Hearts of Courage, Faces of Peace: Rebuilding and Resistance in Post-Dictatorship Honduras

Abstract

This chapter explores and describes the complex tapestry of peace and the challenges that have emerged in Honduras following the era of dictatorship. It aims to shed light on the nation’s path towards the establishment of democratic institutions amid a backdrop of political and economic turmoil. The research is based on an investigative journey through Honduras, exploring four distinct regions, each with its unique story and struggle. In the Aguán Valley, the focus is on the community’s fight against extractive corporations, highlighting the campesinos’ defense of their land from the encroachment of palm oil magnates. The Island of Roatán offers insights into the Garifuna’s efforts to safeguard their territories from the ambitions of developers. Meanwhile, Choloma serves as a view into the textile workers’ challenges, encompassing their labor difficulties. Lastly, the capital city, Tegucigalpa, provides a stage for engaging with a beverage union, and discussions with the US and Canadian embassies and governmental representatives surrounding the Castro presidency and progress. Through this comprehensive examination, the chapter endeavors to present an overarching view of Honduras’ continued struggle for peace, sovereignty, and justice in the aftermath of dictatorial governance.

1. Introduction

Upon arrival in Honduras, the landscape that greeted this researcher was one of striking contrasts. The first visual marvel was the mountainous terrain; some peaks were enshrouded in mist and rain, while others stood clear against the sky. Their towering presence was both unexpected and majestic, cloaked in lush greenery, yet marred by noticeable areas of deforestation. After acclimating to these breathtaking sights, another aspect of the country made itself known: the air was heavy with pollution. A dense amalgamation of gasoline fumes, construction dust, and chemical odors permeated the environment, signaling a nation in flux, yet hampered by inadequate infrastructure. The roads, poorly maintained and frequently interrupted by unexpected speed bumps, were bustling with life. Pedestrians navigated the narrow margins of these thoroughfares, engaging in daily activities—eating, walking, selling goods at traffic signals—amidst the chaos of congested traffic and the oppressive heat. However, venturing beyond the urban sprawl revealed a landscape of indescribable beauty. The early Spanish explorers, believing they had stumbled upon Eden itself, were captivated by the lush vegetation, fertile soil, and abundance of tropical fruits and vegetables. The warmth and openness of the Honduran people further contributed to this paradisiacal impression. Yet, beneath this idyllic veneer lies a tumultuous history of dictatorship, political violence, foreign intervention, and coups d’état. This raises critical questions: How did a nation so richly endowed descend into such turmoil? And who are the actors striving towards the creation and sustenance of a, both physically and psychologically, healthier Honduras?

In 2009, a significant shift occurred with Juan Orlando Hernandez, commonly referred to as “JOH,” and his National Party’s rise to power, marking the beginning of an authoritarian regime. This transition, precipitated by a coup that ousted the democratically elected President Manuel Zelaya, cast a long shadow over the subsequent years, fueling resentment towards the United States for its support of the coup. From 2009 to 2016, the U.S. funneled nearly 200 million dollars into Honduras, backing the JOH presidency [1, 2]. However, as JOH’s rule increasingly mirrored a dictatorship rather than a democratic governance, the United States recalibrated its stance towards the nation. Presently, while the U.S. aims to curb migration from Central America, it also endeavors to back democratic regimes, highlighting a complex geopolitical balancing act [3]. The duration of the dictatorship saw a spike in criminal activity, innovative gang strategies, and a surge in economic and environmental migration. Today, under the leadership of Xiomara Castro, the country’s democratically elected president, Honduras faces a daunting path towards rehabilitation. With nearly 10% of its populace living abroad and an estimated 25–40% of the country’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) stemming from remittances sent by expatriates [4], the nation stands at a critical juncture. This chapter investigates the impact of Honduras’s tumultuous history and recent electoral shifts, the potential for establishing peaceful institutions, and the ongoing effects of historical trauma transmission.

1.1 Purpose and scope

“This is the American dream,” the host said, seated under the intense sun of coastal Honduras. Across diverse landscapes, from Honduras to Ecuador, and even in the United States, the sentiment echoes uniformly. A place called home; a sanctuary not to abandoned. The collective aspiration is for improvement, for peace, and for prosperity. Indeed, this pursuit of well-being and tranquility forms the very essence of the American dream, a vision of peace that transcends borders.

This chapter endeavors to detail how Honduras aligns with the principles of peace psychology and exemplifies the application of community psychological concepts to forge a more harmonious society. The narrative is anchored in research conducted during comprehensive travel across Honduras in 2024, engaging with community leaders and politicians from the bustling capital to the serene coastal islands. The primary objective of these travels was to amass data on the pivotal shift from an era of dictatorship to the nurturing of a nascent democracy. Additionally, it aimed to uncover the frameworks established to cement these emergent democratic practices. A critical aspect of this exploration was to assess the prevalence of generational trauma, a legacy of prolonged exploitation and terror, spanning from Spanish colonization, through economic imperialism by northern powers, to the recent dictatorship.

