Perspective Chapter: Loneliness through Time – Geographical Distance, Sensibility Isolation, and Hyperconnectivity

Abstract

Human beings are social by nature, and the poverty or lack of social interactions carries significant consequences with loneliness being a concern in a close relation to these interactions. In this sense, social disconnection due to several forms of discrimination has also been a concern, particularly in the context of two related phenomena: geographical distance and social discrimination, there are multiple examples throughout history. For instance, insightful evidence provided by early voyagers emphasizes the need for inclusion. In opposition, the modern society characterized by the wide use of technology has paradoxically allowed social disconnection through the problematic use of technological devices in several contexts, especially in the case of young users. Societies are complex systems in constant change. The dynamics among various elements of society should be the object of constant reflection to keep the balance and solve every social problem as soon as it appears. The potential of technology makes it a very powerful tool for both connection and disconnection. Therefore, it constitutes a priority to focus on the importance of keeping the balance in its usage.

1. Introduction

ἌΝΘΡΩΠΟΣ ΦΎΣΕΙ ΜἜΝ ἜΣΤΙΝ ΖῺΟΝ ΠΟΛΙΤΙΚΌΝ (Greek for: Man is a political animal by nature), the human being, by definition, is a social being. Aristotle mentioned this centuries ago in his Politics, determining the nature of humans by the existence of the surrounding community or polis [1]. Current research has provided genetic evidence to support this claim. Thanks to the domestication of fire, cooking, and child-rearing, a scenario for coordinated, collaborative, and competitive practices emerged [2]. In opposition, the possibility of loneliness and isolation appeared with its natural negative consequences. The act of interacting and growing through the constant exchange of thoughts, experiences, or even the opportunity to share space, silently defines the social being opening the door to the opposite as the denial of humanity.

Loneliness has been defined as an unpleasant feeling as a consequence of a lack of companionship and a wish for a different kind of interaction [3] Both loneliness and isolation are naturally related to emotional health, but at the same time, they have proved to be linked to general health [4]. Fostering inclusion is not only about wellbeing but also about health. Having the opportunity to share with others, either in education, cultural, political, or social processes, has the potential to support wellbeing. There is research about the impact of both loneliness and isolation on blood pressure and, as a consequence, on cardiovascular disease [5, 6, 7]. At the same time, Mindfulness has been found to have a positive impact on stress and wellbeing [8]. This last factor underlines the importance of emotional factors over physical ones, which helps us understand the difference between the low emotional isolation of some famous characters, even when they were geographically distant, opposite to geographical proximity and social disconnection as features of current societies.

2. The encounter of two cultures

This analysis follows the path of history to dig in loneliness. Fifteenth-century journeys shaped the world, it is a fact. Nevertheless, it was not a peaceful encounter: Eurocentric view of visitors led to a whole process of conquest [9]. Both Columbus’s discovery of the route to the Americas and Vasco da Gama’s linkage of Europe and India had important consequences for the Western world, Modern ego cogito was preceded by ego conquiro, a practical conception where both Spain and Portugal imposed their will over what will be called the American nations. Their evident superiority over the Aztec, Mayan, Inca, and other cultures from this new territory is not discussed. One of the most outstanding attributes was that European weapons were not built on steel but on wood [10].

This Eurocentric/Anthropocentric vision of the world was not new nor exclusive to Spain and Portugal. Centuries before, Aristotle himself had established a very closed vision, naturalizing slavery in the Hellenic world [11]. In its politics, we can see numerous examples of it, as when uttering slaves are naturally featured by nature, but not among barbaric people since the governing element is not present there [12], something that would support this view. Otherwise, the amount of resources provided by this conquest will play a leading role catapulting this ascending power far over other cultures like Turkish in the famous Lepanto Battle (1571) [12]. Thus, the empowerment of Europe (Spain and Portugal in particular) was not an isolated event but the result of its encounter with the new world and the resulting harnessing of its resources.

