Towards Integrated and Sustainable Water Management in Water-scarce Arid Environments: Case of Sudan

Abstract

In water-scarce arid region, integrated strategy for water resources management is critically needed to cope with water scarcity and the ever increasing demand and pressure on water resources induced by lessened rains, warming climate tendencies, population growth, and environmental sustainability considerations. In Sudan, despite the “relative” abundance of multi-sourced water quantities, yet the spatiotemporal variations adversely affect water availability and accessibility to the population majority in various arid and semiarid parts of country. Water deficit hampers achieving the socioeconomic development, especially in the concurrent climate change, large-scale transboundary river damming, conflicts over water resources, growing population, and economy contexts. Efficiently addressing of these issues and enhancing water resources management strategies are imperative necessities. Integrated water resources management (IWRM) approaches and GIS techniques can together improve decision-making and sustainable management strategies in these changing climatic and hydrological systems. IWRM as inclusive framework and participatory approach while GIS represents spatial analysis tool for water resource monitoring, vulnerability assessment, planning for addressing demands, and adaptation alongside accounting for population growth and climate change. This chapter discusses the state of water resources, efforts for efficient management, and prospects of enhancement in Sudan, to attain sustainability amidst the recently changing physical and anthropogenic environments.

1. Introduction

Water management is a globally challenging issue that threatens various of sectors and multi-leveled users. In spite of its renewability, water resources are recently being researched and increasingly questioned in terms of their quantitative and qualitative availability over space and time by several groups of users at various uses and fields, for instance, households, agriculture, and industries [1].

Water resources management currently confronts an increasing burden and excessive pressure induced by many factors, to mention some, global warming, global population growth, urbanization, and the ever-growing economy and industries. Water management, thus, does not only encounter the quantitative and qualitative adequacy challenges; the spatiotemporal obtainability, the sustainable and ecological-friendly water utilization, is required as well [2].

This was because of the crucial and vital roles water resources play for each field of life and human life activities [3, 4]. Besides the importance of water for the different life aspects and activities, water management issues and their relevant research have gained a rising attention among the researchers of various professionals, science, and engineering disciplines such as geography, civil engineering, environmental sciences, and others.

Communities and nations, likewise, organize themselves in relation to water and develop institutions and practices to manage it [5]. As several of endangering and adversely affecting natural and human factors confront effective water resources management and threaten life and economy. The warming tendencies and lessened and variable rainfalls induced by climate change [6], population growth, and its accompanying activities such as urbanization, and industrialization, justify for the importance of studying water resources and the increasing attention paid to consistently tracking of its quantities and qualities since the ancient ages up to this moment of history.

Since time immemorial, human societies grew and prospered around rivers and freshwater courses, and several of ancient civilizations prevailed and thrived then failed according to their success and failure in agriculture and irrigation systems, which was indicating the stability and economic power of state. It is obvious that water is not only related and necessary to all different life aspects and activities. But it is a main determinant factor for the state to sustain and a crucial element shaping its socioeconomic profile and cultural aspects [5, 7, 8].

Over thousands of years, investments and innovations in water management have contributed to socioeconomic development and substantial civilizational achievements [7, 8]. This contribution has been instrumental in providing water supplies for drinking and irrigated agriculture, facilitating the attainment of these accomplishments [9]. There are intricate connections of water with the sectors of food, energy, health, and community development.

This crucial role of water in the various sectors highlights the importance of its sustainable management for achieving the overall sustainable development [2, 10]. Additionally, it highlights the necessity of incorporating water security considerations into policies and methodologies to ensure the preservation of water resources for the well-being and prosperity of present and future generations [9, 10].

Taking a lesson from history, as Sudan possesses considerable water resource base, developing these water resources and properly managing and exploiting them offers a tremendous opportunity for economic development, social viability and eventually establishing a strong and developed country such that political stability is achieved.

Therefore, this chapter attempts to highlight how GIS and IWRM approaches can be used as spatial analysis tool for water resource monitoring, vulnerability, assessment, and planning for utilization and adaptation in Sudan. To improve decision-making and management strategies in the changing hydrological and climatic patterns. This will help to properly manage water demands, account for population growth and climate change, and ensure that water is used efficiently and sustainably. Hopefully, this will be a slight contribution in pushing the wheel off development in Sudan forward.

