Perspective Chapter: Determinative Factors for Bridging Social Inequality Gaps – A South African Perspective

Abstract

South Africa’s society has been significantly impacted by its colonial past and apartheid policies, resulting in long-lasting disparities based on race, class, and gender. Historical events have shaped the social structures and organisations that maintain inequality. The country exhibits pronounced income inequality, exacerbating social inequalities by impeding individuals with limited resources from accessing necessities and opportunities for upward social mobility. This study is a literature review that uses qualitative content analysis and an inductive approach as the methodological framework. It aims to investigate the factors contributing to bridging gaps in social inequality in South Africa. The findings indicate that several key factors, such as limited access to quality education, basic services, and employment opportunities, have contributed to social inequality in South Africa. The government has implemented redistribution of wealth, affirmative action, black empowerment, subsidised education and skills training to improve employment prospects, low-cost health services, and affordable housing to reduce socio-economic inequalities. However, corruption and a lack of political will pose significant obstacles and constraints. The government needs to address these barriers and develop comprehensive policies to reduce social inequality in the country.

1. Introduction

South Africa is located at the southernmost point of the African continent and shares borders with Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, and Eswatini. Lesotho is surrounded by South African territory [1]. The country’s coastline extends along the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, providing diverse terrains and abundant natural beauty [2]. The population is over 54 million [3].

South Africa’s history is intricate and turbulent, characterised by the entrance of European colonisers in the seventeenth century and their subsequent exploitation of the native inhabitants [4]. The nation’s historical narrative encompasses the profound period of apartheid, a regime of racial segregation and prejudice that endured for almost 50 years till its eventual abolition in 1994. This apartheid era was accompanied by a significant battle for liberation, spearheaded by influential figures such as Nelson Mandela.

The San and Khoekhoe were the indigenous peoples of South Africa who inhabited Cape Point as nomadic hunters and herders before colonisation [5]. According to Thompson, Dutch settlers arrived in South Africa during the seventeenth century as part of the Dutch East India Company’s initiative to establish a refreshment stop for ships heading to the East Indies [4]. He states that the region was desirable for settlement due to its favourable climatic conditions and fertile soil.

South Africa has significant cultural diversity. The region has diverse ethnic groups, such as Zulu, Xhosa, Afrikaans, and others, each with distinct traditions, languages, and customs. Cultural diversity has substantially impacted the nation’s identity and added to its lively arts, music, and food.

Mpofu and Ndlovu-Gatsheni explain that equality, in legalistic terms, means that all individuals within a society should be considered equal under the law [6]. The concept of equal opportunities suggests that everyone has an equitable chance to realise their potential, cultivate their abilities, and dedicate themselves to a given task. They argue that equality of outcome can serve as a benchmark for assessing disparities in income distribution, persistent poverty, and similar circumstances.

Durrheim et al. argue that social inequality in South Africa remains deeply entrenched and persistent since the era of apartheid [7]. They maintain that although the apartheid regime was officially abolished in 1994, the lasting effects of racial segregation and economic inequalities continue to influence the country’s socio-economic conditions significantly. In light of this concern and the continuing struggle of the post-apartheid government to address social inequality in the country, it becomes necessary to undertake this study on the determinants of bridging gaps in social inequality in South Africa to contribute to the existing body of literature on the subject.

This chapter is a literature review that employs qualitative content analysis and an inductive approach as the methodological framework to investigate the extent to which the determinative factors contribute to bridging gaps in social inequality in South Africa. The research question has been formulated as follows: to what extent do determinative factors contribute to bridging gaps in social inequality in South Africa?

In order to address the research question, it is crucial to consider the historical context, the legacy of colonialism in South Africa, and government policies and initiatives aimed at redressing historical injustices. It will assess the progress made in addressing social issues and call for continued efforts to address the lasting effects of colonialism on South African society. The research highlights the need for policy interventions and social changes to foster increased equality and social justice by analysing the fundamental causes and outcomes of social disparity.

The historical context, colonial legacy in South Africa, and government policies and initiatives designed to address historical injustices. The progress in addressing social issues will be assessed, and a plea will be made for sustained efforts to address the lasting effects of colonialism on South African society.

