Perspective Chapter: Representation and Subversion of Norse Mythology in Popular Culture

Abstract

The aim of this chapter is to delve into theories of cultural ideologies, laying focus on the sub-genre known as Popular Culture and its foundations. Culture and society, as we know it, are interlaced with each other, and they act as major influences in the creation and modelling of identities in world societies. Through the decades, cultures have progressed and adapted to suit more contemporary cultures. Hence, the emergence of Popular Culture. This chapter will analyse the use of mythology and its representation in popular culture and its influences on human ideologies and the shaping of cultures. This chapter will not only study the correlation between myths and popular culture in general but will focus specifically on Norse mythologies and their vast emergence into the world of popular culture, especially in the literary field of comics and graphic novels. It will analyse the contemporary use of and representation of Norse mythology through the lens of popular culture to find its place in present-day society by showcasing the subversion and representation of ancient myths into fiction. These fictions are not meant solely for entertainment purposes but also aspire to instruct and educate contemporary society on cultures and traditions of the past using popular fiction outlets such as comic books and graphic novels.

1. Introduction

The term “Culture” originated from the Latin term “Cultura,” first used by Cicero, which meant “cultivating” in regard to agriculture. Cicero used the term metaphorically in reference to the cultivation of the philosophical soul. The term has since come to adopt numerous meanings which showcase the intricateness of human antiquity, consisting of the social behaviours and norms existing in and among communities. Cultural universals are prevalent in all societies. These universals are demonstrative genres of music, rituals, religions, dances, art, fashion, and cuisine. Peter Brooker defines “Culture” as “Creative and cognitive creations or activities that, through their inherent shapes and significances, delineate human society as a product of social construction rather than a natural occurrence” ([1], p. 56). Raymond Williams, a prominent scholar in cultural studies, provides three distinct definitions for the term “culture.” The initial definition characterises it as a “broad process encompassing intellectual, spiritual, and aesthetic development” ([2], p. 90). The second definition posits that culture is “a specific manner of living, whether belonging to a community, era, or a collective” ([2], p. 90). Lastly, Williams defines culture as “the creations and activities stemming from intellectual, particularly artistic endeavors” ([2], p. 90). In the writings of Mathew Arnold, F.R. Leavis, and T.S. Eliot, culture is meant to serve a liberal or radical conservative ideology.

Culture and society are interlaced with each other, acting as major influences in the creation and modelling of identities in world societies. Culture gives an individual a sense of self-identity and belonging in a society. Through the decades, cultures have progressed and adapted to more contemporary cultures, but certain beliefs, practices, and traditions remain rooted. According to Matthew Arnold, in regards to culture and religion, in his book Culture and Anarchy, says the realm of God exists within you, and similarly, culture places the pinnacle of human perfection in an internal state, in the development and dominance of our distinct humanity, set apart from our animal nature ([3], p. 11).

Cultural Studies is a multidisciplinary field that explores the political dynamics of contemporary culture and its historical foundations. Cultural Studies consists of a range of theoretical and methodological interpretations and approaches. While distinct from cultural anthropology and the interdisciplinary realm of ethnic studies, cultural studies draws upon and contributes to both disciplines. The development of cultural studies took place between the late 1950s and 1970s, spearheaded by British Marxist academics. Antonio Gramsci, an Italian Marxist philosopher, politician, and writer, is credited as a key figure in the modification of Marxism. According to Gramsci, culture was a major instrument in political and social control. Gramsci saw the capitalists as not merely an extreme force used to maintain control but also to invade the everyday culture of the working class. Therefore, according to Gramsci, cultural hegemony is a key concept in the field of cultural studies.

Cultural Studies is a melting pot of race, gender, ideologies, socioeconomic class, and country. Raymond Williams is considered to be a prominent member in the study of culture. His works The Long Revolution (1961), Culture and Society and The Sociology of Culture (1981) were pivotal works in the field of cultural studies. According to Raymond Williams, “Culture” is something that is entwined with life itself because culture is experienced and lived everyday. Stuart Hall notes that according to Raymond Williams, the aim of cultural studies “is to highlight the distinct and unique, often idiosyncratic, experiences of a social group and to reconstruct and comprehend what defines the identity of that particular experience” ([4], p. 32).

Herbert Richard Hoggart, a British academic and founding figure of the Birmingham School of Cultural Studies, instituted the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies. Hoggart’s The Uses of Literacy (1957), propelled the discussion of Contemporary Cultural Studies with its endeavour to examine and understand the changing British culture. In regards to the analysis of culture, Hoggart proposes a literary imagination perspective. In his book “Cultural Studies 1983: A Theoretical History,” Stuart Hall describes Hoggart’s perspective on culture as follows: Culture, according to Hoggart, is the language of a class lacking control over history. It represents the language of a class that experiences events rather than shaping them. Hoggart skillfully unravels the implicit value system of an entire societal group by examining their physical demeanour, communication style, interpersonal relationships, object handling, and organisational patterns. Hoggart recognised the meaningfulness of these aspects not through the lens of anthropology but by delving into literature ([4], p. 10).

Stuart Hall has been highly instrumental in the development of cultural studies as a field of research. Hall was invited by Hoggart to join Birmingham University, the Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies. Hall went on to become Hoggart’s successor as the acting director of the centre. While at the centre, Hall played a major role in broadening and developing the range of cultural studies, including exploring race and gender. According to Stuart Hall, culture is not just a subject of study but a critical site of social action and intervention, where power relations are both established and potentially unsettled. In this view, culture serves as a dynamic arena where power dynamics are not only established but also have the potential to be challenged and disrupted ([4], p. 2).

Cultural Studies portrays the formulation of societies with and by culture. Lawrence Grossberg, an American scholar of Cultural Studies, with a main focus on popular culture, is known for his research on popular music and youth politics. Grossberg, in his seminal work Cultural Studies in the Future Tense, defines Cultural Studies as concerned with both describing and intervening in the processes through which cultural practices are created, inserted into, and function within the everyday lives of individuals and social formations. The goal is to understand how these practices contribute to the reproduction, resistance, and possible transformation of existing structures of power ([5], p. 8).