The Eurocentric view, widely criticized nowadays, was not the absolute rule among Spaniards. Already in the sixteenth century, a few authors were criticizing this Eurocentric view of the world, mainly Las Casas, known for his defense of Indians, but also a defender of African slaves and Canarian Guanches:

For as the blacks see that the Portuguese are so anxious for their slaves, because of their greed for what they give them, as well as their lack of faith and fear of God, as many as they can steal and captivate in any way they can, and their own kinsmen do not forgive, and so they only approve of their tyranny and wickedness and unjust wars, which they wage against one another for their slaves. [13]

In the case of the Indians’ defense, Las Casas’s arguments were opposed to the Eurocentric ones, defended by Ginés de Sepulveda in the Valladolid Debate, where the central question is: Are the Indians inferior beings or equal to Europeans? The huge impact of this debate can be easily understood, if we consider the fact that it could affect the exploitation of resources (mainly gold and silver) in the recently discovered mines in the New World and the Empire spread to the West [14]. “Between the start of Pizarro’s military expedition in 1531 and 1536, the original conquistadors sent enormous quantities of gold and silver to Europe.” [15].

2.1 The first voyagers through the New World and the impact of their discovery

The massive arrival of European people to the Americas, starting at the end of the fifteenth century, became a connection between the so-called New World and the Old One. After the flood of European conquerors, some scientists also traveled, mainly to discover new treasures to enrich the European powers according to the ideas of Enlightenment. [16, 17]. The exchange between nations would contribute to developing new conceptions, even if it took time to be set in the optimal way to profit both sides. Findings like the treatment of malaria through Cinchona, originally used by Indigenous peoples and then adopted by Europeans even before its scientific description by La Condamine, according to the study of Joseph de Jussieu [18]. In turn, American Indigenous people had access to crops and agricultural technology coming from the Old World [19].

In 1687, Newton’s postulation of Earth’s shape in his Principia. The idea behind was rather simple, gravitational attraction near the Equator is weaker due to the greater distance to the center of our globe, and it was probed by the pendulum oscillation measures by Jean Richer. Contrary to Newton, Jacques Cassini claimed the Earth to be flattened at the Equator and supported his claim with the observations of his father, Giovanni Domenico Cassini. As a result of this controversy, the French king Louis XV ordered Pierre Louis Moreau de Maupertuis to conduct an expedition and resolve the debate. Not one but two expeditions were conducted: the first to Lapland and the second to Peru [16].

Previously in the seventeenth century, the bark of certain trees from Peru became known as a powerful remedy in Europe. Nevertheless, even if the bark was widely accepted, its first scientific description came from Linnaeus in 1742 after some specimens were sent by La Condamine [20]. Such a discovery would constitute a milestone in the development of medicine and would become the source of an important income when introduced to Ceylan, because of its content of quinine more than a century later [21].

Concerning another important finding, rubber, names like Christopher Columbus, Pietro Martyr d’Anghiera, or Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo are mentioned, but once again, the detailed description of the origin of such material and its obtaining came with La Condamine in 1736 [22].

When dealing with food, other important products, whose consumption contributed in a certain way to shape nutrition, are now part of our diet. Maize was mentioned by the same Fernandez de Oviedo in his History of Indies, in 1526 [23]. Manioc, mentioned by several voyagers including the same Columbus in his first voyage, and Pedro Alvares Cabral when traveling to Brazil, even if mistaken by yam, or inhame [24]. Tomato, a product that soon appeared in the gardens of Italian aristocrats, was later studied by Renaissance naturalists, even if the specific geographical origin is not clear [25]. Another crop, the potato, was first observed in 1551 by Pedro de Valdivia, reported by López de Gómara in 1552, and then, documented from the Canary island in 1567 [26].

Nevertheless, not everything was beneficial. Europeans are reported to start smoking as soon as 1492, in Cuba. Soon after, tobacco smoking arrived in Europe from the New World since the very first voyage of Columbus. There is evidence of the imprisonment of a European smoker in Spain for three years by the Inquisition [27].