It is hypothesised that determinative factors play a significant role in bridging gaps in social inequality in South Africa. The findings from this research design contribute to the existing body of knowledge on this topic and provide valuable insights into addressing social inequality in South Africa. The following section looks at the research methodology.

2. Research methodology

This study is a literature review, employing a qualitative content analysis and an inductive approach as the methodology framework. Qualitative content analysis systematically analyses and interprets textual data to uncover deeper meanings, themes, and patterns [8, 9]. According to Leavy, this approach is a text-based analysis method [10]. In the context of South Africa’s legacy of colonisation, which continues to impact societal concerns such as racial inequality, land ownership, and cultural identity, this method offers valuable insights into the determinative factors for bridging gaps in social inequality in the country.

The study uses a data collection technique that combines documentary and observational methods, allowing for a detailed evaluation of published information and real-life observations. The author has observed the South African government’s approach to addressing social inequality for two decades. Documentary material was analysed, including relevant publications, books, academic articles, and reports. The subject under investigation was also directly observed. Combining data collection techniques enhances comprehensiveness and improves the validity and reliability of the findings.

The data’s analysability was ensured through coding and thematic analysis methods [11]. A methodological process of classifying and examining the collected data revealed distinct patterns and themes, providing a deeper understanding of the research question.

The study utilised an inductive mode of thinking, which involves drawing general conclusions from specific observations or data [12]. This study employed inductive reasoning to analyse the data and identify patterns or trends that could help to explain the extent to which determinative factors contribute to bridging gaps in social inequality in South Africa. This method facilitated a more comprehensive understanding of the factors in addressing socio-economic disparity.

3. Historical context of social inequality in South Africa

This section discusses the historical context of social inequality in South Africa. Therefore, a complete understanding of the historical background is essential to fully grasp the pervasive socio-economic inequalities in South Africa today and the urgent need to acknowledge and mitigate these inequalities.

The socio-economic disparity in South Africa has its roots in the country’s colonial past and the implementation of apartheid [3]. The arrival of European colonisers in the seventeenth century established a system that would persist and perpetuate socio-economic inequalities for generations to come. The colonisers, mostly of Dutch and British descent, imposed their dominance over the native African population, leading to the establishment of racial segregation and prejudice. The introduction of apartheid in 1948 worsened these inequalities by systematically oppressing the predominantly black population, denying them fundamental rights and opportunities [5].

The apartheid era in South Africa refers to the period from 1948 to 1994 when the National Party government implemented a system of institutionalised racial segregation and discrimination [5]. The programme aimed to maintain white minority dominance and control over the political, social, and economic structures of the country while deliberately suppressing and marginalising the black majority. The apartheid administration implemented legislation that enforced racial segregation and restricted the movement and access to resources of non-white citizens. These discriminatory policies exacerbated socio-economic inequality among racial groups, such as favouring businesses owned by white individuals and limiting access to capital for non-white entrepreneurs.

These policies isolated and subjugated black Africans, Coloureds, and Indians through enforcement. Non-whites were banned from moving and denied access to quality education, health care, housing, and employment opportunities. For example, Bantu education policies aimed to provide black Africans with a separate and inferior education compared to their white counterparts [3]. Nevertheless, education plays a crucial role in perpetuating or challenging social inequalities. Access to quality education can effectively narrow cultural divides, contributing to social inequality. Access to basic services such as health care, housing, and clean water significantly impacts an individual’s quality of life and can contribute to social equality. In addition, land ownership remains a highly contested issue in South Africa due to historical injustices and land dispossession that have left many black South Africans without access to land, with economic and social consequences.

The apartheid system created a distinct separation between the affluent white minority and the disadvantaged black majority, resulting in significant disparities in access to education, healthcare, housing, and employment opportunities. The lasting effects of apartheid are apparent in South Africa’s current social and economic structure. Ongoing disparities perpetuate social marginalisation and hinder progress towards a more inclusive society. Additionally, the lack of employment opportunities and income inequality exacerbate social inequality by restricting upward mobility and perpetuating the cycle of poverty.