Williams, Hoggart, and Hall believed in studying culture “from below.” They explored the cultural practices and rituals in the everyday lives of ordinary working-class communities. Williams, for example, drew his inspiration from writers such as Thomas Hardy and D.H. Lawrence, whose novels more than often portrayed working-class characters such as poor farming or mining communities [6]. In Culture and Society, Raymond Williams makes a distinction between middle-class culture, characterised by “the fundamental individualist concept and the institutions, manners, habits of thought, and intentions that emanate from it,” and “working-class culture, characterised by the fundamental collective concept and the institutions, manners, habits of thought, and intentions that arise from this.” Williams highlights the contrasting foundations and expressions of individualism and collectivism within these two socioeconomic groups ([2], p. 313).

Cultural studies is the process of organisation of cultural artefacts, such as food habits, cinema, music, sporting events, literature, etc. It examines popular culture, which had earlier been viewed as “inferior” and unqualified for academic study. According to Nasrullah Mambrol, cultural studies has four approaches, the first being that it transcends the confines of a particular discipline such as literary criticism or history, the second being that it is politically engaged and it rejects the distinction between “high” and “low” art or “elite” and “popular culture,” and finally cultural studies not only analyses the cultural works but also the means of production [7]. In the study of culture, it is believed that cultural artefacts should not be “read” specifically within the aesthetic realm but must be explored from a materialistic and socialistic point of view. It views the cultural artefacts as symbols for reinforcement of cultural identity, ideological values, nationalistic signs, etc.

In the field of Cultural Studies, representation acts as a major concept; hence signs and symbols play an important role. Identity is denoted based on experience, which in turn consists of representation through the utilisation of signs, the creation of meanings from such signs, and the wisdom obtained from the meanings. Cultural Studies focuses on lifestyles because it is about everyday life, defines identity, influences social relations and gives meaning and value to cultural artefacts. Everyday life, in the field of Cultural Studies is viewed as fragmented with various complex and interlinked meanings [7].

The Blackwell Guide to Theology and Popular Culture by Kelton Cobb gives us three divisions to help us understand the term culture better. The first perspective is characterised by viewing culture as a standard of excellence. In this approach, culture is seen as an ideal that individuals and societies should strive to achieve. The process of becoming “cultured” involves exposure to and a concerted effort to comprehend certain landmarks in literature, philosophy, poetry, and artworks that embody significant accomplishments of the human spirit. This involves internalising the values that underpin these achievements, encompassing aesthetic, moral, philosophical, and religious dimensions ([8], p. 42).

The second perspective can be framed as viewing culture as a way of life.

This perspective, often associated with “the modern anthropological view of culture,” posits that there are diverse cultures worldwide, each self-contained and internally coherent. Each culture is perceived as a homogeneous and functional entity, propelled by its unique essence or genius. This viewpoint emphasises the distinctive practices, beliefs, and social structures that define and characterise a particular culture as a cohesive and integrated way of life ([8], p. 43).

The third and final perspective involves subaltern cultures. This viewpoint rejects the notion of cultures as monolithic and integrated entities, suggesting instead that the seemingly cohesive systems of values, considered cultural wholes, are actually power ideologies employed by dominant segments of society to perpetuate control over subaltern or subordinate communities. Subaltern communities are defined by factors such as age, race, ethnicity, and gender, often evolving into “subcultures.” In this sense, subcultures share a way of life, including a distinct use of language, common values, a sense of solidarity in facing challenges, and a shared self-image, setting them apart from the dominant culture ([8], pp. 43, 44).

Culture is greatly considered as the fountainhead of literature and art. Due to the importance of culture seen in literature and art, terms like “cultural poetics,” also known as New Historicism, founded by Stephen Greenblatt, Williams’ “Cultural Materialism,” have found eminence in the field of cultural studies as well as cultural criticism.

Cultural Studies in the field of literature has been flourishing. Culture is evident throughout literature because it is through his writings that an author portrays their society, traditions, and religious practices. Cultural Studies helps decipher the connection between cultural texts and social norms by studying society on a global scale. Literary works are produced based on various cultural factors such as artistic, ideological, economic, and nationalistic. This literature is used to develop and improve our cultures further. According to Gotshalk, literature and art contribute to “an indispensable foundation of congruency of feeling or social solidarity between individuals and peoples” ([9], p. 596). Due to the rise of Cultural Studies being examined in literary works, society today bases its relations on the thoughts and ideas of poets, artists, journalists, dramatists, and writers in other literary genres because they are believed to portray culture authentically in their artistic endeavours. Lorraine Walsh Cashman in regards to literature says that, Indeed, Cultural Studies utilises methods of textual analysis to unravel cultural formations, but it broadens the traditional concept of a “text” by incorporating insights from semiotics. In this context, a “text” encompasses anything that is symbolically organised and intelligible. Therefore, “cultural formations” encompass not only verbal, visual, musical, material, and customary artefacts but also extend to the social practices and relations within which these artefacts are embedded. This expanded understanding allows Cultural Studies to examine a wide range of cultural expressions and their interconnectedness with societal dynamics ([10], p. 108).

Literature in the past decade has contributed largely to the culture industries. The culture industries at the time proved to be dexterous in making the audience acquiescent. From the cultural industries emerged the genre of popular culture. Popular culture includes the beliefs, practices, etc., of a social system that is viewed as mass culture. It is a key term in cultural theory and in the field of cultural studies. Brooker defines popular culture as “the culture of the ‘people’ or the working class; folk culture; youth or subcultures; or popular genres in fiction and film” ([1], p. 190). Therefore, popular culture is a culture of the masses. John Storey calls it a “hopelessly commercial culture” ([11], p. 8).