2. Sudan’s hydro-geographic and climatic settings

Hydrologically, Sudan water resources are generally divided into two major sources: Nile and non-Nile sources. The Nile source is the river Nile and its tributaries rivers that flow in Sudan. Non-Nile sources of water are mainly represented on the groundwater, seasonal running rivers, and valleys “wadies” and the rains water.

Proper understanding of the state of water resources and planning for their management and development require a solid knowledge of the physical and human geographic contexts of the country. Geography and geographers, on the other hand, have an interest in studying water from both environmental and anthropogenic perspectives and implications. Because there are relationships among water and the sectors of food, energy, health, and community development. The role water plays in all of those sectors is significant and indispensable.

For this, the quest for water security, preserving water rights of future generations and setting approaches and policies for effective water management, should bear into consideration the geographic knowledge, as a basis to and understand water phenomenon and how it affects and being affected by the urban environment, physical and biological ecosystem components, as well as the socioeconomic traits. Geographic methods manipulate all of these variables properly and equally. This knowledge of geographic settings and extent will facilitate well delineation of water characteristics and potentialities in Sudan for purposes of planning and formulating development strategies.

Sudan is located in the northeast of the African continent between 8°–22°N, 21°–39°E, surrounded by Egypt from the north, and on a counter-clockwise basis comes Libya, Chad, Central Africa, South Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea in the north, while the Red Sea separates it from Saudi Arabia. Look at Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Previews location and some geographic aspects of Sudan.

This location refers to the fact that country is situated in the tropics, and the predominant climate of Sudan is a continental climate, except in the regions of Red Sea surroundings and other mountainous and highlands. However, the country is laying over extensive and varied tropical lands, where several climatic and ecological zones prevail and vary south-northward from high rainfall savanna lands to the hyper-arid Sahara desert. While semiarid and low-rainfall savanna lands prevail in the central regions.

The inherited continental climate of the so-called intertropical convergence zone, “ITCZ”, gives causes of spatial and quantitative variations of the Sudan rains; temporal and seasonal disparity is a further defining characteristic of Sudan rains. For this, rainfall patterns in Sudan vary annually and geographically, depending on ICTZ, extreme northern region receives almost no rain, central regions receive moderate rates of 200–700 mm, while the southern part rains exceed 1500 mm.

These rains, known as “the monsoon” that precipitate seasonally (June-September), are the Sudan’s most prevailing rainfall; it is very critical climate variable for greater part of Sudan and majority of it is population as it plays a significant role in major economic and productive activities as the essential water source for people, animals, agriculture, and natural vegetation, respectively.

The geologic map of Sudan denotes that the country is formed into several geologic formations that contain aquifers. Therefore, groundwater is potentially available in large areas of the country. Major aquifers cover more than 50% of the area of the country, and they fall into: The Nubian sandstone aquifer, the Um Ruwaba formation, the recent alluvial Wadi aquifer, and the hard rock aquifers of the basement complex [11]. Studies indicate for plentiful groundwater amounts in Sudan but not agreed on an exact estimation.

Topographically, The Nile River system, as the dominant physical feature, penetrates the country from extreme south to the northern border in extended plains that gently slope to the north and disturbed with few inselbergs and some other limited mountainous highlands, such as “Jabel Marra” and Red Sea mountains. Nile is not only the main factor shaping the principal geomorphological and topographic aspects of the country, but it is also the main drainage system of the country.

Throughout much of the country, most of wadies and rivers of Sudan drain toward Nile basin, that is, into Nile or one of its tributaries, some of them succeed to reach the Nile while others lost in the surrounding plains [12]. However, number of watercourses of Sudan drainage system do not flow toward the Nile, such as “Khor Baraka” and “Alqash” seasonal rivers and some other wadies in the western region of Darfur.

Prior to the confluence at Khartoum, Nile tributaries enter the country as white and blue Niles. The White Nile starts in southern part and maintain an extremely low gradient until it is joined by the Blue Nile. The Blue Nile rises in the Ethiopian Plateau and contributes much of the floodwaters of the Nile. Nile then keeps flowing in northward curving course [12] to form a great river system and major water source in Sudan.