This chapter, enriched by in situ insights from Honduras, is poised to demonstrate that despite profound economic and political turmoil, the indomitable spirit of the Honduran people prevails. Through a comprehensive review of Honduran history, juxtaposed with the findings from 2024, this narrative will showcase a people embodying the core values of community psychology. It emphasizes prevention and addresses the most acute challenges of contemporary society [5]. In essence, this chapter will shed light on the rich cultural tapestry and historical complexities of Honduras, unraveling the intricate web of factors that have culminated in pervasive violence. It will highlight the voices of those the researcher met across Honduras. The chapter will also be housed in three psychological principles: Liberation Psychology, Community Psychology, and Historical Trauma Transmission. As this text is designed to explore and promote peace psychology, the chapter will amplify how these three traditions, highlighted below, speak to peace in psychological development of communities.

1.2 Liberation psychology

At the heart of the movement for peace in Honduras is the influence of Liberation Psychology. This psychological approach, closely associated with the work of Ignacio Martín-Baró, emphasizes understanding and addressing the most pressing problems faced by communities from their perspective, rather than imposing external viewpoints. Rather than dissecting the motivations for power abuse or rights denial through a traditional psychological lens, groups in Honduras utilizing liberation psychology principles focus on community-based strategies to mitigate these issues [6]. A key feature of this approach is its methodological flexibility, allowing for the adaptation and evolution of tactics based on their effectiveness in real-world scenarios. This adaptability has been crucial in enabling Honduran organizations to navigate the complex socio-political landscape and effect meaningful change.

1.3 Community psychology

Parallel to the liberatory efforts is the application of Community Psychology, an approach that promotes preventive measures against societal issues while fostering positive developments within communities. This psychology branch advocates for a proactive stance in understanding past events and preempting their recurrence [5]. It empowers communities to leverage various resources and strategies to deter negative influences while enhancing positive outcomes. The subsequent sections of this chapter will illuminate the endeavors of distinct groups within Honduras that embody this principle. These segments will categorize the organizations based on their primary focus areas: community resistance and resilience, labor rights advocacy, and the pursuit of political reforms and international engagements.

1.4 Historical trauma transmission

While not formally recognized as a distinct psychological tradition like liberation and community psychology, it has garnered significant interest from the American Psychological Association. Currently under consideration but not yet officially classified as a diagnosis, this concept is being debated for potential inclusion in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Historical Trauma Transmission is understood as a series of events that trigger adverse reactions within individuals and communities, with these reactions potentially being inherited across generations. This impacts individuals’ functioning even if they have not directly experienced the original trauma [7]. This framework has been relevant in examining the experiences of individuals affected by domestic violence, the enslavement of peoples, and the decimation of Native populations. By incorporating this paradigm into the discussion, the aim is to provide insights into how young Hondurans might be manifesting traumas inherited from their ancestors. Crucially, this chapter will also highlight the efforts of those who are actively interrupting and healing these generational cycles of trauma, showcasing them as key figures in the practice of peace psychology.

1.5 Methodology

The methodology employed in this research is grounded in a blend of observational techniques and interviews, tailored to navigate the complex political landscape of Honduras. Given the sensitive nature of the subject matter, stringent measures were taken to ensure the anonymity and safety of participants. This involved a deliberate omission of names and precise locations within the manuscript. While every effort has been made to maintain the accuracy of the information presented, the identities, locations, and certain demographic details such as gender, place, and time have been intentionally altered. These modifications were necessary to safeguard the individuals who generously shared their experiences and insights, providing verbal consent for their contributions to be utilized in this study.

This research aligns with the principles outlined in qualitative inquiry, emphasizing the importance of ethical considerations and the responsible handling of sensitive information in research settings [8]. This approach underscores the need for researchers to be acutely aware of the potential implications their work may have on participants, particularly in politically volatile contexts such as Honduras. The methodology adopted here reflects a commitment to these ethical standards, balancing the pursuit of knowledge with the imperative to do no harm.

The narrative qualitative research method forms the backbone of this investigative approach, enabling a deep exploration of individual and collective experiences within the Honduran context. This approach is characterized by its emphasis on storytelling and the subjective interpretation of events by participants, providing rich, nuanced insights into the social, political, and cultural dynamics at play. By weaving together individual narratives, this research paints a comprehensive picture of the current state of Honduras, from the grassroots efforts to build a more democratic society to the lingering shadows of past traumas.