Popular culture emerged in the late eighteenth century, through the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth century. Storey believed that it was developed by intellectual groups under nationalism, romanticism, folklore, and folk songs that invented the very first concept of popular culture. The term popular culture was then divided into two definitions. The first conception was popular culture seen as a quasi-mythical rural “folk culture,” while the contrasting perspective—distinctly different and often regarded as the “other”—depicted popular culture as the debased “mass culture” associated with the emerging urban-industrial working class ([11], p. 1).

John Storey, in his work Cultural Theory and Popular Culture An Introduction, defines popular culture as inclusive of:

[A]ctivities that are related to art, music, films, literature, books etc: that are liked by a large number of people. It stands for what is popular among the people like - the top hit songs, blockbuster movies, bestselling novels and so on and so fort ([12], p. 25).

Raymond Williams, in regards to popular culture, refers to it as a culture that is of the people and, by the people, a portrayal of their cultural practices in the modern and contemporary age. It basically showcases the popular practices of a society. F.R. Leavis, the English literary critic, placed his interests in culture as a whole based on where certain authors were situated and certain texts were formed. He believed that literary scholars, in regard to interpreting texts and critiquing trends, needed to base their work on a much wider historical aspect of culture itself. His wife, Q.D. Leavis also contributed to the study of popular culture by publishing a controversial study of mass society and mass culture theory titled Fiction and the Reading Public, which aimed at dealing with popular literature rather than serious high-brow literature. The work aimed at portraying popular literature as emotionally stunting and that the study or indulgence in such works will lead to emotional and intellectual decline. Stuart Hall in regard to Leavis’ critique on the popular, says that Popular literature was entirely dismissed on the basis of its perceived lack of “refinement.” The argument maintained that engaging with popular literature would not contribute to the refinement and sophistication of our minds and sensibilities. Instead, it was deemed the duty of the perceptive and educated literary critic to meticulously sift through the literary tradition, eliminating the subpar, the mediocre, and the flawed works. Through this process, the critic would curate a refined literary tradition—a small, selected collection comprising only a few books deemed worthy ([4], p. 13).

According to Edward Quinn, as defined in his work A Dictionary of Literary and Thematic Terms, popular culture refers to forms of cultural expression characterised by broad popularity, such as detective stories or Western television sitcoms. This definition typically sets popular culture apart from “folk culture,” a term reserved for older cultural practices rooted in the oral tradition of a community ([13], p. 327).

With the development of popular culture, it has become an important field of analysis because of the extent to which people’s lives are affected by and influenced by the vast production of popular culture presented by the contemporary mass media. Popular culture can be seen as a form or medium of cultural and political self-expression. Dominic Strinati, in his work An Introduction to Theories of Popular Culture, in regards to defining popular culture says, “Popular culture can be found in different societies, within different groups in different historical periods. It is therefore preferable not to have a strict and exclusive definition of the term” ([14], p. 14). Lawrence Alloway, pop art’s first theorist, credited with the coining of the term “pop art,” meaning art about popular culture, explains that the mass-produced urban culture, which included films, science fiction, literature, pop music, and advertising, were enthusiastically accepted by the intellectuals and it became a topic of discussion. These discussions led to the extraction of popular culture from the domain of escapism, entertainment, and recreation and the viewing of it as serious art.

The Guide to United States Popular Culture refers to popular culture as the voice of the people, a medium through which they showcase their likes, dislikes, and practices. It has become a basic way of life for societies, acting as the voice of democracy and as a hotbed for the development of democracy. Browne emphasises that popular culture is not merely about entertainment; instead, it constitutes the fundamental elements of a society, serving as the essence from which the spirit of that society either rises or declines ([15], p. 1). Browne proposes three categories for the study of culture. He termed the first category the “Impact approach,” which focuses its study and analysis on “high” or “elite” art forms. He termed the second approach as the “determinist approach,” which viewed culture to be “determined by ideology, and employed to manipulate the so-called unwashed masses” (Hoppenstand). Browne was not an advocate of the first two approaches but strongly advocated the third approach, which was termed the “American Studies Myth-Symbol” approach. He believed that the products of culture and culture itself should be viewed as means of symbolic representations, and it was this approach that substantially supported the study of popular culture. In his work, The Pioneers of Popular Culture Studies, Browne provides a broader definition of popular culture, stating that it democratises society and makes democracy truly democratic. According to Browne, popular culture encompasses the entirety of the everyday world, including mass media, entertainment, diversions, heroes, icons, rituals, everyday actions, psychology, religion, and the overall life picture. It represents the way of living inherited, practised, modified, and passed along to descendants. Popular culture encompasses our waking activities, the manner in which we engage in them, and even the dreams we have while asleep. It is a comprehensive and influential aspect of societal existence ([16], p. 61).

Therefore, popular culture brings together a largely diversified mass of people, allowing them to identify as a whole. It is inclusive, uniting the masses on acceptable behavioural norms. It also helps individuals forge an identity for themselves. Unlike folk or high culture, popular culture enables individuals a chance to change existing beliefs or norms of behaviour. Where folk culture represents stability, popular culture often represents constant change, catering to the contemporary masses. Due to this, popular culture often poses a challenge or threat to folk culture. Another key element of popular culture is the fact that it is easily and readily accessible to the masses. Hence, popular culture fascinates and intrigues the masses because it allows for individualism as well as communal bonding.

Hence, the common factor in the definition of popular culture is that culture is vastly prevalent and accepted by the masses. It is the portrayal of everything that is contemporary and accepted by modern society. The study of popular culture is believed to have been adopted by the American studies programme, which began to analyse factors such as gender, race, ethnicity, age, religion, and sexuality that can be shaped or reshaped in popular culture. According to Richard Maltby, if modern popular culture can be said to have been invented in a specific location, it was in the great cities of the United States, particularly in New York ([17], p. 11). Furthermore, Maltby asserts that popular culture offers escapism that is not a retreat from or to a specific place but rather an escape into our utopian selves. This suggests that popular culture provides a form of escape that transcends physical locations, offering a retreat into an idealised version of ourselves ([17], p. 14).