Magidimisha and Chipungu argue that educational policies have had a disproportionate impact on the labour market, resulting in marginalised black Africans being limited to low-paying jobs. The issue concerns the exploitation of non-white labour and unequal pay for equal work, perpetuating economic disparities. Discriminatory housing and land ownership policies further reinforce these disparities. For example, non-white South Africans were forced to live in remote and underdeveloped areas without access to facilities or employment opportunities. As a result, they experience higher rates of unemployment and lower wages compared to their white counterparts ([13], p. 9). Additionally, limited access to high-quality housing perpetuates disparities in living standards, intensifying housing and residential segregation. The marginalised population experienced limited access to basic services, societal benefits, and economic participation [3].

Furthermore, inequalities in healthcare infrastructure and resources existed between non-white and white communities during the apartheid. The non-white population experienced a higher incidence of health issues and shorter life expectancy due to restricted access to healthcare services [3]. The poor healthcare infrastructure and services in communities of non-white individuals have worsened health disparities. Individuals belonging to non-white racial groups encountered obstacles in obtaining high-quality healthcare services, resulting in inferior health results in comparison to their white counterparts [13].

The long-lasting effects of apartheid, including intergenerational trauma and socio-economic disadvantages, continue to contribute to health disparities among racial groups, even after the end of apartheid [14]. The inequities in healthcare outcomes serve as a singular illustration of the enduring consequences of this authoritarian system.

The role of activists and organisations in confronting apartheid cannot be overstated, as their efforts have resulted in substantial societal transformation. However, it is important to recognise that the effects of apartheid are still being felt today, and there are ongoing challenges in addressing socio-economic inequality. It is essential to continue striving for social justice and preventing the perpetuation of further injustices in South Africa in order to avoid the continuation of the negative impact of apartheid.

It should be noted that the end of apartheid alone does not guarantee the necessary improvements in the health of the nation. The government needs to address the underlying factors that contribute to poor health, which are closely linked to the inequalities associated with capitalism [14].

4. Current state of social inequality in South Africa

Although South Africa has implemented numerous progressive policies and legislation to address historical inequalities [15], the country remains one of the most socio-economically unequal countries in the world [16]. As already noted, this inequality is the result of apartheid policies such as Bantu Education and job reservation, which have a clear racial impact. Durrheim et al. assert that the discrepancy in South Africa has become more prominent. On the other hand, they contend that de-racialisation has occurred since the African National Congress party was elected [7].

The most apparent manifestation of racialised inequality can be seen in data relating to income, and the higher socio-economic classes ([7], p. 16). A consistently high Gini coefficient above 0.658 indicates that the country has one of the highest levels of income inequality in the world [5]. As a result, a significant proportion of the population struggles to access basic necessities and opportunities for economic advancement. Inequalities in education persist, particularly between different racial groups, as marginalised individuals have limited opportunities to access quality education and necessary resources [3]. In addition, access to basic amenities such as drinking water, sanitation, and healthcare remains a significant challenge for some South Africans, particularly those living in informal and rural settlements. In the words of Durrheim et al., ‘life in the black townships was harsh, characterised by widespread poverty and unemployment and a lack of facilities such as electricity, water, waste disposal and sanitation’ [7].

5. Factors contributing to social inequality

There is an ongoing debate and no clear consensus on the factors contributing to social inequality. In South Africa, it is widely accepted that the legacy of the apartheid regime mainly influences the emergence and maintenance of inequality. Social inequality in South Africa is linked to structural factors such as the enduring effects of apartheid, land ownership, and the dynamics of the labour market.

Wabiri and Taffa state that socio-economic hierarchies were established through policies supported by the apartheid government [17]. These hierarchies have resulted in the reproduction of various injustices, particularly against the black majority who have experienced discrimination. The policies and actions of the apartheid government have left a legacy of unequal development in South African society. Socio-economic inequality is interconnected with factors such as race, gender, and geography, creating uniquely challenging circumstances for specific demographic groups. Understanding these complex dynamics is essential if social inequality is to be addressed effectively.