So, American products were gradually integrated into European society, even with mentions of antiquity as suggested by the Italian name of the tomato: Pomodoro. According to Greek mythology, golden apples grew in a garden that was guarded by the Hesperides nymphs. Nevertheless, there were also polemics around as shown by the fact that tomatoes took nearly three hundred years to be regularly consumed [28].

2.2 Geographic isolation and traveling issues

It is hard to believe that Ecuador, a place visited by more than fifty thousand tourists even in the Middle of the COVID-19 pandemic [29], was isolated before the nineteenth century. Even more surprising than the Galapagos islands, one of the first UNESCO World Heritage sites in 1978 [30], mainly because of its biodiversity, and visited by around twenty thousand people as early as 1980 [31], has been described as follows:

It is to be doubted whether any spot on earth can, in desolateness, furnish a parallel to this group. Abandoned cemeteries of long ago, old cities by piecemeal tumbling to their ruin, these are melancholy enough; but, like all else which has but once been associated with humanity, they still awaken in us some thoughts of sympathy, however sad. Hence, even the Dead Sea, along with whatever other emotions it may at times inspire, does not fail to touch in the pilgrim some of his less unpleasable feelings. [32]

What is more, it is hard to believe that this globally known natural paradise has been described as “[a place where] they found nothing but sea lions, turtles, and giant tortoises, each of which carried a person on its back.” Alternatively, even: “Believing that, due to its size and monstrosity, it must have rivers and fruits, we went towards it. The first island might have been about four or five leagues in circumference, and the other might have been ten or twelve leagues. In the meantime, we drank the water we had on the ship and spent three days reaching the island, facing many difficulties during the calm weather, both men and horses alike.” [33].

Regarding the continental territory, the Republic of Ecuador, centuries after La Condamine would explore the territory with the same Eurocentric view of the territory: “All this terrain is covered with dense woods where one must clear a path with an axe. I walked with the compass and thermometer in hand, more often on foot than on horseback. […] I stayed eight days in these deserts.” [34] His voyage was not an easy one, he tells how he was attacked by yellow fever “On July 2 (1735), a Swiss sergeant embarked on our ship, a robust man, was taken away in less than a day by the sickness of Siam (yellow fever), so common in our islands. On the 3rd, a violent fever and other symptoms led to the belief that I was attacked by the same illness. We were supposed to leave the next day. I was treated with all the speed required by such a short time; I was sick, bled, purged, cured, and embarked within twenty-four hours.” [34].

In addition to this geographical isolation, far from their hometown, it is worth mentioning the social isolation these French wise men also experienced. Far from their friends and relatives, members of the French geodesic mission see their rights violated when one of them is murdered in the city of Cuenca, southern Ecuador [35]. It is not a question here of delving into the reasons or the truth of their feelings of abandonment but of arguing for the existence of these, in another form of isolation.

Alexander Von Humboldt in the nineteenth century would tell his journey from Bogota to Quito to his brother: “We preferred to go on foot, and, given that the weather was very good, we spent only seventeen days in those solitudes where there is no trace that they have ever been inhabited…” However, in this case, we can see a positive attitude when reading “The weather had changed; in the last few days, it rained heavily. Our boots rotted on our legs, and we arrived in Cartago with bare and wounded feet. However, we were enriched with a beautiful collection of new plants, from which I have made a large number of drawings.” [36] This last comment would link the feeling of loneliness, not to the natural environment or the lack of population to share with—Von Humboldt appreciates the company of people, he is neither a recluse—as he reflects when writing in the same letter: “… this small town […] where the inhabitants welcomed us with the most touching hospitality.” Nevertheless, he also has tough words to describe the New World: “The entrance and exit […] are among the most frightening in the world. It involves dense forests situated amidst swamps; the mules become half-buried, and one crosses gorges so deep and narrow that it feels like being in the galleries of a mine.” [36].