In the past decade or so the common theme found throughout literature has been popular culture. The genre has been used by authors to strengthen the subjects or arguments found in their works. With the development of media, the genre of popular culture, which has been cast aside as unworthy or unimportant is now the subject of extensive analysis and exploration. Cult television shows such as “Friends” showcase the need for communal bonding and relationships. and the novels-come television franchise Game of Thrones portrays women’s struggles and women empowerment, among other things. The widespread fame attached to the mass-marketed books and the television shows adapted from these texts and the wide array of analyses done on these texts advocate further the need popular culture has for textual scrutiny. It also sheds light on the need consumers have to decipher and analyse the broader cultural elements presented in their entertainment. Popular culture texts should be read as classical texts, paying close attention to the symbolic and metaphorical messages presented in the texts. Popular culture is a distinctive and paradoxical domain for constructing meaning, often extending beyond the confines of meaningfulness as defined by traditional textual analysis. It serves as a realm marked by personal connections, emotional subtleties, and intricate contradictions that challenge conventional analytical approaches. The complex and multifaceted nature of popular culture makes it resistant to straightforward or rigid interpretation. It has the ability to rewrite texts and reconstruct the meanings and nuances to form new and contemporary interpretations.

Popular culture adapts texts to suit their contemporary audience’s needs. One popular example of this is the adaptation of myth and history in popular texts. We see the characters, setting, and themes morphed into contemporary works of art to render them more amusing and captivating to the twenty-first-century reader. According to Klaus Dodds, engaging in the study of and participation in popular culture offers opportunities to challenge and contest dominant ideas, motifs, and practices. This perspective implies that popular culture is dynamic and ever-changing, never static. It suggests that through active involvement and examination, popular culture becomes a space for ongoing negotiation and resistance against prevailing norms and conventions [18].

2. Mythology and history in popular culture

Mythology, history and its representation in popular culture influence human ideologies and shape cultures. The word “myth” owes its origins to the ancient Greeks. It meant “true narrative” or “to teach,” which is precisely what myths were intended to do. It is what cultures and societies are built upon. Myth later came to mean something fictitious and not a statement of fact. However, this did not diminish the importance of mythology, for it soon became a fact that myths were traditional stories which were the embodiment of the heritage of various cultures worldwide:

The term myth was used by Homer for the first time in 7th or 8th century B.C.E in his great work ‘The Iliad’. The term myth means a traditional and ancient story based upon a different culture. The myth of each culture binds up with the beliefs of the people and that beliefs have been often told throughout the generations in the name of oral tradition. In different countries people believe their own tradition and their own ancient culture myths, when a person explains the myth of their culture they believe it teaches a moral lesson to the further generations. Mythology means the study of myths or the study of collections of myth stories ([19], p. 106).

H.A. Guerber, an American author renowned for his retellings of myths, folklores, legends, and histories, defines mythology as a “science which treats of the early traditions, or myths, relating to the religion of the ancients.” This encompasses a comprehensive account of the origins of their gods and their beliefs concerning the beginning of all things. Guerber’s perspective positions mythology as a systematic exploration of the early narratives and religious traditions of ancient societies ([20], p. 5).

Myths act as a form of answers or responses to age-old questions and act as a guiding hand to every generation that follows. Myths are more than often represented in order to render them more relatable and understandable to the generation of the time. Myths were structured in ancient times to give reason and understanding to natural phenomena and other unexplainable events or religious beliefs.

Myths are stories with dramatic plots, and the presence of magical beings, fantastical settings and backdrops with gods and goddesses further adds to the dramatic narrative of the myth. They are also highly symbolic and evocative in character. The inspiration for great creativity can stem from the smallest fairy tale or myth. According to Joseph Campbell, the symbols of mythology are not manufactured; they cannot be ordered, invented, or permanently suppressed. They are spontaneous productions of the psyche, and each bear within, undamaged, the germ power of its source. Campbell emphasises that mythological symbols arise organically from the human psyche and carry an inherent, unaltered essence derived from their origins. This perspective underscores the authenticity and enduring power of mythological symbols as reflections of fundamental aspects of the human experience ([21], pp. 1, 2).

Myths, due to their flexibility and adaptability, can take on or be interpreted in various ways and consist of numerous meanings and connotations. They are recordings of histories and ancient practices. It preaches moral codes and beliefs and carves a pattern of cultural belief systems which render the meaning of life. Mythology, on a whole, displays mankind’s pursuit of the meaning and purpose of life, an age-old question to which mythology is able to extend an answer to some extent. Mythology acts as an enticement, pulling together different cultures, beliefs, values, traditions, and nations. Myths, according to Lévi-Strauss, function as intricate systems of thought, facilitating a society’s exploration and explanation of the fundamental aspects of existence ([22], p. 153).

According to Joseph Campbell, myths have lost their power in the modern world. Myths are not just a demonstration of mankind and the fundamental meaning of life, and they form the rules by which mankind is expected to live. They also map out the foundations for the structuring of individual societies because the structure of a society ultimately derives authority from the concepts expressed in its mythology. The principle role of myth is to act as a conservator and disseminator of moral codes of conduct. Myths enumerate the actual functions of the supernatural, and when they are represented or re-enacted, they release or set in motion that supernatural activity [23].

Myths, when transferred from one era to the next and when adapted from one culture to another experience substantive changes and revisions. Writers who allow their works to be guided by and influenced by mythopoeic imagination alter the original myths significantly to adapt them to the characterisation and styles of the times. Dorairaj says “It is this character of situatedness in the context of emerging horizons which bestows on myths a fresh lease on life. In this sense, myths are truly resilient and protean” ([24], p. 18).