Regarding the socioeconomic profile, despite the rapid pace of urbanization (from 8.3% in 1956 to approximately 40% in 2015), Sudan remains rural in social, economic, and cultural outlooks with the majority of the country’s total population (around 36 million in 2014) living in rural areas and pursuing extractive livelihood systems based fundamentally on the direct utilization of land and natural resources. Land-based renewable natural resources, therefore, are the backbone of the principal sectors of the Sudan economy [13]. The major economic activities in the country are agriculture and grazing. Another sector dependent on rainfall is gum Arabic production, of which Sudan is the world’s leading producer [14].

Furthermore, the diversity of environmental conditions, especially in relation to water availability, rainfall amount, and soil type has given rise to a wide variety of habitat and livelihood options. As a typical African Sahel, on Sudan’s central rain lands that extend from west to east, water is a main limiting factor to development in addition to local environmental conditions and technical and marketing constraints; for the reason that resources management, land use system, economic activities, and human adaptation were concentered on traditional rain-fed cultivation and animals herding. These processes have affected cultural and social landscapes as well as the economic relationships amongst the population groups [13].

Other minor employment and livelihood means are witnessed in Sudan, nevertheless the above-mentioned form the holistic socioeconomic aspect of the country and prevail the most. Obviously, all are directly related to water resources. For this, the contemporary geographic, hydrologic, and socioeconomic contexts of Sudan waters urge an immediate intervention and science-based action from the government of Sudan to protect the country’s population and economy from the threats of water resources.

3. Water resources between security and scarcity

The state of water viability in a region is judged by the quantitative and qualitative availability of water. Water is usually addressed and evaluated using various criteria that are commonly expressed about through certain terms referring to the quantitative state of water such as water security, water scarcity, water stress, and others. However, there furthermore specialized and technical terminologies to highlight the state of the water.

Until recently, the discussion of water issues occurs most commonly within the frame of water security and scarcity. This is generally used to express the overall state of water availability for the needs of the population in a particular location. However, with developments of very specialized scientific domains and the technological advancements, water security/scarcity description has undergone through very technical and specified quantification and measurements using mathematical modeling, according to the discipline of study.

For this, water security/scarcity concepts and standards are now being examined and debated at different levels, ranging from global and regional and end with household and individuals’ levels of water security. Moreover, it is common that water security and scarcity are defined, explored, and discussed within specialized fields such as agriculture, public health, and food security in a customized standards and approaches.

Water security is defined as the provision of acceptable quantity and quality of water for health, livelihoods, ecosystems, and production in conjunction with a level of water-related risks and their impact on the environment and economy [15]. According to the UN, water security is the ability of people to sustainably maintain access to sufficient quantities of water of acceptable quality, to maintain livelihoods, human well-being, and social and economic development, to ensure protection from waterborne pollution and disasters related to water, and to preserve ecosystems in a climate of peace and political stability [16].

For this, one can say that water security is generally achieved through sustainable management and efficient use, which prevents lessening of the quantitative and qualitative availability of water and reduces the risks facing water in general.

Water scarcity, on the other hand, can be defined as the state of general shortage that a region suffers from in its sustainable water resources. The state of water scarcity is generally exacerbated by several climatic factors, reliance on a shared water source, and increased water losses due to the increase in population, consumption, and evaporation [9]. While water resources endure limited and not increasing and developed, steady in favorable conditions. It goes without saying there is a state of water scarcity when demand increases, while available water resources are limited, or exceeding sustainability limits.

4. Water resources in Sudan

Sudan is among the least developing countries that is situated in the arid regions and populated with rural communities, in majority. The population of Sudan predominantly relies on extractive and primary economic activities. Therefore, they will be significantly affected by the environmental, climatic, and economic factors that are caused and affected by the water deficit as economy and livelihood means are directly interrelated to the water.

Therefore, it goes without saying, climate and environmental change, poor governance, and socioeconomic factors are among many causes and effects for water scarcity in Sudan [17] and eventually led to adverse consequences, such as, the poverty, food insecurity, poor and inefficient water management systems, and others.

Well-studying, documenting, accurate measurements, and monitoring of the state of water resources are key prerequisites for improved utilization and efficient management that based on informed policies [9]. For this, it is worthwhile and important to delineate the state of water resources and supplies in Sudan, identify their challenges, and highlight possible improvement interventions.

