projects empower refugees to take control of their living environment and conditions.

9.1 Case study: women’s Cooperative in Za’atari Refugee Camp

At Za’atari Refugee Camp, a group of women joined together to form a cooperative to generate income and foster social cohesion among residents. Through this cooperative, women received training in sewing, handicrafts, and small business management to produce handmade products within and sell outside the camp [41]. Not only was this cooperative an economic opportunity but it was also used as a forum for skill sharing, solidarity building, and empowerment.

Community-led economic initiatives, like cooperatives and income-generating projects, give refugees agency, dignity, and self-sufficiency. Furthermore, they foster social cohesion, trust, and mutual support between residents, strengthening networks and resilience, as projects initiated and managed by refugees themselves tend to be sustainable, contextually relevant, and responsive to local needs and preferences.

However, limited access to funds, materials, and resources can impede the scalability and sustainability of community-driven initiatives; women in vulnerable contexts may face additional barriers to participating and leading in these efforts, including cultural norms, caregiving responsibilities, or lack of education and resources. Therefore, support from humanitarian agencies, local authorities, and host communities is crucial to the success and longevity of community-driven projects.

10. Environmental dimensions

Refugee settlements often face a myriad of environmental challenges stemming from rapid population growth, inadequate infrastructure, and limited access to essential services. Common environmental issues include:

• Waste management: inadequate waste disposal facilities and practices contribute to pollution, sanitation hazards, and public health risks within refugee camps. Improper waste management can lead to contamination of soil, water, and air, exacerbating environmental degradation and health disparities among residents [8].

• Water scarcity: limited access to clean water sources and inadequate sanitation facilities pose significant challenges to refugees’ health, hygiene, and well-being. Overexploitation of natural water resources and lack of sustainable water management practices further exacerbate water scarcity and environmental degradation in refugee settlements [42].

• Deforestation and land degradation: high demand for firewood and construction materials in refugee camps contributes to deforestation, habitat loss, and soil erosion. Unsustainable land management practices, such as overgrazing and soil compaction, degrade natural ecosystems and reduce biodiversity, undermining the ecological resilience of host environments [43].

Advocating for sustainable practices in refugee settlements is essential for mitigating environmental challenges and promoting the long-term well-being of displaced populations, as this aspect highlights the interconnected relations between human well-being, improved livelihoods of vulnerable groups, and environmentally conscious spaces, as well as minimizes environmental impact and promote the well-being of both the environment and the displaced community. Key strategies to address this area include:

• Renewable energy: investing in renewable energy technologies, such as solar power and biogas, reduces reliance on fossil fuels, mitigates greenhouse gas emissions, and improves energy access and affordability for refugees.

• Water conservation: implementing water-saving measures, such as rainwater harvesting, water recycling, and efficient irrigation systems, helps alleviate water scarcity, reduce waterborne diseases, and protect natural water sources.

• Sustainable agriculture: promoting agroecological practices, organic farming, and community gardening initiatives enhances food security, restores degraded landscapes, and strengthens local livelihoods in refugee-hosting areas.

Environmentally sustainable refugee camps offer numerous benefits to inhabitants, including improved health and hygiene, enhanced livelihood opportunities, and increased resilience to environmental hazards. Access to clean energy, water, and sanitation services improves living conditions and reduces the burden on host communities, fostering social cohesion and integration [43].

10.1 Case study: azraq Refugee Camp

Azraq Refugee Camp in Jordan is a leading example of an environmentally sustainable refugee settlement.

Azraq Refugee Camp is powered by a solar photovoltaic system, which provides clean, renewable energy for lighting, heating, and powering essential facilities within the camp. Solar panels installed on rooftops and in open spaces harness abundant sunlight, reducing reliance on fossil fuels and mitigating carbon emissions.

The camp also features water-saving measures such as rainwater harvesting, greywater recycling, and efficient irrigation systems. Rainwater is collected from rooftops and stored in reservoirs for use in agriculture and landscaping, while greywater from showers and sinks is treated and reused for flushing toilets and watering plants.

Moreover, Azraq Refugee Camp employs sustainable waste management practices to minimize landfill waste and promote recycling and composting. Residents are encouraged to segregate their waste into recyclable and organic materials, which are then processed and reused or disposed of in an environmentally responsible manner [8].

11. Integration of architectural, social, and environmental aspects

Architectural, social, and environmental viewpoints are integrated in the interdisciplinary analysis used in refugee camp design and management, in order to meet the intricate and interrelated problems displaced people encounter.