Mythical thoughts are considered to be integral to the development of human culture as a whole. The Polish-British anthropologist Malinowski considers myths to be functional and utilitarian in society. According to Malinowski, there exists an intricate connection in a utilitarian sense between the world, the mythos, and the sacred tales of a tribe, on one hand, and their ritual acts, moral deeds, social organisation, and even practical activities on the other. This perspective suggests that myths play a functional role within a society, influencing various aspects of its members’ lives, from religious practices to moral conduct, social structures, and even day-to-day practical activities ([25], p. 96). He also goes on to describe myth in functionalist terms, saying that myth serves several significant functions within human civilization. It expresses, enhances, and codifies beliefs, providing a framework for understanding the world. Myth also validates the effectiveness of rituals and incorporates practical guidelines for human guidance. In essence, it is portrayed as a crucial component of human civilization, functioning as a practical charter for primitive faith and moral wisdom. Myth, according to this perspective, plays a vital role in shaping cultural and moral norms within societies ([25], p. 101).

Mythology synthesises the past with the present. It fuses together antiquity and modernity. Eras, societies, and cultures are merged as one. Eliot, in his essay, “Tradition and Individual Talent” talks of the “pastness of the past and its presence” ([26], p. 49), which is exactly what the representation or retelling of myths entails. Joseph Campbell, in Myths To Live By, says that; “[m]ythologies might be defined as poetic expressions of just such transcendental seeing…” ([21], p. 31).

Fiction based on mythology is basically literary works that are based on or adapted from tropes of myths, legends, fairytales, and folktales. In the same way, literary works that have been adapted from some historical event or background but have been fictionalised either in way of characters or subplots are termed as historical fiction. These trends of mythical and historical fiction have been taking the field of popular culture by storm:

While earlier, the purpose of myth was to express abstract truths in symbolic form, now there is ample proof of the methods by which modern empire builders used myths to influence and shape events. The fact is that myths have been actualised and historicised ([21], pp. 9, 10).

There have been numerous discussions about the interpretation and belief of myths and history, which eventually leads to the representation of both myth and history. Where myth differs from history is the fact that myth uses highly figurative and symbolic ways of representing facts or the truth, whereas history pursues the truth of the past to help understand the present. Hence, the representation of our modern-day myths, in addition to the original, is what forms part of the “cultural and religious consciousness of all nations” ([27], p. 1). In the same way, history was “erased, rewritten, subverted, and distorted” ([27], p. 1) to help understand the past. According to Sundararaghavan, “postcolonial writers and theorists have underlined the need to rewrite history, to bring to light hidden truths… and restore facts that suffered erasure in the public memory” ([27], p. 1).

The portrayal of both myth and history in popular culture, such as contemporary fiction or art, helps form the heritage of a nation and its people. Heritage is the bearing of a nation’s culture. They help to interpret culture and prove to be educational and dynamic. Hence, it also leaves room for communal discussion and is open to interpretations by various groups of people.

3. Representation of Norse mythology and history in popular culture

One such culture that is rich in mythology and history and that has been taking popular culture by storm with its retellings, representations, and subversions is that of the Norse or Vikings. The people of the North, better known as the “Norsemen” or “Northmen” in later years, earned the title of “Vikings,” a Scandinavian seafaring warrior tribe. Theirs is a people steeped in culture, superstitions, and mythic beliefs, not forgetting a rich, varied heritage and historical importance lasting between 793 and 10,766 AD, known as the “Viking age.” The name Scandinavia originated in the early eighteenth century. The term Scandinavia, also known as Skåne, comes from the same etymology, having been derived from Germanic roots from the word ‘skađin-awjō’ which translates into Skáney in old Norse and Scedenig in Old English. The Germanic term Skađan means danger or damage, and the second half of the name awjō means “land on the water” or in simpler terms “island.” The term was originally used for Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, all of which were subsets of the Nordic countries such as Finland, Iceland, Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and Åland Islands. The linguistic and cultural Scandinavian movement popularised the term “Scandinavia.” It propounded the common heritage and cultural unity of the Scandinavian countries and emerged in the 1830s. The term has two principal meanings, the first being a modern-day demonym and the second it serves in an ethnic or cultural sense. When referring to the term in an ethnic or cultural sense, it refers to the people who speak the Scandinavian languages and have descended from the ancient Norsemen. As a modern demonym, the term refers to the overall citizens of all the Scandinavian countries. The people of Scandinavia speak two different languages from prehistoric times. One of the languages is the North Germanic language, and the other is the Sami language, which is a group of Uralic languages [28].

Although profoundly influenced by the English, the Norse race has wrapped itself in historical facts, myths, and folklore. The literature of the Norse is what defines their culture during the Middle Ages. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, which was considered as the end of the Viking Age, literacy reached Scandinavia, and a tradition of vernacular writing came to be a language known in English as “Norse.” In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the vernacular literature was limited to law codes and held little to no interest among modern readers. But the literature of the Eddas, skaldic poetry, various sagas, chronicles, myths, folklores, and legends is what has captured and still holds importance and interest among the people. It was not until the first half of the twentieth century that archaeological, linguistic, historical, and literary inquiry dug deep into the medieval past of the Nordic artefacts, runes, and Eddic verses.

The Viking Age holds great importance in regard to the literary aspect of the people as most of Norse literature is set in the Viking Age. The most evident feature of the Viking Age is the noticeable similitude of the Norse culture it possessed. There were noticeable regional differences, but one could not ignore the various traits that were shared by all the people in the Norse world. Based on their runic inscriptions, it is evident that there were major similarities in their language and vernacular texts, but apart from their language, they also shared similarities in their construction, jewellery design, and fashion. All these aspects showcase the geographical extent of Norse culture during the Viking Age. The Norse possessed a strong cultural identity, which set them apart from all other European races.