4.1 The current state

The River Nile and its tributaries are the primary sources of water in Sudan, accounting for 73% of the annual freshwater [18]. According to the REDD+ estimations, Sudan’s total natural renewable water resources are estimated to be 89 km³/year, including 20% from rainfall and the remaining 80% flowing in from the origins of transboundary upstream. It worth mentioning that, Sudan is utilizing about 14.6 billion cubic meters “BCM^3” of its 18.5 BCM³ share of the 1959 Nile waters agreement. The overwhelming part (96.7%) goes to agriculture, domestic household withdrawals, and industrial sectors amount to 2.6 and 0.7%, respectively [13].

Regardless the Sudan share from Nile and the actually utilized quantity, the reliance on externally generated surface waters is a key feature of Sudan’s water resources, and this is critically important to economic development in the country as the flow of waters is highly variable on the annual basis and subject to long term regional conditions due to political, environmental, and climatic changes. This marks a reduction susceptibility of Nile as main water source for Sudan.

In addition to Nile Sudan experiences incidence of other water sources such as rainfall, surface flow, and groundwater. However, Sudan water resources are relatively limited and disturbed by the uneven quantitative distribution of that water regionally and seasonally. In unfavorable climatic conditions, rainfall received had showed variability and large deviations from the recorded and projected mean annual rainfall.

The greater part of the country lies within the arid and semiarid zones of high evaporation rates and low rainfall, approximately, less than 300 mm annually. The total amount of freshwater from internal and external sources is approximately 30× 109 m3/year, bringing the per capita water availability below the water stress limit of 1000 m3 [19]. This was further exacerbated by the fact life and economy in Sudan revolve around water.

In spite of its various water sources, generally, Sudan is suffering from the insufficiency in water resources, and in overall national scale, the water balance is negative. According to the National Water Corporation, the water demand, 32.1 km³ per year, has already exceeded the country’s total water resources of 29.5 to 31.5 km³ per year.

Furthermore, the expanding national population with a 3.2% annual growth rate puts further strain on water balance. For this, with an annual availability of 500–1000 cubic meters per year for individual, the ESCWA study assessed water availability per capita for Sudan population, using the abundance/scarcity scale, the study concluded that Sudan, in overall, experiences a state of water scarcity, regardless of local and environmental variations in each region or locality [20]. The below figure indicates the accessibility of locals at different regions over the Sudan (see Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Shows the accessibility rate to fresh water for each state citizens. Source [21].

Owing to this weakened management in developing arid countries, such as Sudan, there is always a distinct rainy season, followed by a dry period for the rest of the year. During summer, precipitation occurs mostly in convective rainstorms that are typically scarce and of short duration, but sometimes can be very intense. This, at times, causes massive water runoff and results in devastating floods [22].

By looking at water data and the corresponding population taking into consideration the steadily growing economy and population size. Accordingly, in the following figures, intersections of rain quantities and distribution as the main source for water in greater parts of Sudan, the incident temperature, and population distribution give general indicators to drought index and water availability over the country (Figures 3-5).

Figure 3.

View the contrasts the distribution of rains and population over Sudan. Source: Prepared by the authors.

Figure 4.

Shows the trends of annual mean temperature of Sudan (1901–2022). Source: [23].

Figure 5.

Displays the trends of annual mean of rain incidents in Sudan (1901–2022). Source: [23].

From the above overview, despite the substantial freshwater resource base, that is, almost half of the Nile Basin is found within the country, considerable rainfall amounts and groundwater aquifers are globally renowned, Nubian Sandstone Aquifer in particular. However, the poor management, very basic infrastructure, and undeveloped groundwater reserves had hindered the achievement of water security and bridging the acute disparity of inter-regional water availability and remarkable spatiotemporal fluctuations. One can say Sudan has tremendous water potentials and potentialities with poor and inefficient exploitation.

Obviously, this state of water had negatively impacted the planning, design, and construction processes of water infrastructure development and management [22]. Likewise, the water imbalance has not only hampered the economic development and adversely influenced people’s lives, it is further a causative source of economic hardships in the drier regions and a driving force for conflict in the country [13] owing to the predominance of rural society and economy throughout the country.