The interdependence of built infrastructure, community dynamics, and ecological systems can be considered by stakeholders in refugee camp design and administration through the integration of the aforementioned viewpoints. For displaced communities, designers, planners, and politicians may create more contextually relevant, responsive, and resilient solutions by looking at the interactions between physical spaces, social relationships, and environmental resources [44].

Interdisciplinary analysis facilitates the identification of commonalities and conflicts among different dimensions of refugee camp design and management. While architectural innovations may enhance shelter quality and durability, they must also consider social and cultural preferences to ensure acceptability and inclusivity among residents. Similarly, environmental sustainability measures may conflict with social and economic priorities, highlighting the importance of balancing competing interests and priorities in refugee settlement planning.

Moreover, adopting a holistic approach to refugee camp design and management is essential for addressing the diverse needs, aspirations, and vulnerabilities of displaced populations. By considering these dimensions in tandem, stakeholders can develop more comprehensive, context-sensitive, and effective strategies for shelter provision, community empowerment, and environmental stewardship.

12. Integration of technologies in refugee camp transitional typologies

As society collectively shifts from analog methods to more advanced digital and technological ones, the integration of emerging technologies, namely artificial intelligence (AI) and digital twins (DT), holds significant promise for enhancing the resilience, efficiency, and sustainability of refugee camps.

As technological innovations continue to push the boundaries of human capabilities, more attention is being directed towards employing such technologies in fields where human capacity is limited either by time, access, or economy. In the case of humanitarian response, time and resource constraints pressure actions and result in less-than-satisfactory results that often need to be reworked after their implementation over a multi-year period.

While previous planning methods such as handbooks and guidelines are available, they provide limited knowledge of the status quo and do not consider the context or implications of emergency interventions on a large scale such as refugee camps, various instances of which have proven that they do not represent an adequate standard of human living. Moreover, the existing guidelines and handbooks do not consider the possibility of permanence, which according to Moore [45] is an inevitable and organic outcome of emergency settlements after an average period of 17 years.

Artificial intelligence and digital twins offer an avenue of research not yet implemented in this sector. As argued by Guo [46], such applications in humanitarian sectors including those of conflict prediction and prevention have the potential to reshape the field but are yet to be sufficiently researched [46].

By leveraging advanced digital tools and data-driven approaches, stakeholders can improve decision-making, optimize resource allocation, and enhance the quality of life for refugees.

12.1 Artificial intelligence (AI) in refugee camps

The integration of artificial intelligence into the study of refugee camp spatial dynamics represents a pivotal advancement that transcends the capabilities of traditional analog methods. AI refers to the simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, particularly computer systems, with the ability to learn, reason, and make decisions based on data analysis. In the context of refugee camp planning and sustainable urbanization, AI offers a range of tools and techniques that substantially enhance the understanding of spatial patterns and morphologies, driving data-driven decision-making and innovative solutions.

Machine learning algorithms have the capacity to analyze vast datasets and identify hidden patterns that may not be immediately apparent to human observers. In the context of refugee camps, AI models can be trained to recognize changes in camp layouts, infrastructure developments, and population distribution over time. This capability aids in comprehending the evolving urban morphology and predicting future growth trajectories [47].

AI-powered predictive models leverage historical data and real-time inputs to anticipate changes and forecast population movements, resource demands, and infrastructure requirements within refugee camps. Scenario-based models can also simulate various development strategies and their potential outcomes, assessing long-term impacts of planning decisions [48]. Platforms like Google Earth Engine and Microsoft AI for Earth provide tools for spatial analysis, leveraging AI to process vast amounts of geospatial data and extract actionable insights.

Moreover, AI algorithms can conduct sophisticated spatial analyses, optimizing the placement of essential facilities such as healthcare centers, schools, and sanitation facilities within refugee camps by considering factors like population density, accessibility, and proximity to resources. This provides a comprehensive view of the camp’s spatial dynamics, facilitating holistic analysis and decision-making [49]. Navigating complex dynamics of refugee camps can be aided by harnessing AI tools, thereby catalyzing the transition of refugee camps from slums to sustainable, thriving settlements.

There are various ways in which AI technologies could be applied in the field of humanitarian aid, specifically for studies and analyses aimed at improving the quality of life in refugee camps:

• AI-driven predictive modeling can be used to find trends in data gathered on refugee camps, including population density, demographics, and resource utilization. The geographical organization of camps can be improved with the help of this information, which can also help with resource allocation.