In situ observations further enrich the data collection process, offering a direct look into the daily realities faced by Hondurans. This immersive approach allows for a more authentic understanding of the lived experiences of individuals, beyond what can be captured through interviews alone. By situating the research within the actual environments where these stories unfold, a more textured understanding of the challenges and triumphs of the Honduran people emerges.

Data analysis was conducted through a rigorous process of coding and thematic development, with findings presented in conjunction with on-the-ground observations. This dual methodology not only provides a solid foundation for the research but also ensures that the voices of those at the heart of the story are heard and respected [8]. Through this careful and considered approach, the study aims to contribute meaningful insights into the ongoing struggle for peace and democracy in Honduras, while upholding the highest ethical standards in research practice.

2. History of colonization, tales of oppression

Honduras, nestled in the heart of Central America, is bordered by El Salvador and Guatemala to the north and Nicaragua to the south. Its strategic position provides access to both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, along with significant freshwater reserves. Recognized for its rich biodiversity, Honduras boasts lush rainforests, once-vibrant coral reefs, and a climate conducive to cultivating a variety of tropical staples, including coffee and chocolate. However, this nation has oscillated between being labeled as the most violent country in the Western hemisphere and ranking as one of the poorest nations in the Americas. This section aims to trace the origins of Honduras, elucidate the forces that have sculpted its current societal structures, and examine the country’s present-day context.

2.1 History of colonization

Honduras’s story, like much of the Western hemisphere, begins with the pivotal Encounter of 1492. Prior to European arrival, the Maya and Lenca civilizations thrived here, particularly between the sixth and ninth centuries AD. Copán was a cultural epicenter, celebrated for its advancements in writing, art, and architecture [9]. These civilizations were both advanced and prosperous but faced catastrophic decline under Spanish domination. Estimates are that the indigenous population in present-day Honduras plummeted from nearly 800,000 in 1520 to just 50,000 by 1550, raising questions about the long-term impacts of such dramatic population losses on a burgeoning nation [10].

The essence of Spanish colonization was twofold: economic exploitation and religious conversion. The colonizers were driven by a quest for wealth and agricultural commodities, as well as a zeal for converting indigenous populations to Christianity. Spanish rule in the Americas was marked by extreme brutality, transforming the region into a vast plantation system [11]. However, by the early nineteenth century, Honduras, along with other colonies, began to assert its independence. Initially part of the Mexican Viceroyalty and later Empire, Honduras emerged as a sovereign state in the early 1800s, adopting constitutional principles [1]. Yet, the transition to a stable republic was fraught with challenges.

As an independent republic, Honduras grappled with both internal strife and external pressures. The Catholic Church and the nascent democracy often found themselves at odds, polarized between the push for progress and the pull of traditional values. Furthermore, much of the population endured rural poverty, with mestizo (those from native and Spanish heritage) and indigenous cultures largely marginalized from political power and treated as mere resources to be managed [12]. Despite the slow emergence of a national identity, complete with unique contributions to literature and art, British colonial endeavors on the Mosquito Coast further complicated Honduras’s journey towards independence and a cohesive cultural identity [12]. It was not until 1981, with the end of British colonialism in Central America and the ceding of ‘British Honduras’ to Belize, that a chapter of external colonial influence was conclusively closed.

2.2 Banana republics and identities

In the dawn of the twentieth century, Honduras, along with its Central American neighbors, transitioned from an antiquated plantation economy to one focused on agricultural production. The early 1900s marked the beginning of significant investment by U.S. fruit companies in these nations, with Honduras emerging as a quintessential example of what would later be termed a ‘Banana Republic’ [13]. Although the contributions of native banana growers and the establishment of community-based trade networks might not be widely acknowledged, by the 1920s, the U.S. had secured formidable control over Honduran ports, railways, agriculture, and extensive areas of fertile land.

This shift turned Honduras into an agricultural powerhouse but also precipitated severe social and economic disparities, political turmoil, and the rise of authoritarian regimes. This scenario, often referred to as a resource curse, sees productive areas actual suffer for their blessings. In Honduras, a recurring narrative unfolded: laborers toiling on plantations called for fair wages and humane working conditions, culminating in movements towards unionization. Meanwhile, foreign corporations, primarily concerned with maximizing profits, entrenched themselves further into the country’s socio-economic fabric. Faced with a decision, the fragile Honduran government opted to side with these external entities, favoring the suppression of domestic dissent to safeguard their own grasp on power [12]. This pattern of prioritizing foreign interests over national welfare became a defining characteristic of Honduran politics, persisting up to the era of the most recent dictatorship. During this era, trauma could have been entrenched in communities that will manifest in unique ways later in the country’s development.