To alleviate that hardship, the clear understanding of constraints and opportunities of the available water resource base, the integrated planning and development, good governance, appropriate institutional framework, and proper policies and regulations, are all prerequisites for achieving national goals of the improved water management, hence, sustainability, poverty reduction, economic growth, resilience and better adaptation to disasters induced by climate and water scarcity [24].

4.2 The encountered challenges

The state of Sudan water resources, with its all of different sources and forms, can be characterized by “the uncertainty”. All of the Sudan water sources are shrouded in uncertainties as no adequate and detailed studies covered them, and also there is no information system or national database that stores data and constantly monitors change over time, except of few and scattered studies.

Accordingly, Sudan possesses a various array of water assets along with rainfall, groundwater, and nonconventional water resources along with wastewater reuse and desalination. However, every single water source encounters one or more threatening challenge, whether natural or anthropogenic, which complicate sustainability of that source and hinder the improved utilization and development opportunities.

In the endeavor of sustainable exploitation and management, rains and surface water, Nile and non-Nile resources, confront many challenging threats on both earth surface and atmosphere; to mention some, not limited to transboundary damming, warming tendencies, climate change-induced lessened and variable rain patterns, in addition to the spatiotemporal variations of water resources that influenced the water supplies and accessibility, especially in arid Sudan rain lands [18, 25].

Recent climate projections indicate erratic seasonal rainfall, greater inter-annual variability, and more frequent and intense droughts will prevail in Sudan [26]. These all are very challenging as these are not subject to full human control, and their variability is unpredictable, at times to the water policymakers. However, modeling of scenarios, strategic planning, strategic adaptation measures, and preparedness, will significantly aid enhancing water management.

Uncoordinated transboundary damming, uncontrolled floods, the lack of the data and studies for planning, technical and technological incapability, poor infrastructures, lack of complementary and profitable projects associated with water resources, absence of strategic plans to address the threats, and development of surface water resources clearly indicate the weakened institutional water governance.

In the same regard, groundwater is not better and similarly confronted by the above-mentioned challenges and further ones, that is, one of the main difficulties in groundwater management is that differently from surface water, groundwater is not directly visible to the decision-makers, its response is usually very slow, and the consequences of any management policy are not immediate and could take a long time before they are realized. However, despite they are the essential prerequisites for any successful assessment, planning, design, operation, and management of groundwater systems. Sudan faces critical challenges of lack in of quantitative and qualitative monitoring and scarcity of information on aquifers geometry and their hydrogeological characteristics [11].

In spite of the considerable number of previous studies that have been conducted on groundwater resources in Sudan, there is no unified and exact value of their estimated strategic potential. However, the various literature estimates refer to the hugely abundant groundwater quantities. Regrettably, the proper planning and decision-making for Sudan’s groundwater utilization is still challenging and needs further detailed and specialized studies. Nevertheless, proper planning and decision-making for Sudan’s groundwater utilization is still challenging and needs further detailed and specialized studies. Groundwater monitoring and water information system in Sudan have been very minimal and suffered huge deterioration over the years as a result of inadequate finance and capacity [11].

International coordination for equitable use and development is another impeding factor to sound management of Sudan groundwater. Sudan shares several aquifers with neighboring countries, this includes, the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer with Egypt, Libya, and Chad, and the Um Ruwaba Aquifer shared with South Sudan. Nevertheless, there is not yet a regional institutional arrangement for the sharing of water from this aquifer [11]. The below table summarizes and highlights the challenges facing the various water source management, see Table 1.

Categories	Groundwater	Surface water	Atmospheric water
Natural and environmental challenges	Pollution and mineral dissolving Salinity	Limited storage vessels Uncontrolled floods Evaporation High sediment rate and Water Hyacinth	Warming climate Regional and seasonal disparity
Socioeconomic challenges	Population growth Pollution Changing water use patterns	Population growth Pollution Rapid economic growth Changing water use patterns	Lack of water harvesting
Political and administrative challenges	Political instability Shared aquifers No coordination between the countries	Political instability	Regional and seasonal disparity
Inter-regional and transboundary challenges	Unbalanced Development Conflicts over aquifers Transboundary basins	Down-upstream Conflicts Uncoordinated river damming Unbalanced regional development competitiveness
Technical challenges	Not easy to manage Absence of lanning and strategic agenda Lack of data for planning Inadequate investments and finance in water sector	Lack of DB and ISa Poor infrastructure Lack of effective harvesting projects Poor river development Lack of data for planning	Uncertainties Insufficient preparedness and adaptive measures Lack of data for planning

Table 1.