A particular mention needs to be made for Haiti, which revolution and abolition of slavery meant isolation from the Western world. Even if they largely contributed to independence movements in South America, the fact that their place in politics was a dangerous symbol of class and racial equality made its inclusion difficult to support, if we can say it politely. [37]

2.3 Another form of isolation: Literature and tragedy

The bridge between Europe and America was there. Even after the independence of the ancient colonies, there was contact between Spain and Ecuador. Among the wealthy Ecuadorian people, a few went studying to Europe from time to time, keeping the door open to new ideas.

Within this scenario, diffusion of knowledge in the elite characterized the American societies. Paradoxically, this knowledge linked to the sensibility proper of educated people, these new ideas of liberty constituted a source of new isolation for people ahead of their time. This is the case of Ecuadorian poetess Dolores de Veintimilla, whose opposition to the establishment led her to a direct conflict against the ruling inquisitorial power—since, even if the inquisition had been banished in 1834, in Spain, the whole inquisitorial thought stayed decades after—when urging society to avoid death penalty. This conflict would finish with a paradox; defending life led her to suicide in 1857 [38] as a consequence of social isolation due to her ideas.

President García Moreno would impose the French educative model. Based on the ideas of Juan Bautista de la Salle, the Institute of the Brothers of the Christian Schools holds the most advanced pedagogic ideas of the age [39].

With modernity came years of social development with important triumphs like women’s right to vote, abolition of the death penalty, rights of indigenous people, and guardianship, among others, despite the deep disappointment of people faced with crime, violence, and political instability. In this ambiance, the cultural landscape was enriched with the contributions of the so-called beheaded generation, a group of Ecuadorian poets who had tragically died in their youth, as victims of their desire to escape from the real and rather mediocre everyday life in their literary productions and the excesses of opium [39].

Coming back to our precious islands, they have experienced strange episodes, which have moved people to produce curious pieces of art. These pieces of art are not restricted to literature but include other forms of art like cinema.

This way, far from our country, the Belgian writer Georges Simenon decided to deepen the problems of isolation from another point of view when creating his novel “Those of Thirst” (Ceux de la Soif) set on the Galapagos Islands. Even if this exotic novel is not a detective story like most of his productions, it introduces dramatic tension features in a very close way.

In this novel, the writer evokes the romantic desire to return to nature and get away from the world as well as some tensions resulting from the coexistence of conflictive people. The novel was based on a real story, which was the subject of a previous article. Simenon is not interested in telling us about the quest, since the case remains unsolved, but narrates instead the preliminaries to explain the denouement, which is the drama itself:

“Instead of providing a detective investigation, the novel deals with an attempt to return to nature, undertaken by Europeans eager, for various reasons, to distance themselves from the world. The difficulties they will have to face lead to the drama that served as the pretext for Simenon's report. The writer narrates its background, not the search for the missing couple whose fate remains unknown both in the novel and in real life.” [40]

The novel is based on a real story, which can seem more fictitious than the novel. After recording their short movie: “The Empress of Floreana,” polyandrous “Baroness” Wagner-Bousquet and one of his male companions disappeared, and the other one died of dehydration after his shipwreck. This strange story would inspire a documentary film: “The Galapagos Affair: Satan Came to Eden” [41].

3. Technological improvement and new interactions

On the other hand, the last decades have seen the rise of new technology. The Internet and social media have changed the way we perform most if not all the activities constituting our labor environment. Education, customary service, and marketing are just a few examples of how useful they can be to get the best results in less time with the investment of minimal resources. Traveling industries have been consistently improved with the implementation of new technological devices and complex systems to allow more efficient processes.