The runes found in Denmark, Norway, or Sweden are of great importance as they hold much of Norse history in their inscriptions. The runes were believed to have been created by Odin, one of the Norse Gods, and they are believed to have the power to predict the future. The runic characters were diverse in nature and primarily utilised for magical purposes. They served both malevolent and benevolent ends, with noxious or “bitter runes” used to inflict harm upon enemies, while favourable runes were employed to ward off misfortune. Some runes possessed medicinal properties, while others were utilised to attract love and various other purposes. In later periods, runes were frequently used in inscriptions, with over a thousand discovered so far. The language used in these inscriptions is a Gothic dialect known as Norse, which is still in use in Iceland. Although the language can be deciphered with certainty, the historical insights derived from these inscriptions have been limited, with very few shedding light on historical events ([29], p. 350).

Skaldic poetry refers to the poetry written by the Skalds who were the bards and poets of the Norse. They are responsible for the historic lore that is present. The Skalds would narrate their poetry in the courts of kings or warriors accompanied by music. Their poems would sing the praises of their heroes. The writings of the Skalds were given the term sagas. These sagas have been passed down from era to era, century to century, and are considered to be great possessions of historical value that showcase people’s cultures, traditions, and beliefs.

The Norsemen or Northmen, also known as Vikings or Danes, were warrior tribes that raided and looted while colonising half of the European continent from the ninth to eleventh centuries. Their influence has greatly affected the history of Europe. Most of the Vikings whose deeds have been deemed legends throughout history hail from Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. The Lindisfarne monastery massacre, which was located off the coast of Northumberland in Northeastern England, brought about the beginning of the Vikings age. The mid-ninth century saw Ireland, Scotland, and England become major targets for the Viking settlements as well as raids [30].

The Viking raids continue today, but the target of attack at this time is popular culture. Viking and Norse history and myth have been sweeping the popular culture genre for decades now, with historical fictions, television shows, and video games sweeping the globe. Historical fictions like Bengtsson’s The Long Ships, and Jane Smiley’s The Greenlanders, tell the history of the Vikings and the Norse and have also influenced some of the more contemporary novels like Giles Kristian’s Raven Saga, and Bernard Cornwell’s The Last Kingdom series, which is an historical fiction depicting the attack on the Lindisfarne monastery and the war between the Danes and the English. The books were such a success that they were adapted into a televised series by the same name. Another famous show that was adapted for Netflix is the Vikings series which was created by the English screenwriter and producer Michael Hirst, whose penchant for carnality and history mangling has made the show a hit going on six seasons now. The show’s protagonists are great Norse historical legends such as the Viking chief Rollo, who was granted Rouen and the surrounding territories in 911 by the West Frankish king in exchange for Rollo denying other Viking raiders passage to the Seine. This region in Northern France is now known as Normandy or the “land of the northmen.” Keeping in the popular culture theme, various video games have also emerged based upon Viking and Norse history, such as Assassins Creed: Valhalla, which is set during the Viking invasion of Britain. Another popular video game is “God of War,” a highly acclaimed game that features Kratos, a character from ancient Greek mythology, as he ventures into the realm of Norse mythology. In this instalment of the series, Kratos faces various challenges and battles against Norse gods and mythological creatures. The game is known for its compelling narrative, stunning graphics, and engaging gameplay. It has received widespread praise for its fresh take on the character and mythology.

One of the oldest and first Norse literary works is the Eddas, which, when split into two, is the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda. The books are the main source of Skaldic tradition and are said to contain the recordings of all Norse mythology. The name Edda is believed to have been adapted from the Eddic poem “Rigsbula,” with the name meaning “great-grandmother.” The poetic Edda is believed to have come into existence in the year 1056, with the prose Edda emerging in more recent times of the year 1640. The poetic along with the Prose Edda is considered to be the largest source of Norse mythology. It appeared in the manuscript Codex, which means the Royal Book in translation. The Edda can be divided into two parts: the first part, which includes 10 songs, sings the praises of gods and goddesses and tells of the creation, destruction, and rebirth of the Norse mythical world, and the second part, consisting of 19 songs, sings the praises of heroes and legends such as the tales of Sigurd, the dragon-slaying hero, Brynhild, a warrior princess known for the murder of Sigurd and King Gunnar, the first King of Burgundy also implicated in the death of Sigurd [29].

The Prose Edda is also called the Younger Edda or Snorri’s Edda. The main aim of this Edda was to help Icelandic poets and readers make sense of the alliterative verses and understand mythological allusions behind the numerous kennings used in Skaldic poetry. It got its name Snorri’s Edda because it was penned by Snorri in 1220. There are four known surviving manuscripts split up into three fragments. It has been written and recorded from 1300 to around 1600. Unlike the Poetic Edda, the Prose Edda was given a prologue. It has also been divided into three books, the first being the Gylfaginning, which, when translated, means the “Beguiling of Gylfi” or the “Deluding of Gylfi,” which tells the tale of creation, destruction, and rebirth in the mythical world. The second part is the Skaldskaparmal, which means the “Language of Poetry,” written in the form of a dialogue between the Aegir, a Norse sea God, and Bragi, the Skaldic God of poetry. The third and final book in the Prose Edda is titled Hattatal, which means a “Tally of Metres.” This book describes the verse forms used in old Norse poetry. The book was written using a descriptive and prescriptive approach, by systematising the materials. Scholars have voiced their opinions on Snorri’s systematised methods, saying he has derived classical traditions from traditional Christian writings. However some scholars have refuted this claim, saying it has no influence on classical writing but rather it is purely a result of Snorri’s use of logical approach set in the framework of dialogue [31].

The Eddas claim that in the beginning of time, there was no heaven or earth but a bottomless pit through which a fountain flowed. From this fountain, 12 rivers were born and spread far and wide and in time, they froze, and the ice filled up the once bottomless pit. In the southern part of the mist-covered realm, there was a realm of brightness. A gentle breeze from this realm thawed the ice. The melted ice gave rise to vapours, forming clouds, and from these clouds emerged Ymir, a frost giant. Ymir, in turn, had a descendant, the cow Audhumbla.