Wabiri and Taffa analyse the impact of the introduction of a democratic system of government in 1994 on the hopes of the oppressed majority of citizens [17]. They are sceptical that the post-apartheid government has successfully redressed past injustices to strengthen democracy. They conclude that, given the existing structure of the post-apartheid state, achieving socio-economic justice will be difficult, if not impossible. This is because the country’s problems are deeply rooted in its structure.

In order to reduce the gaps between social groups, it is essential to direct resources towards improving education, health, and infrastructure in economically disadvantaged regions. Inclusive policies can help South Africa achieve a more equitable society by providing equal opportunities for success and well-being. According to Lago, one of the goals of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development is to address inequality, a central aspect of the United Nations mandate [18].

6. Consequences of social inequality

Societal inequality in South Africa has far-reaching ramifications that substantially affect various populations, particularly regarding water, sanitation, and healthcare accessibility. It perpetuates a cycle of poverty and limits opportunities for upward social mobility, ultimately hindering the overall advancement of the economy. Lago agrees that inequality hinders progress by affecting economic growth, redistribution, power imbalances, democratisation, human rights, and perpetuating chronic poverty [18]. They argue that excluding specific demographic groups, such as women, youth, and marginalised communities, from equal opportunities and resources can limit their ability to contribute to the economy.

People who have faced long-standing disadvantages often experience poverty, restricted upward social mobility, and a profound sense of exclusion. For example, women are significantly impacted by social inequality. Despite the policies and legislation aimed at achieving gender equity in post-apartheid South Africa, there is still a noticeable gender disparity at all levels. Gender inequality reinforces a cycle of unfair treatment and disadvantages, which hinders women’s ability to obtain education, employment opportunities, and decision-making authority. For example, women face significant obstacles in accessing equal opportunities in the labour market, resulting in lower pay and limited professional advancement [13]. This hampers their personal growth and development and has broader implications for society’s progress and well-being.

Socio-economic inequality also affects young people. Limited access to quality education and employment opportunities contributes to high youth unemployment rates, leading to pessimism, dissatisfaction, and disillusionment. According to Rogan, access to employment opportunities in post-apartheid South Africa is still heavily imbalanced [19]. The study discovered that university access patterns are significantly impacted by the school system, which determines which students reach grade 12 and achieve a bachelor-level pass, the minimum requirement for admission into undergraduate degree programmes. Walker et al. found that several factors influence access, including the 12th grade, the school attended, the relative wealth in the school area, race, sex, age, and geographic location (urban, rural, and province) [20]. Access to schooling varies significantly based on race and income. District, race, gender, age, and geography (urban/rural and provincial) are significant factors.

Walker et al. argue that this situation creates a negative cycle, limiting opportunities for progress and increasing vulnerability to poverty and social marginalisation [20]. These circumstances can lead to social unrest, higher criminal activity rates, and missed economic growth and innovation opportunities. Furthermore, the most significant impacts of social inequality are experienced by marginalised individuals, including those living in rural areas and informal settlements. Disadvantaged communities have limited access to basic services such as clean water, sanitation, and healthcare. These conditions perpetuate the cycle of poverty and poor health. As a whole, social inequality in South Africa has multi-faceted repercussions.

Socio-economic inequality has the consequence of undermining the nation’s social cohesion, confidence, and political stability. This perception arises from the state’s inability to deliver on its promise of improving the lives of the black majority through meaningful and noticeable changes. As previously mentioned, the unequal distribution of resources and opportunities significantly affects the health outcomes, crime rates, and social mobility of individuals and communities perceived to be marginalised. According to Wabiri and Taffa, it is disheartening that our country’s failure to dismantle socio-economic power structures has led to a widespread perception of the state’s ineffectiveness [17]. Consequently, addressing socio-economic inequality is crucial for creating a fairer society and ensuring the long-term stability of South Africa. In order to achieve success in addressing these issues, it is necessary to implement comprehensive and targeted policies and programmes.

7. Strategy for bridging the social inequality gaps

A strategy for addressing social inequality in South Africa should be comprehensive and multi-faceted, targeting the root causes of inequality. The government has implemented various policies and programmes to address historical injustices and promote equal opportunities for all citizens.