Summarizes the challenges hindering achieving water security in Sudan.

For this, an urgent intervention and more enhancements should take place. Sustainability measures and policies should be made along with the studies and strategies for developing these water resources. All based on detailed and ad hoc studies and prescription of the challenges and threats of the water resources sustainability.

5. Paving for water resource enhanced and sustainable management: GIS and IWRM roles

The levels of planning for water management vary in scale from international to local [9]. This chapter concentrates on Sudan specifically, for this the discussion of water security on this chapter will be confined on the national level of water security.

One of the principal roles of national-level water security planning is to concentrate on utilizing water resources to achieve the economic and social development for different communities. For this, it is vital to involve balancing technical and administrative requirements for the water sector within the dynamic political landscape to realize overarching interests. Adopting a comprehensive and integrated participatory approach by involving all stakeholders in planning and implementation and then clearly defining the strategic goals of water security are imperative necessities.

The absence of precise scientific analysis, continuous and regular water resources inventories, population census, agricultural and industrial inventories, and proper estimation of the needs of each sector collectively and specifically, poses major challenges to sound planning based on scientific foundations that incorporate accurate data and robust knowledge of the reality of water resources in Sudan.

This is combined with the currently international heated competition and conflicts over water resources on the international level amid the concurrent technological and scientific capabilities leading the massive transformation in perspectives of water security and various national security in general, for example, mega dams and securing substantial expansion in agriculture and industry that consume ample water amounts.

The lack of monitoring, surveillance, and associated infrastructure are among the primary challenges facing the water sector. It further leads to poorly diverse and accumulated data required for the planning and informed decision-making. To bridge this gap, the use of modern monitoring and surveillance systems technologies will provide plentiful data. Utilization that numerous data sources and their diverse applications and modern data analytics and modeling capabilities will enable having integrated and inclusive perspectives for various field to decision-making that considers the various fields such as agriculture, population, and hydrology, to achieve a balanced development agenda via sustainable water resources management.

The government officials and academics should conduct a wide and precise field inventory to determine the quantitative and qualitative parameters necessary to achieve water security and meet the requirements for economic and social development. Additionally, there should be continuous planning and efforts to conserve and develop necessary water resources through sustainable and innovative solutions. Innovations in water management sector should work on finding integrated and complementary water resources management, through enhancing the resources resilience amid context of pressing factors and limited resources, to achieve and endure water security.

In short, with special reference to Sudan, increasing the political will, using the recent technological solutions, following more participatory approach, and reforming technical and institutional support, considerably contribute to reaching the state of water security and stabilizing its relevant socioeconomic consequences to foster development.

Water resources management is a complex issue that encompasses various tasks and activities with different spatial and temporal scopes. The complexity of tasks increases when transboundary water issues arise, introducing additional factors such as diverse legislation, policies, and information system frameworks in countries sharing the watershed. Designing, building, and operating water information systems are crucial for the successful management of water resources throughout all stages, including assessment, planning, design, operation, and management.

Water information systems can serve both short term and strategic tasks for water resources management, through providing real-time information on the location, availability, quality, and current uses of local and regional water resources data, thereby enhancing sustainable water management and knowledge-based decision-making. Therefore, in the framework of paving for water resource enhanced and sustainable management, GIS and IWRM have critically important and revolutionary roles that will enrich the water management and pave the road toward sustainable water management, as explained in following:

5.1 GIS roles

GIS is a powerful tool that assists, with major transformations, all of the natural resources management kinds. The development of GIS has empowered practitioners and mangers to better understand land, its dynamics, and how resources such as water interact with it. In relation to sustainable agriculture, water management, and environmental conservation, this understanding is useful.

GIS plays an essential role in the management of water resources. It helps visualizing and verifying spatial data related to water sources, including water quality, water quantity, and water distribution. Water sources can be monitored, climate change vulnerability can be assessed, and modeling techniques can be advanced using GIS. Additionally, it can be used to identify areas at risk of water shortage and analyze the impact of human activities on water resources [27].