It was Audhumbla’s milk that served as nourishment and food for Ymir. Audhumbla’s nourishment came from salt stones and hoarfrost from the ice. One day, while Audhumbla was licking the salt stones, formed a man’s hair; the second day, the head of a man formed and the third day formed the formation of the entire being gifted with beauty, power, and agility. This newly formed being was a god whose wife came from the giant race, from whom were born Odin, Vili, and Vi, the three brothers who killed Ymir, the giant. It was out of Ymir’s body that the earth was formed; from his blood flowed the seas, his bones formed the mountains, the trees were his hair, his skull formed heaven, and his brains the clouds. Odin and his brothers formed earth out of Ymir’s eyebrows, which became known as “Midgard,” and it would later become the home to mankind [29].

After Odin created the earth and the heavens, he regulated day and night and the seasons by forming the sun and moon. The first rays of the sun brought to life the vegetable world. The three Gods then stood back to admire their creation but felt it was still incomplete and decided to create mankind. The first man was formed out of an ash tree, and they formed a woman out of an elder, for they knew man would be incomplete without a woman. They named the man Aske and the woman Embla. The three brothers gifted them with the necessary virtues required. Odin gifted them with life and soul. Vi blessed them with senses, speech, and emotion. And Vili gave unto them motion and reason. They were then given Midgard as their abode and gave birth to the entire human race [29].

From Ymir’s body also arose a mighty ash tree known as Ygdrasill, which was intended to be the life force of the universe. According to Norse mythology, there existed nine realms, and these nine realms sprang up from the roots of the Yggdrasill, and they were all connected. The nine realms existed on Asgard, which was the home of the Gods; Jotunheim, the dwelling of the giants, Niffleheim which literally meant home of the mist; Alfheim, the home of the elves; Vanaheim, the dwelling place of the Vanir, Midgard, home of mankind, and Muspelheim, land of fire, Helheim, the land of the dead and Nidavellir, land of the dwarfs. From the side of each root springs a stream that waters and feeds the nine realms. The roots that feed Asgard are guarded by the three Norns, who are Urdur, the past; Verdandi, the present; and Skuld, the future. They are the goddesses of fate. The stream that feeds Jotunheim is Ymir’s well, which holds the gift of wit and wisdom. The stream at Niflheim feeds the adder Nidhogge, which represents darkness and is constantly chewing away at the roots of Yggdrasil. Under this tree lies Ymir, who, when he tries to shed the burden he is carrying, is believed to cause earthquakes [29].

One of the most important and represented realms is Asgard, home of the gods. Asgard is described as having streets of gold and silver as well as castles built with silver and gold. Asgard can only be entered through the Bifrost, a rainbow bridge guarded by Heimdal, the all-seeing Vanir god. Odin’s palace, Valhalla, is by far said to be the most beautiful of homes in Asgard. Valhalla is also home to all the fallen warriors who died in battle. They spend their time in Valhalla feasting on the meat of Hrimnir, a self-resurrecting boar and on the mead of the she-goat Heidrum, and when they are not feasting, they are preparing for Ragnarok, the destruction of the Norse mythical world altogether. Two other characters that are constantly mentioned in Norse mythology are Odin’s two ravens that sat upon his shoulder on either side, one called Hugin, and the other was Munin, who would fly all over the world and carry news of all the happenings back to Odin. Odin was all-seeing and all-knowing, for which he was given the name Alfadur, meaning the all-father [29].

In Norse mythology, the gods are split into two pantheons. The first and most principal of the two are the Aesir gods. The Aesir pantheon is made up of Odin, the all-father; Frigg, Odin’s wife; Thor, Odin’s eldest son; the gods of thunder Balder, the beautiful and the favourite among the gods; Loki, the trickster who tries his hardest to bring about Ragnarok, Tyr, the god of war, and Bragi, the Skaldic god of poetry. The second pantheon, the Vanir, was a race of gods responsible for wealth, fertility, and commerce; the Vanir were expected to be submissive to the Aesir, who were the warrior gods. The Vanir gods were Njordr, father of the other Vanir gods, Freyr and Freyja. Nordr is the sea god associated with wind, fishing, seafaring, and crop fertility. Freyr was the god of prosperity, virility, and kingship, and was especially connected with Sweden and adopted as an ancestor of the Swedish royal house. Freyja is the goddess that is responsible for war, death, love, sexuality, beauty, fertility, and gold. Freyja rules in Folkvangr, where she is the recipient of half the souls who die.

Of all the Norse gods and goddesses, Loki is believed to be the most colourful character and is vilified throughout Norse mythology as the trickster and the initiator of all fraud and mischief. For a god who is often vilified in the sagas, Loki is always described as the most handsome of gods with wit and charm, which helps him a great deal in tricking his way among the gods and goddesses. Loki had a number of children, but the three that play a major role in Ragnarok are Fenris wolf, the Midgard serpent known as Jormungandr that lives in the sea and whose body coils around all of Midgard, hence also being given the name of the “world serpent.” It is believed that when Jormungandr uncoils its tail, Ragnarok will commence. The third of Loki’s famous children is his daughter Hel who presides over Hel, where the damned souls are departed to in the realm of Niflheim. Hel is described to be half beauty, which represents the living, and the other half of her is ghastly with rotting flesh to represent the dead.

All these mythologies of the Eddas proved to be the touchstone for Norse mythology for eight centuries after their initial publication, and a resurgence of interest in the Norse myths emerged. These mythologies of the pre-Christian societies have inspired not just novels of fiction but have also found their way into various other venues of popular culture such as video games, films, comics, and graphic novels.