The South African government has enacted the most comprehensive affirmative action to reduce social inequality. Affirmative action in South Africa is a significant government policy to rectify past injustices and promote social equality. It is a term that originated in the United States of America (USA) and includes a series of measures implemented by employers, university admissions offices, and government agencies to go beyond mere non-discrimination [21]. The programmes aim to address the historical inequalities caused by apartheid by providing opportunities and resources to previously disadvantaged populations.

The government has taken steps to enhance the representation of historically disadvantaged groups in different sectors, including education, employment, and business ownership, through affirmative action. These policies have provided opportunities, ensured fairness for marginalised communities, and promoted diversity in all areas of life. This is particularly true after the end of apartheid in 1994 [21]. Archibong and Adejumo state that the Employment Equity Act (EEA) 55 (1998) and the Broad-Based Black Economic Empowerment (BB-BEE) Act (2003) and subsequent amendments serve as the primary legal structures for the enforcement of affirmative action in South Africa [21]. Companies are required to adopt affirmative action measures to ensure the inclusion of previously disadvantaged groups in the workplace.

The Black Economic Empowerment (BEE) programme is a policy in South Africa aimed at enhancing the involvement of historically disadvantaged black individuals in the economy. It achieves this through preferential procurement and employment equity, creating opportunities for disadvantaged groups and addressing social inequality ([22], p. 194). Unfortunately, only a few black individuals and their companies have emerged as prominent black partners in specific deals, some of which seem connected to the ruling party [22].

In addition, the government has implemented various skills development programmes and initiatives to enhance access to high-quality education and skills development programmes [23]. These initiatives empower underprivileged individuals and equip them with the necessary resources to enhance their socio-economic status. They have disrupted the cycle of poverty and facilitated upward social mobility by implementing strategies such as providing additional financial resources to schools in disadvantaged regions and offering grants to students from economically disadvantaged backgrounds.

Thus, the government has launched the Expanded Public Works Programme (EPWP). The EPWP aims to provide job opportunities and skills training to the unemployed. The EPWP offers temporary employment in infrastructure construction, environmental protection, and social services. However, its effectiveness in creating long-term employment and sustainable economic growth is still debatable [24].

The National Student Financial Aid Scheme (NSFAS) is an effort to provide financial assistance to poor students seeking higher education. Although the NSFAS has improved access for many students, there are concerns about its long-term viability and the need for other support structures to ensure student success beyond financial aid [25].

In addition, the government has implemented various housing initiatives, such as the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP), to aid low-income households in finding affordable housing. While these projects have made progress in meeting the population’s housing needs, issues such as insufficient infrastructure and limited access to essential services persist [26]. Overall, government programmes and efforts have made progress in addressing socio-economic inequalities. However, it is important to continuously evaluate and improve these strategies to ensure their effectiveness in reducing social inequality in South Africa.

While significant progress has been made in addressing social inequality, it is crucial to acknowledge that market dynamics and other factors may still hinder their effectiveness [23]. However, there has been ongoing debate and analysis regarding the effectiveness and outcomes of affirmative action in addressing social disparities. There are varying perspectives on its impact. Some argue that implementing affirmative action has successfully addressed inequality and improved equal opportunities for all South Africans. This has been accomplished by prioritising the recruitment and advancement of individuals from underprivileged communities. Archibong and Adejumo argue that affirmative action has improved the situation of black men and women despite criticism from opponents [21]. Lee suggests that affirmative action policies have significantly increased black enrolment and higher education attainment [23].

In contrast, others argue that affirmative action has resulted in reverse discrimination and a sense of entitlement. In their studies, Burger et al. ([27], p. 18) show that affirmative action has partially closed social inequality gaps. They posit that the earnings gap has only narrowed for high earners and remains significant despite the implementation of affirmative action legislation and that marginalised groups still face significantly higher unemployment rates. Burger et al. suggest that effective affirmative action measures alone are unlikely to eliminate economic disparity or poverty [27]. They further assert that implementing affirmative action policies requires additional support from interventions such as ongoing improvements to access high-quality schools, on-the-job training programmes, and active labour market policies aimed at marginalised groups. Also, community development initiatives prioritising enhancing infrastructure and facilitating access to fundamental services in disadvantaged regions have significantly reduced social inequality disparities [28]. These programmes mitigate the scarcity of resources and opportunities in these communities, contributing to establishing a fairer society and enhancing the general welfare of its inhabitants.