The use of technological devices has become the rule and people use them to communicate, to take pictures, to take notes or record material, to play games, to listen to music, and virtually to every activity they perform. When mentioning the MP3 player, the mobile phone, or the personal computers, adjectives like ubiquitous appear just next. Globalization of business and the commercial benefits of these digital technologies and these last ones are implicated in the origin of this postmodern society. [42]

Technology is so important nowadays that reading and writing are no longer enough skills, digital literacy is crucial to avoid isolation in the labor environment due to insufficient performance. In the specific case of the educational sector, organizational communication and collaboration, digital learning and sources, and guidance, technology has shown to be useful too, with an additional strength to support and empower students [43]. For instance, the use of social media to contact potential clients is a vital part of marketing-related professions, while contributing to data analytics is concern when making important decisions in professional development after considering the needs of every employee and helping them to improve in a personalized way in function of their restrictions of availability or resources.

Technology allows virtual meetings and synchronous communication making mobilization unnecessary with eventual impact on pollution and resource consumption [44]. Working and studying online is a global trend because of the need to save time and support ecological measures to limit the use of polluting transportation.

Nevertheless, there is a dark side when it comes to technology. For instance, there is evidence of links between chatting and divorce cases or fraud. Anonymity and lack of human contact bring people a feeling of protection, which promotes dishonest behavior [45]. The same anonymity proper to the virtual environment is linked to plagiarism and academic cheating, particularly when remote assessment is involved [46]. Considering isolation and loneliness, we can easily understand the lack of social connection between technology users that leads them to commit such dishonest conduct. Even more, technologically problematic use can also be a concern when analyzing addictive behavior, such is the case with problematic Internet use [47], mobile phone addiction [48], and video game addiction [49].

3.1 Personal isolation in the modern world

As acknowledged, technology has significantly transformed not only communication but also education and trade, mainly because of its huge potential to improve information accessibility. However, the benefits it brings should always be considered in light of the importance of keeping a judicious balance to avoid problematic use.

For example, gamification can help improve motivation in educational environments but without adequate guidance, technology use can become a serious problem. There is evidence linking internet addiction disorder, internet gaming disorder, and mobile phone addiction to attention deficit hyperactivity disorder [50]. It is important to reflect on the importance of balance to improve the whole learning process with the contribution of this attractive feature without supporting such harmful behaviors.

This balance becomes important if we consider the association between addictive behavior and loneliness, which highlights the importance of policymaking to avoid such negative effects. In this sense, physical activities, as well as psychological and even pharmacological treatments have been advised to deal with problematic use of technology [51].

Fortunately, when dealing with the use of social media to interact, there is also evidence of the desire of young people, the ones who have used social media most of their lives, for a life without these tools, [52] that makes us rethink about how dependent they are indeed.

As another positive aspect of the use of technology, supporting the need for balance and advising against simply banning technology, there is research on the potential of such technology to allow both synchronous and asynchronous communication in the function of people’s preferences to avoid loneliness [53].

More research is necessary to detect the factors intervening in this complex process. It is important to deepen the emotional causes, but also in the social environment in which these behaviors appear. Family interactions, working demands, and socioeconomic factors, all have a direct or indirect impact on addictions, and technology-related addictions are not the exception. Policymaking is also needed to tackle this issue in all its complexity.

4. Conclusions

Loneliness can be a social problem and lead to serious difficulties on both social and personal levels. From a historical point of view, geographical isolation or distance—in the case of European countries and their colonies—has been related to abuse and management problems. At the same time, this isolation has led to some forms of loneliness when social disconnection is involved in the context of isolated voyagers either in xenophobic or xenophile environments.

Additionally, traveling abroad can have a social impact when social elites or just people with a different way of thinking experience loneliness. Avoiding such a problem entails complex dynamics of inclusion. These dynamics are now a priority given the conditions of globalization.

Finally, technology can also lead to loneliness and isolation when abuse of technology is concerned (addiction to technology in any of the newly detected forms), a balanced use of such tools, and a conscious way of using them for not to affect their natural way of interacting with other people.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank PhD Mauro Ocaña, The Department of Human and Social Sciences at Armed Forces University, and Armed Forces University.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.