This period of economic transformation under the shadow of foreign corporations not only reshaped Honduras’s economic landscape but also left indelible marks on its social fabric and political identity. The legacy of being labeled a Banana Republic reflects not just an economic condition but a complex interplay of exploitation, resistance, and the struggle for sovereignty. It underscores the challenges faced by Honduras in navigating the forces of international capitalism and the quest for self-determination amidst external pressures and internal divisions [14].

The shadow of dictatorships and the legacy of colonization extend far beyond mere political oppression. Scholars have identified a concerning trend wherein post-colonial societies, particularly in Latin America, are predisposed to a cycle of underdevelopment, authoritarian rule, and continued susceptibility to external influence [15]. This pattern is starkly evident in Honduras’s experience with democracy throughout the twentieth century. Despite global shifts towards independence and self-determination during this period, Honduras found itself unable to fully disentangle itself from the vestiges of its colonial past. This era profoundly influenced the country’s international perception and its interactions with foreign powers.

The enduring impact of colonialism on Honduras’s political, economic, and social structures has been profound. The country’s struggle to forge a stable, autonomous path forward has been consistently undermined by the lingering effects of historical exploitation and interference. This situation has led to a pervasive state of vulnerability, where progress towards genuine democracy and development is repeatedly thwarted by the resurgence of repressive regimes and the strategic interests of more powerful nations [16].

2.3 Democracy amidst shadows of dictatorship

Colonization has been the seed of many issues in Honduras, and dictatorship the verdant leaf. The complex history of colonization has often been viewed as laying the foundation for unstable governments, strongmen, military intervention [14, 17]. Honduras’s political landscape is no different, and from the early 1930s onward, Honduras has been marred by a series of upheavals that severely impeded its democratic aspirations. The era commenced with General Tiburcio Carias Andino’s authoritarian rule from 1932 until 1949, setting a precedent for political instability that would persist for decades. This period was characterized by a succession of coups, military takeovers, and resignations, reflecting a nation in constant turmoil [18].

The quest for a civilian-led government bore fruit in 1981 with the election of Roberto Suazo Cordova, marking the first time in over a century that Honduras was led by a civilian. However, this transition was short-lived, as Cordova’s liberal centrist administration quickly lost ground to US-friendly General Gustavo Alvarez, who seized control of the armed forces. Honduras’s fragile democracy was further destabilized by external influences, including Sandinista incursions and the US government’s subsequent support for right-wing regimes across the Americas to counter leftist movements. The ensuing violence throughout Central America, particularly the Nicaraguan revolution and the Salvadoran civil war, inflicted a staggering human toll, with over 100,000 lives lost and widespread human rights abuses [19].

Even under civilian rule, Honduras grappled with the terror of death squads targeting marginalized groups, from homeless youth to gang members, reinforcing its notoriety as one of the deadliest countries globally. The political narrative took a significant turn with the election of Manuel Zelaya in 2005, who governed until his ousting by a military coup in 2009—a move that drew international condemnation. The aftermath saw the rise and fall of Juan Orlando Hernandez, under whose rule Honduras experienced severe drought, an influx of deportees from the US, and the controversial nullification of presidential term limits, culminating in the assassination of activist Berta Caceres in 2016 [20].

Xiomara Castro’s ascent to the presidency in 2022, becoming the country’s first female leader, marked a pivotal moment in Honduras’s modern history. Her administration followed the contentious reign of Hernandez, whose presidency was tarnished by allegations of drug trafficking, culminating in the revocation of his US visa and subsequent trial in New York for related crimes. This tumultuous journey underscores the resilience of the Honduran people and their continuous struggle for democracy amidst the enduring specter of dictatorship and foreign intervention.

3. Organizations bringing peace and security to Honduras

Honduras stands as a pivotal case study in peace psychology due to its complex history of colonialism, enduring legacies of foreign domination, and the resilience it has shown through periods of dictatorship. The essence of this resilience and the pursuit of a just society are epitomized by various organizations dedicated to fostering peace and security within the nation. This chapter illuminates the significant contributions of these groups, employing liberatory and community psychological principles to forge peaceful structures in a society emerging from the shadows of dictatorship. Their efforts shine as beacons of hope, exemplifying paths towards liberation from oppression.