Unlike Greek or Roman myths, which have a background of warm waters and gorgeous goddesses of love and peace and fertility, the Norse myths are fierce, with both gods and goddesses seen as harsh and brutal. Norse myths are portrayed as the survival of the fittest, with the gods themselves always warring, and their backdrop is always stained with bloody battle. Neil Gaiman portrays the Norse myths as belonging to a frigid land characterised by extended winter nights and everlasting summer days. These myths describe a community that harboured reservations and perhaps even dislike towards their gods, despite maintaining a level of respect and fear for them ([32], p. 12). This showcases that the Scandinavian landscapes have not only inspired numerous travellers but have been the backbone of the country’s rich mythology and history. It is lakes, fjords of unfathomable depths, deep, spooky forests, mountainous rocky peaks and whistling winds as the fantastical backdrops have provided the inspiration for some of the most memorable Norse mythological creatures and legendary tales, which is now portrayed by the popular fiction in a form that renders it suitable and relatable to the present-day readers.

One of the biggest franchises of Norse mythology is that of the Marvel Cinematic Universe, which includes three movies based on the God of Thunder, Thor, and the numerous Avengers films and series in which they all portray Loki, the god of mischief, as the proponent of villainy. The Marvel films do of course draw their inspiration from Stan Lee’s comic, which first appeared in 1962 and featured Thor as the hero and Loki as the anti-hero. Stan Lee’s portrayal of Norse mythology has inspired numerous renderings and retellings of the myths. Neil Gaiman credits Stan Lee and his comic series for introducing him to Norse mythology. As a young boy of around seven, Gaiman’s first exposure to Asgard and its inhabitants was through the adventures of the Mighty Thor, depicted in American comics by artist Jack Kirby. In these stories, plotted by Kirby and Stan Lee, with dialogue by Stan Lee’s brother Larry Lieber, Thor was portrayed as a powerful and handsome character, and Asgard was depicted as a towering, science-fictional city with impressive buildings and perilous structures. Gaiman was particularly drawn to Kirby’s depiction of Thor, the blond, hammer-wielding hero, sparking his curiosity and desire to learn more about the character ([32], p. 11).

While the comic portrayed Thor as mighty and the perfect hero and simplified Loki to the status of villain, which made the mythos absolutely perfect for the pre-pubescent superhero-loving audience, there was a shift in the retellings when looking at Roger Lancelyn Green’s Myths of the Norsemen, which also served as Gaiman’s inspiration for his Norse Mythology and Rick Riordan’s Magnus Chase and the Gods of Asgard trilogy. These novels portray the protagonistic gods in a more nuanced manner, giving them more depth and making them less black and white. Loki is seen as less evil and more mischievous, playing practical jokes on the gods. Thor is less of a big scary god and rather more of a comical character in a dull-witted sense, whereas Loki is portrayed as highly intelligent. In fact, in regards to Green’s Myths of the Norsemen, Gaiman comments that while he enjoyed Green’s version of the Norse myths and read and re-read them with delight, he found a marked difference when compared to the comic. In this reinterpretation, Asgard shifted from the futuristic city envisioned by Kirby to a Viking hall surrounded by icy desolation. Odin, the all-father, departed from the gentle, wise, and irascible depiction, transforming into a brilliant, unknowable, and perilous figure. While Thor retained his formidable strength and his hammer’s power from the comics, his intelligence fell short, portraying him as not the most astute among the gods. As for Loki, he was not purely evil, though far from a force for good; his character was presented as complex and intricate ([32], p. 12).

These renderings of the Norse myths do not indicate that either one is wrong or more accurate than the other; they just show how Norse mythology has proven to be incredibly flexible, open to interpretation, and adaptable in popular culture. Neil Gaiman suggests that what keeps Norse mythology relevant and enduring for him, as well as for all readers, is the concept of Ragnarok. The impending end of the world and the cyclical nature of its destruction and rebirth imbue the gods, frost giants, and other figures with a tragic quality—making them heroes and villains in a poignant sense. Ragnarok adds a timeless dimension to the Norse world, making it feel strangely present and contemporary, unlike other, more extensively documented belief systems that may seem relegated to the past ([32], p. 12).

Popular culture has manifested itself in numerous forms of media such as television, music, art, etc. Author Rick Riordan plays on the influence and effect popular culture has on people by portraying the major gods like Thor and Heimdall as being obsessed with popular culture, which is the case with the millennial generation today. Thor, the mighty thunder god as depicted by every other author and televised version as seen in the Avengers series and Thor movies, is far from the stereotypical god in Riordan’s novels. Thor in the Magnus Chase trilogy concerns himself with popular television shows such as The Walking Dead, Breaking Bad, and The Game of Thrones, all well-loved shows that have taken the popular culture world by storm. Heimdall is portrayed as the selfie—obsessed god who would rather take “a selfie with you before talking business” ([33], p. 249). He is also fond of creating social media vines. Apart from the characters being obsessed with popular culture, the novels contain numerous pop culture references to video games such as “call of duty” [33], pop music references such as Taylor Swift’s hit song “Shake it off” ([33], p. 15) sung by Jack the talking sword. There are also references to the king of pop, “Elvis Presley” ([33], p. 309) and his home “Graceland” ([33], p. 310).

Norse mythology and history have been the subject of scholarly discourse since the seventeenth century for their popularity, flexibility, and adaptability, ever since major texts like the Eddas captured the attention of the intellectual circles of Europe. The modern period saw the romanticist revival and reawakening of the Viking interests in the subject matter, leading to the representation and revisions of Norse mythology and history throughout modern popular culture. Though these representations of these ancient myths and histories have developed through time to adapt a sense of inclusivity and receptivity, they have managed to maintain their essence of cultural authenticity. They have managed to travel through the vast expanse of time and take on new forms to suit the changing times. Popular culture demands these myths and histories be represented or rewritten in order to suit the contemporary audience. Since popular culture is based on culture, it goes to show that culture is no longer homogenous but rather based on its influences.