GIS can help improve decision-making and management strategies by providing accurate and up-to-date information on water resources [28]. GIS is utilized to delineate the sub-catchment in hydrological modeling analysis, and it is convenient to calculate runoff at the outlet. GIS techniques can be used to evaluate the flow characteristics of rivers and streams in arid climates [29]. It can also be used to create maps and models that can be used to predict future water availability and to plan for future water demands [30].

In addition to the aforementioned advantages, in Sudan, as water data is typically collected by government institutions, lacks consistency and spatiotemporal coverage, and changes in water management approaches and practices affect the quantity and quality of the required data and information. Water management has become more interdisciplinary, requiring additional data on the quantity and quality of surface and groundwater to plan solutions for water resource-related issues. GIS helps that all besides giving and analyze the data of remote sensing that are convenient and cheaper to collect when compared with field data collection.

Hydrological data can be classified in various ways. The most common classification includes temporal, spatial, and primary data categories [31]. Based on these criteria, data can be classified in a database and decision support system for planning and employing the most suitable strategies for water utilization, taking advantage of its intense data collection, storing, and analysis.

GIS will enable bridging the gap of acute data availability and give scenarios for policy and decision-making. Data distributed in time and space can be managed using GIS applications, and imitation systems can be developed using collected data. Water resources can be researched, analyzed, and efficiently utilized using GIS [32].

It is essential to develop, operate, and maintain the hydrological and meteorological data network. Regular reviews and redesign of the station network are necessary to ensure data quality and reduce errors. Having solid databases is a prerequisite of efficient management as it will enable establishing and fueling decision support systems “DSS” and information systems “ISs” that are significantly helpful in proper decision-making.

Decision support systems are commonly created and designed for various purposes in water resources management, such as involving data collection, creation of suitable scientific models, and determining decision-making mechanisms to achieve the system’s goals. In the field of water management, these systems are often used to allocate water for specific purposes, such as agriculture or industry, considering factors such as quantity and quality in proportion to water availability [31].

However, a decision support purposed to efficient management and management of water resources could designed and operated [33]. A typical decision support system is designed based on the outputs of the data processing system, translating available information into practical and applicable actions [31]. This enables decision-makers to study various water management scenarios and choose the most appropriate one.

Decision support systems in water management commonly address tasks such as suitable decision-making in water allocation, analysis of appropriateness, and planning for the exploitation of water resources, development of water sources, study and monitoring of water quantity and quality, computation of water quantities and usage branches, and conservation of environmental and economic aspects of water resources. According to [31], these systems are needed and can be used for various purposes related to water resources in Sudan, the usages and applications include, not limited to:

1. Quantitative and qualitative assessment of the country’s water resources.

2. Planning, designing, and operating water projects.

3. Environmental, economic, and social impact assessments for sound resource management and strategic planning.

4. Early prediction and safety measures for water-related risks.

5. Allocation of water among different users.

6. Determination of water quantities for industrial, domestic, and agricultural use.

7. Analysis of river characteristics and required uses of flowing water, such as fishing and transportation.

8. Environmental characteristics, such as damages to ecological systems.

In summary, GIS is a crucial technology and platform in order to connect the hydrological information systems to a database, along with information on water usage to make it ready for use in water resource planning and management. GIS is vital for Sudan, especially as an important tool for handling water resources planning to ensure that water is used properly and sustainably, in accordance with the predefined plans Figure 6.

Figure 6.

Indicates how a typical DSS works. Source: Designed by the authors.

5.2 IWRM approach

Integrated water resources management (IWRM) is a process that aims to coordinate the development and management of water, land, and their related resources in order to achieve maximum economic and social welfare in an equitable manner, while also preserving the sustainability of vital ecosystems [17].

The IWRM is a valuable approach for sustainably managing water resources. Its implementation is widespread across many countries worldwide and has proven effective in improving water security, reducing water pollution, safeguarding aquatic ecosystems, promoting economic growth, and enhancing human health [34].

Innovations in IWRM can contribute to improving the quality, sustainability, and efficiency of urban and agricultural water services by integrated and coordinated utilizing of water, in example, reusing household wastewater to meet the needs of both industrial and agricultural sectors. In Sudan, collaboration in shared water resources enhances and supports decisions toward water security sector. Adopting SWOT analysis is considered a valuable and systematic tool for strategic-level water management planning, formulating necessary operational policies, studying water, planning for its resource development, and optimal utilization and preservation (Figure 7) [9].