3.1 Land defenders

The narrative of community resistance and resilience is vividly illustrated by the land defenders of the Aguán Valley in Honduras, a region of critical economic significance to the country. Situated in the northeastern provinces, the Aguán Valley spans approximately 200,000 hectares, boasting fertile land, abundant rainfall, and vital river access. Throughout much of the twentieth century, this valuable land was predominantly cultivated by international fruit companies to produce bananas and pineapples. However, as regional economic dynamics shifted, the valley experienced a period of neglect and disrepair. It wasn’t until the 1980s and 1990s that foreign corporations began to resettle the area, marking a new chapter in its agricultural exploitation [21]. By the early 2000s, the focus of investment in the Aguán Valley shifted towards palm oil production, a venture that has since come to occupy nearly one-fifth of the valley’s land. Palm oil, a major commodity in global markets, has contributed significantly to the pollution of the valley. Furthermore, the adoption of palm oil as a monoculture has led to the degradation of biodiversity, posing a severe environmental threat to the region. This shift in land use has not only environmental but also social repercussions. Many local inhabitants assert ancestral land rights over the areas now dominated by palm oil plantations [21]. These individuals express a fervent desire to reclaim their lands, motivated by a vision to prevent Honduras from succumbing to the adverse effects of pollution and the loss of ecological diversity.

In the Aguán Valley in Honduras, a movement fueled by resilience and a deep connection to ancestral lands is unfolding, led by a group known as the Central Committee. This group has adopted a strategy of direct action to reclaim the lands to which they hold historical titles, in a bold effort to revive their communities. The Central Committee’s approach diverges from conventional methods of land recovery, as it involves the members risking their freedoms, and in some instances, their lives, to assert their rights to the land. The Central Committee consists of hundreds of individuals who, armed with their historical land titles, have chosen to live in tent villages on the disputed lands. These lands are currently under the control of palm oil corporations, which view the members of the Committee as squatters. However, from the perspective of the Central Committee, they are not squatters but land defenders, committed to the cause of transforming the Aguán Valley back into a diverse and sustainable agricultural landscape that can support their communities.

The direct action undertaken by the Central Committee is characterized by its nonviolent nature, though the response from the government and corporations has often been anything but peaceful. The Committee has reported numerous instances where its members were detained by the government on charges such as illegal land use, obstruction, and even terrorism. Tragically, some members have lost their lives in this struggle. Despite the grave risks involved, the spirit of the community remains undeterred.

During a visit on the anniversary of their movement, Committee members provided a community meal and speeches that painted a vivid picture of their struggle: the loss of land to palm oil corporations, the environmental and social consequences of these changes, and the ongoing efforts to resettle the Aguán Valley. The gathering, which drew over a hundred Committee members, was a testament to their collective resolve. After the meal, this researcher was taken into the palm groves to witness the resettlement process firsthand. The scene was powerful—without weapons or legal representation, members of the Committee staked their claims on small plots of land, a symbolic act of defiance and hope.

“This is where our health clinic will be,” the young woman, holding an infant, told this researcher. As she spoke, the immediate surroundings were dominated by the invasive palm trees and overshadowed by a palm processing plant, its chimneys releasing black smoke into the sky, symbolizing the environmental and health adversities faced by the community.

An older man, casting a steadfast gaze towards the polluting plant, voiced a profound sentiment that resonated with a collective yearning.

“It makes us sick, but we stay,” he declared, his expression etched with the resolve to transform the land back to a state of productive agriculture, prioritizing the well-being of the community over the commodification and profit motives of corporations.

Further elucidating on the community’s blueprint for renewal, an elderly woman outlined the strategic development of infrastructure pivotal for economic sustainability. She spoke of a planned road that would forge a direct connection to the highway, thereby linking the community to the coastal regions. This infrastructure is envisioned as a vital artery for the community, facilitating the sale and trade of agricultural surplus, essential for the community’s economic rejuvenation.

“And this will be a road that leads directly to the highway. From there, the highway will connect to the coast,” she explained to the researcher, highlighting the importance of accessibility and trade for the community’s survival and prosperity.

“To stay is to fight,” she concluded, encapsulating the indomitable spirit of the community. This statement reflects a profound attachment to their land and a fierce determination to secure a sustainable future for their families. The community’s plans are not just about resistance but about a deeply rooted desire to foster a living environment where their children can grow, learn, and thrive in harmony with their surroundings.

Through their envisioned projects and the resolve to combat environmental degradation, the community members of the Aguán Valley are not merely advocating for their right to the land. They are actively laying the groundwork for a revitalized community, where education, health, and economic development go hand in hand with environmental sustainability. In their fight to reclaim and nurture their land, they stand as a testament to the power of community resilience and the enduring human spirit to envision and strive for a better, more peaceful future.

The land defenders in the Aguán Valley embody a profound and unique approach to community-driven liberation and psychological resilience through their practice of direct action. This ethos can be encapsulated in a phrase encountered during the visit: “Act now, sue later.” This strategy, while marked by its immediacy and urgency, carries with it significant risks, with the tragic assassination of Berta Cáceres, a Honduran political and environmental activist, standing as a stark reminder. Despite these dangers, the approach is not only bold but highly visible, drawing crucial attention and support to their cause. The image of community members standing defiantly with their historic land titles amidst the backdrop of tents, palm trees, and environmental devastation has not only resonated locally but has also captured the attention and support from international quarters, including the United States Embassy. Since 2014, the Embassy has embarked on missions to delve into the complexities of land-right disputes in the Aguán, seeking to mediate and understand the intricacies of these conflicts. Yet, the resolution to these disputes remains elusive.