• The planning and design of refugee camps can be improved using machine learning algorithms for example to determine the best places for camps, considering things like resource accessibility, potential natural disasters, and the preferences of refugees and host communities.

• Sensor networks and machine learning algorithms can be used to track and forecast resource usage, such as water and electricity consumption, and improve resource management in general.

• Satellite imagery and other geospatial data can be used to create detailed maps of the camp’s layout and infrastructure and identify areas that are overcrowded, underutilized, or in need of improvement. AI-based algorithms can assist in mapping the camps and analyzing the effectiveness of refugee camp layout and organization.

While AI can be a potent tool for improving spatial organization as well as quality of life in refugee camps, it should be utilized with prudence and in accordance with the values of ethics, data privacy, and transparency. Additionally, when designing and implementing AI-powered solutions for refugee camps, input and feedback from refugees, host communities, and humanitarian organizations should be taken into consideration.

12.2 Digital twins for refugee camp planning and management

Digital twins are virtual representations of physical assets, processes, and systems that enable real-time simulation, visualization, and analysis. By creating digital twins of refugee camps, planners, designers, and policymakers can simulate scenarios, test interventions, and optimize decision-making to improve the resilience and livability of settlements.

Digital twins allow stakeholders to simulate various scenarios [50, 51], such as population growth, environmental changes, and infrastructure development, to evaluate the potential impacts and inform strategic decision-making. By visualizing different futures, decision-makers can identify optimal pathways and allocate resources more effectively.

Furthermore, digital twins facilitate community engagement and participatory planning processes by providing residents with interactive tools to visualize and co-design their living environment [52]. By incorporating feedback and preferences from residents, planners can ensure that refugee settlements are more responsive, inclusive, and culturally appropriate.

13. Key research insights

The synthesis of findings from architectural, social, and environmental perspectives in refugee camp design and management offers valuable insights and actionable recommendations for enhancing the resilience, sustainability, and well-being of displaced populations. By integrating diverse perspectives and lessons learned, stakeholders can develop more holistic, contextually relevant, and effective strategies for refugee settlement planning and management, as represented in Figure 3.

Figure 3.

Synthesis of findings from architectural, social, and environmental perspectives (source: Authors).

13.1 Architectural insights

Architectural interventions play a crucial role in shaping the physical environment and spatial dynamics of refugee camps.

• Flexibility and adaptability: designing shelters and infrastructure with flexibility and adaptability in mind allows for the accommodation of changing needs, preferences, and environmental conditions over time.

• Community engagement: engaging residents in the design and planning process fosters a sense of ownership, empowerment, and cultural relevance, leading to more inclusive and resilient settlements.

• Innovative technologies: leveraging innovative technologies, such as prefabricated construction methods and sustainable materials, can improve the efficiency, durability, and affordability of shelter solutions.

13.2 Social insights

Social dynamics and community interactions are central to the functioning and resilience of refugee camps.

• Community-led initiatives: empowering displaced populations to initiate and lead community-driven projects fosters social cohesion, self-reliance, and agency, enhancing the resilience and well-being of residents.

• Participatory planning: involving refugees in decision-making processes and co-designing their living environment promotes ownership, dignity, and cultural appropriateness, leading to more sustainable and inclusive settlements.

• Gender equality: addressing gender inequalities and ensuring women’s participation and leadership in decision-making processes are essential for promoting social equity and resilience within refugee communities.

13.3 Environmental insights

Environmental sustainability is critical for mitigating the ecological impact of refugee settlements and promoting the well-being of both residents and host environments.

• Resource efficiency: implementing resource-efficient technologies and practices, such as renewable energy, water conservation, and waste management, reduces environmental degradation and enhances the resilience of refugee camps.

• Ecosystem restoration: restoring natural ecosystems and integrating green infrastructure into refugee settlements improves biodiversity, mitigates climate change impacts, and enhances the quality of life for residents.

• Climate resilience: building climate-resilient infrastructure and adapting to changing environmental conditions are essential for safeguarding the long-term sustainability and livability of refugee camps in the face of climate change.

14. Key recommendations for practitioners and policymakers

Based on the synthesis of findings, the following recommendations are proposed for enhancing the design and management of refugee camps:

• Interdisciplinary collaboration: foster interdisciplinary collaboration and knowledge exchange among architects, social scientists, environmental experts, and humanitarian practitioners to develop more holistic and integrated approaches to refugee settlement planning.