Figure 7.

IWRM planning and implementation stages. Source [34].

The philosophy of IWRM approaches is built upon a “global belief” and have an overarching perceptions on water and community and how they interact and influence each other. For this, IWRM is theoretically based on the following principles: including, not limited to:

• Water is a finite and vulnerable resource.

• Water development and management should be based on a participatory approach that involves all stakeholders.

• Water should be managed in an integrated manner, considering its multiple uses and the interconnections between water, land, and other resources.

• Therefore, water management should be based on sound science and technology.

• Water should be managed in an equitable and sustainable manner, both within and between generations.

6. Suggested interventions and action plans for enhancement in Sudan

Sudan is facing environmental and ecological challenges, and the most important and threatening ones are related to weakened water resources and water scarcity such as drought and desertification. Because the greater part of Sudan population is rural communities of farmers and pastoralists, who are well-known for depending on rainwater for livelihoods.

The rural Sudanese are often displaced by changing landscapes and a lack of agricultural yield. As a result, demand for water rises in accordance to rising population and their different activities, while water supply remains limited and steady, if not decreased by pressing climatic factors. Several reasons contributed to this misery, to mention some, warming climate, population and urban growth, economic development, transboundary water issues, and water pollution.

To address these challenges and strengthen water sources, it is vital to undertake integrated techniques for water control. The integration of integrated water resources management (IWRM) processes and GIS techniques can improve decision-making and control strategies inside the face of changing hydrological and climatic patterns. GIS can be used as a spatial analytics tool for water tracking, vulnerability evaluation, and planning. The below listed interventions are suggested to improve water management practices in Sudan:

1. Conducting a comprehensive quantitative and qualitative assessment of the country’s water resources. To enable planning, designing, and operating water projects.

2. Formulating and adhering to a national strategic plan that covers environmental, economic, and social impact assessments for water resource management.

3. Preparedness for future climate scenarios and anticipate their prospective role in the climate to enable establishing early prediction and warning and safety measures for water-related risks.

4. Planning for allocation of water among different users and sectors equitably in the light of development within the national strategic plan frame.

5. Well specifying of water quantities for industrial, domestic, and agricultural use. To enable detection, the deficit and follow the integrated water usage among various sectors.

6. Bridging the gap in knowledge and available datasets. Through unified data formats and integrated databases for all sectors and fields related to water resources.

7. Introducing a computerized geoinformation system, as a base for easy, affordable, quick, and (efficient and reliable) data collection and baseline surveys, which cover an in-depth study of the geography, environment, and resources of the country with quick and constant updates.

8. Finding a mechanism for international and regional coordination and cooperation to protect the countries interests that related to water.

9. Achieving the political and managerial stability and institutional reform.

7. Conclusion

Owing to its inherited physical and human geography, Sudan is facing dire ecological challenges, such as water scarcity and desertification. Because the greater part of Sudan population is rural communities of farmers and pastoralists, whom are well-known for depending on rainwater for livelihoods. The rural Sudanese are often displaced by changing landscapes and a lack of agricultural yield. As a result, demand for water rises, while supply remains limited and steady, if not decreased by pressing climatic factors.

Water stands as a principal factor for development and crossing from pastoral community toward the industrial society. Therefore, the development and prosperity of the nations are strongly linked with providing development projects for rural communities and enhancing living standards. This transformation, from pastoral to agricultural, and subsequently to industrial society, forms the basis for the stability of these communities. Thus, emphasis on securing water resources plays a crucial role in facilitating significant developmental projects, such as irrigation and animal production initiatives.

Sudan, as any of arid environments, is highly susceptible to degradation, and water resources must be protected from waste, pollution, or unsustainable use. Therefore, it is necessary to reduce the adverse hydrological and environmental impacts of water consumption, as well as consider how internationally shared persistent water resources could be used to enhance scarce water resources. Twining GIS and IWRM together would significantly help to address the challenges hampering of water sources to reach the state of security and sustainability.

Acknowledgments

With immense gratitude, the authors would like to extend thanks and acknowledgment to their former supervisor, the associate professor at University of Khartoum Dr. Badr Eldin Taha Osman for his dedication, constructive guidance, fatherly advice and support, and continuous motivation for scientific research.