As the time at the anniversary dinner ended, a poignant moment unfolded when a young girl and boy approached and sat with this researcher at dinner. For them, the Aguán Valley, as it stands today, is the only home they know, untouched by memories of past dictatorships or the world that existed before their time. This interaction sharply illuminated the reality that for the upcoming generations—whether mestizo or indigenous—their connection to this land is not just about reclaiming rights; it’s about affirming their identity and belonging. These young Hondurans, deeply rooted in their land, embody the future of their community’s enduring spirit and unwavering claim to their ancestral home, reinforcing the notion that for them, there is no alternative homeland. This profound attachment to their land underscores a generational continuity of struggle and hope, with the valley not just a piece of land but a cornerstone of their identity and future aspirations.

3.2 Island resistance and resilience

The Garifuna community on the island of Roatán, Honduras, also serves as a remarkable illustration of community resilience and resistance. This island, with its complex history of colonial claims by both Spain and Britain, is home to the Afro-Honduran Garifuna people. Known as “Black English,” these communities are bilingual, speaking both English and Spanish, a reflection of their rich heritage descending from slaves brought to work in the New World. For over five centuries, they have endured severe oppression and terror, yet they have preserved their traditional livelihoods, which include fishing, agriculture, and working in local industries [22]. Presently, they find themselves in a critical battle to sustain their distinctive way of life amid forces of ‘modernization’.

“Our home is here; we have no other option but to stand our ground,” as one Garifuna host expressed it. This declaration of resistance, articulated in Spanish, was not about physical confrontation, but rather a daily commitment to fight for their homes and way of life. This ongoing struggle is exacerbated by the introduction of privatized lands on Roatán, often propelled by foreign investments, creating tension with the local communities and the government led by Xiomara Castro. Under previous administrations, ‘prosperity zones’ were established, operating independently from Honduran laws, an action that the Garifuna community views as a violation of their land rights and dignity.

During exploration of one such zone, the contrast between the promises made surrounding prosperity and the reality on the ground was stark. The Garifuna, primarily employed in service sectors, find themselves alienated by the zones’ gated exclusivity, advanced technology, and the predominance of English within these privatized lands. The guides, young individuals educated abroad, showcased ambitious plans for the area, including high-rise condos, golf courses, and a business center catering to a global market with features like cryptocurrency trading. However, the reality was a far cry from these glossy projections, with basic infrastructure like roads in poor condition and a noticeable lack of sustainable environmental practices, as seen in the casual use of disposable plastic cups and the unfinished state of the construction projects.

Touring the zone, questions lingered about the true intentions behind these foreign-developed enclaves and the stark opposition from the Castro government. The discord between the zones’ portrayal of the government and the government’s stance against these developments underscores a deep conflict over the future direction of Roatán and the preservation of the Garifuna’s cultural and environmental heritage.

In their fight against the encroachment of ‘prosperity zones’, the Garifuna community is turning towards their ancestral practices and holistic health methods as a form of resistance and resilience. The host detailed how planting coconut trees serves a dual purpose: it is a stand against the intrusion of multinational corporations and a return to traditional healthcare practices.

“Coco [coconut] is essential in various medicinal products, yet its value is overlooked by corporations,” the host explained. The use of coconut in their community is extensive, offering a myriad of health benefits due to its rich antioxidant properties. “It was particularly vital during the pandemic,” she shared, crediting traditional medicines with maintaining lower rates of severe illness and mortality from COVID-19 within their community. Though these observations lack external verification, due to the remoteness of the area, they highlight a compelling field for further research.

The stark contrast between the Garifuna’s traditional lifestyle and the encroaching ‘prosperity zones’ was evident in the small town of West End. There, amidst the backdrop of golf courses and towering condos, was a traditional tea house. The Garifuna were crafting teas and remedies, using herbal medicine, tinctures, and syrups to support their community’s health. This recommitment to ancestral healthcare practices underscores their resolve to protect their cultural heritage from being commodified by ‘prosperity zones’.

“Our hope is to live the American dream right here in our homeland,” a local expressed, as machuca—a traditional stew made of ground green plantains and coconut sauce over fish, a dish that has remained unchanged since the arrival of Africans to the region was savored. “We don’t want to go anywhere else to get what we already have here.” This statement reflects a profound understanding among the Garifuna that while Honduras may sell off land rights to ‘prosperity zones’ and market its indigenous cultures to tourists, such ventures threaten their environment and way of life. Yet, they continue to resist, all while maintaining their innate hospitality.