• Community empowerment: prioritize community empowerment, participation, and capacity-building initiatives to ensure that refugee voices are heard, needs are addressed, and solutions are contextually relevant and sustainable.

• Innovation and technology: embrace innovation and technology, including artificial intelligence, digital twins, and renewable energy solutions, to improve decision-making, optimize resource allocation, and enhance the resilience of refugee settlements.

• Policy and advocacy: advocate for policies and investments that prioritize the dignity, rights, and well-being of displaced populations and promote sustainable and inclusive approaches to refugee settlement planning and management.

14.1 Recommendations for policymakers

Policymakers play a vital role in shaping the design, management, and governance of refugee camps. By prioritizing adaptive architectural designs that prioritize community participation and participatory planning initiatives and implementing sustainable environmental practices that preserve dignity for displaced populations while protecting resilience, policymakers can help improve resilience, dignity, and well-being among refugees.

14.1.1 Integration of adaptive architectural designs

Policymakers should prioritize the integration of adaptive architectural designs in refugee camp planning and construction.

• Flexibility and modularity: advocate for modular shelter designs that are easily expanded, modified, or repurposed as needs or environmental conditions change over time.

• Innovation and experimentation: engage in research and development initiatives that explore innovative architectural solutions such as lightweight materials, prefabricated components, and unconventional construction techniques that increase adaptability and sustainability of refugee shelters.

• Capacity-building: provide training, technical assistance and capacity-building support to architects, engineers, humanitarian practitioners and others interested in adaptive architectural designs and best practices for refugee settlement planning and construction.

14.1.2 Support for community-led initiatives and participatory planning

Policymakers should actively support community-led initiatives and participatory planning processes in refugee camps.

• Empowerment and agency: recognize and value the knowledge and creativity of displaced populations by giving them the ability to initiate, lead, and participate in community-led projects and decision-making processes.

• Inclusive and transparent governance: establish governance structures that foster meaningful engagement, collaboration, and dialog between refugees, humanitarian agencies, host communities, and local authorities.

• Resource allocation: provide resources, funding, and technical assistance for community-led initiatives and participatory planning activities aimed at supplying refugees with the tools, resources, and opportunities needed to shape their environment.

14.1.3 Implementation of sustainable environmental practices

Policymakers should prioritize the implementation of sustainable environmental practices in refugee camps.

• Renewable energy: invest in renewable energy technologies, such as solar power, wind turbines, and biomass, to provide clean, affordable, and reliable energy sources for refugee settlements, reducing reliance on fossil fuels and mitigating environmental impacts.

• Water and sanitation: promote water conservation, rainwater harvesting, and efficient sanitation systems to ensure access to safe and adequate services for refugees while minimizing water scarcity, pollution, and health risks.

• Ecosystem restoration: preserve and restore natural ecosystems, including forests, wetlands, and grasslands, within and around refugee camps to enhance biodiversity, mitigate climate impacts, and provide ecosystem services for residents and host communities.

15. Conclusion

This chapter investigates the dynamic nature of refugee camps within Jordan’s unique context, examining architectural, social, and environmental dimensions. Through interdisciplinary analysis, we discuss transitional typologies which challenge conventional notions of permanence, focusing on adaptive design solutions, community-led initiatives, and sustainable environmental practices as key elements in planning and management strategies for improved refugee settlement.

We have explored the significance of flexibility, adaptability, and innovation in refugee shelter design, with modular solutions that can adapt over time to changing needs and circumstances, as well as community-led initiatives and participatory planning processes, underscoring the significance of meaningful engagement and collaboration with displaced populations. Sustainable environmental practices such as renewable energy generation, water conservation, and ecosystem restoration are essential in mitigating environmental degradation while simultaneously supporting residents’ well-being in host environments.

Our research on refugee camps in Jordan is transferable and globally relevant, offering lessons for policymakers, practitioners, and researchers alike. Policymakers can improve refugee resettlement by adopting adaptive designs and sustainable practices; humanitarian practitioners can enhance their interventions through collaboration and innovation; researchers should focus on interdisciplinary research to address key knowledge gaps.

Furthermore, digital technologies and their impact on refugee settlements must be explored in more detail. In addition, gender dynamics and their effects on transitional typologies should be investigated in future research. Evidence-based methods coupled with multidisciplinary cooperation and community participation can help further the knowledge while creating resilient and inclusive solutions that improve the lives of refugees worldwide.

Acknowledgments

This research was created with the financial support of the Faculty of Architecture of the Czech Technical University in Prague, and it was funded by the FA Academic Competition 2024.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.