In order to establish a more equitable and inclusive South Africa, it is essential to adopt a comprehensive strategy that addresses the various factors driving social inequality. This includes structural, governmental, cultural, and societal factors. Prioritising investments in education, healthcare, infrastructure, and job creation is crucial to ensuring equal opportunities for all residents. By implementing this approach, South Africa can reduce socio-economic inequality and cultivate a more inclusive society.

8. Challenges and limitations

Despite ongoing efforts to address social inequality, South Africa faces many challenges and limitations in pursuing genuine equality. A significant obstacle lies in the enduring effects of apartheid. This historical legacy has profoundly shaped the social fabric of the country. These effects have led to ongoing racial and economic disparities, which pose challenges in addressing social inequality [29]. This is because, as Makgetla argues, the democratic state did not directly tackle the issue of overall inequality or wage disparities in the workplace [30]. Instead, the emphasis was placed on expanding labour rights for all workers, allowing them to organise, negotiate, and engage in strikes without fear of retribution from employers. Additionally, minimum employment standards were established, including minimum pay for some industries.

Furthermore, limited access to quality education and healthcare exacerbates inequalities, particularly in marginalised communities [30]. The perpetuation of social stratification is also fuelled by the lack of job opportunities, especially for disadvantaged groups. Additionally, corruption and mismanagement of resources pose significant obstacles to the successful execution of policies and programmes addressing inequality [23]. These challenges and limitations pose significant obstacles to achieving social equality in South Africa and require comprehensive and targeted interventions.

Although effective policies and programmes have been implemented, social inequality in South Africa persists due to deep-rooted systemic challenges and a lack of political will to tackle the underlying causes of inequality [31]. Furthermore, although education, skill development, and job creation are important, they may not be enough to reduce social inequality effectively. To address this issue, it is also necessary to address underlying structural concerns such as land ownership and wealth distribution.

9. Conclusion

South Africa’s history of colonialism and apartheid has had a profound and enduring impact on its society, resulting in entrenched inequalities in terms of race, class, and gender. Historical factors have played a significant role in shaping the social structures and institutions that perpetuate inequality. South Africa has a highly unequal income distribution, with a minority owning a significant proportion of the nation’s wealth. This economic disparity exacerbates social inequalities, as people with limited resources face challenges in accessing basic necessities and opportunities for social mobility.

Nevertheless, the post-apartheid South African government has implemented potential policy interventions to address social inequality. These include wealth redistribution, affirmative action, black empowerment, increasing funding for education and skills training programmes to improve employment opportunities, expanding access to affordable health services, and implementing affordable housing initiatives.

The exploration of government policies shows that South Africa is making a determined effort to redress past injustices. However, despite progress, significant disparities in social inequality remain to be addressed. The need for continued advocacy, policy reform, and improved support for marginalised populations are all variables that will determine whether or not these inequalities will eventually be addressed. It is of the utmost importance that ongoing efforts are sustained in order to adequately address the long-term effects of colonialism on South African society and to achieve genuine social justice and equality.

It should be emphasised that a number of critical factors have influenced social inequality in South Africa. These include access to quality education and basic services, employment opportunities, and effective government policies prioritising social justice and equality. Despite a reduction in socio-economic inequalities in South Africa, significant obstacles and constraints remain. Corruption and a lack of political will have hampered efforts. The government needs to address these barriers and develop more comprehensive policies to reduce social inequality in the country. It must analyse its current situation, promote inclusive economic growth, and address systemic barriers such as discrimination, corruption, land ownership, economic opportunity, and the empowerment of marginalised communities.

Acknowledgments

The author would like to express his gratitude to the Intechopen publication process manager for allowing him to contribute a chapter to the book project entitled “Bridging Social Inequality Gaps - Concepts, Theories, Methods and Tools”. The author would also like to thank his wife, Rosette Kakwata, for her understanding and support during the long hours of work required to complete this chapter.

Conflict of interest

“The authors declare no conflict of interest”.