“Would you like a bit more?” she inquired, offering more machuca. Her gesture, genuine and kind, underscored a moment of shared humanity, transcending the complexities of different backgrounds.

3.3 Labor rights and union movements

The struggle for labor rights and the advancement of union movements extends beyond the rural landscapes of Honduras, permeating urban centers and industrial zones alike. Workers across the nation are adopting similar community-based preventative psychological tactics as those practiced in the countryside, aiming to unify and empower labor forces in various sectors. The researcher engaged with two distinct groups during their investigation: one from the textile manufacturing sector and the other involved in beverage production and operations.

The Textile Union, representing workers in the garment manufacturing industry (“maquilas”), actively orchestrates the collective efforts of its members to address the challenges inherent in this sector.

“Dealing with each day feels like a psychological battle,” confessed one of the workers. The nature of their work is highly monotonous and poses significant risks of repetitive strain injuries affecting the shoulders, neck, arms, hands, knees, and hips. Initially, the Union recognized that mobilizing for their rights often resulted in lost working hours, a sacrifice many could ill afford due to the need to sustain their incomes. However, over time, the Union has evolved into a more professional entity, functioning as a pivotal community support system offering legal, medical, and referral services to workers injured on the job. These services cater predominantly to a young workforce, many of whom are under 30 and have childcare responsibilities at home. The apprehension around being penalized for taking necessary sick leave is palpable, with young mothers particularly concerned about becoming targets of such retribution.

To mitigate these issues, the Textile Union strives to amplify the concerns of their members, engaging in proactive negotiations with the international corporations that oversee the maquilas. Their goals are straightforward: to secure fair, livable wages and to improve working conditions. When diplomatic and preventive strategies fall short, the Union does not hesitate to resort to more assertive measures, including litigation, community demonstrations, fundraising events, and leveraging media attention to bring their plight to the forefront. Through these concerted efforts, the Union seeks not only to safeguard the well-being of its members but also to foster a more equitable and humane working environment in the textile industry.

“Honduran workers have long been viewed as expendable by the international corporations operating within our borders,” lamented one worker, sidelined from her job due to health complications stemming from prolonged periods of standing.

“They fail to equip us for success,” she added, capturing a widespread sentiment. This perspective was reinforced during a Union meeting, where workers implored this researcher to aid in amplifying their plight, stressing that global worker awareness is crucial for fostering improvement.

“We are not looking for joblessness but for respect from these corporations,” they articulated, highlighting the role of organizations like the Textile Union as catalysts for change in Honduras.

Similarly, the Beverage Workers of Honduras is another pivotal entity championing progressive labor practices. Given the central role of beverage production and distribution within Honduras and across Central America—despite the international branding, the workforce and logistics remain decidedly local—this researcher engaged with Beverage Worker representatives. Their approach towards instilling workplace harmony in the post-dictatorship era is notably ambitious.

“We advocate for a coalition among the Spanish-speaking nations of Central America, aspiring to forge a unity akin to the European Union in our hemisphere,” they shared, an aspiration that initially took this writer aback. The Beverage Worker’s vision extends beyond national borders, advocating for Central American solidarity.

“By solidifying the labor rights and opportunities across Panama, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador, and Guatemala, we aim to limit neoliberal forces and increase equitable labor conditions,” a union member explained. This collective bargaining power across the region is seen as a strategic countermeasure to the overwhelming influence of larger economies like the United States and Mexico, aiming to secure a fairer and more just working environments for all involved.

The Union of Beverage Workers (UBW) is deeply committed to upholding the human rights of workers within the workplace, emphasizing the need for a more balanced and equitable dialog between labor and management. This includes advocating for increased transparency in corporate governance and a reduction in the impunity often enjoyed by corporate entities. Furthermore, the UBW stands in solidarity with various groups fighting for the reinstatement of ancestral rights, recognizing that local communities and indigenous populations have often been sidelined or overwhelmed by the operations of foreign corporations. The Union advocates for the acknowledgment and development of these small-scale and indigenous enterprises.

A representative encapsulated their perspective on the broader economic challenges facing Honduras.

“Capitalism is faltering in our country. With nearly 40% of the population living in poverty and the majority of employment being temporary, the current system is unsustainable.” This sentiment underscores the Union’s vision for a future beyond the constraints of current capitalist structures. The UBW’s aspirations for unity and solidarity resonate with the broader themes identified in this research: the imperative to prepare, prevent, and resist. Through these efforts, they not only seek immediate improvements in labor conditions but also contribute to a larger movement aiming for systemic change in Honduras and beyond.

3.4 Political reforms and international affairs

In the realm of political reforms and international affairs, there’s a notable shift in the approach of the Castro government in Honduras, introducing policies aimed at fostering positive change. Concurrently, the United States and Canadian governments are recalibrating their strategies in Honduras, moving away from their historical support of the Juan Orlando Hernández administration, now viewed under a critical lens due to its illegal and authoritarian practices.

During meetings with both the U.S. and Canadian embassies, it became evident that there’s a conscious effort to redefine their diplomatic and developmental engagements in Honduras. A representative from the Canadian government pointedly distanced themselves from the term “narco-dictatorship,” highlighting a nuanced shift in narrative from past interactions that were deemed necessary for “doing business.” With JOH facing legal proceedings in New York, the tone and terminology have evolved, with both embassies acknowledging the authoritarian tactics under the “Hernandez Government” moniker yet signaling a move towards more transparent and accountable governance models.

Both embassies are cognizant of the changing socio-political landscape, especially considering favorable rulings from the Inter-American Court of Human Rights towards the Garifuna community and increasing global awareness around labor rights, union movements, and land disputes [23]. This acknowledgment reflects a broader understanding that the dynamics in Honduras are evolving, with the emergence of social media campaigns, political activism, and candidates stemming from grassroots movements like the Textile Union and Beverage Workers. The sentiment shared in these meetings underscores a recognition that international attention is gradually shifting towards these critical issues, indicating a period of transformation in Honduras’ political and social fabric.

The United Nations, extending beyond the efforts of the U.S. and Canadian embassies, is significantly involved in Honduras, launching various programs to nurture the nascent peace within the country. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights and the UN Development Programme are making strides to create inclusive spaces where Hondurans can freely share their experiences. A particular focus is placed on combating gender-based violence and encouraging small-scale, community-driven industrial innovations. The World Health Organization is active as well, working to enhance access to medicines, vaccinations, and health clinics for underserved communities. Concurrently, the UN Commissioner for Refugees is assessing the root causes of migration and labor exploitation, signaling a comprehensive international concern over the sustainability of Honduras’s current trajectory.

Amidst this international intervention, President Xiomara Castro’s administration is at a crossroads, endeavoring to break free from the legacy of previous governance while tackling pressing national issues highlighted throughout this discussion. The researcher learned of Castro’s initiatives aimed at reforming the country, such as limiting prosperity zones and curbing foreign dominance, despite the formidable challenge posed by well-resourced and globally connected opposition. Additionally, the government faces the daunting task of curbing the surge in gang violence and drug trafficking—a significant factor propelling migration northward. The dilemma is providing economically viable alternatives to the lucrative drug trade, a tough sell when foreign entities dominate critical sectors like agriculture and textiles.

This nuanced perspective on international relations, encapsulated by an activist’s poignant observation that “America [the United States] doesn’t have friends; it has interests,” underscores a broader skepticism towards the external influences shaping Honduras. This sentiment reflects a critical view of global dynamics, where profit-driven engagements are increasingly seen as unsustainable, both within Honduras and by its international partners and observers. The collective efforts of community groups and liberation movements are thus not just a call for local reform but a challenge to the prevailing global order, advocating for a more equitable and sustainable future.

4. Conclusion

From the time of arrival, one of the most striking and consistent scenes was the gentle care young men and women provided to the elderly, a testament to the deep-rooted compassion spanning generations observed everywhere from airports to fields. This observation challenged the northern research focus on epigenetics and the transmission of historical trauma, suggesting that Honduras embodies a powerful counter-narrative. Here, this researcher witnessed a nation not idly awaiting rescue but actively leveraging its own resources and structures to protect health and freedom. The commitment to preventing both personal and political oppression was unmistakable among textile workers and land defenders alike. The experience evoked an idea Paulo Freire put forth, that only the oppressed will have the strength and desire to liberate themselves, and by doing so, liberate the oppressor [17].

This study revealed a remarkable application of community-based grounded theory, particularly within the Garifuna communities, where practices were tested, adopted, or discarded with remarkable agility. The universal approach among all groups encountered directly confronted the criticism by Martin-Baró’s ‘neutrality of science.’ The prevailing belief in the necessity of science to remain objective and detached starkly contrasts with the path towards freedom and peace in Honduras. This researcher is hopeful that the insights gained, alongside the words and deeds of the individuals and groups featured in this narrative, will inspire, and assist others in their pursuit of a more free, healthy, and peaceful community.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to acknowledge the beneficent work of the Cross-Border Network for Justice and Solidarity for their guidance and care on this experience. Special financial support was given (and greatly appreciated) from St. John Fisher University for this project. Thank you to all the members of that community for your investment. Gracias a Paulita, keeping me safe for 100 years of travel. Lastly, thanks and acknowledgement of the true backbone of this, and so many other, tales: the Honduran people.