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The group of sillimanite minerals includes kyanite, sillimanite and andalusite, modifications. It is shown that high-alumina complexes are widespread throughout the Fennoscandian Shield, but the sources (protoliths) are sedimentary-volcanogenic formations of the preceding stages. Three metamorphogenic types of high-alumina formations have been identified: the Keivian (Archean), the Svekofennian (Paleoproterozoic) and the Southwestern Gneissian (Mesoproterozoic). The connection with tectono-metamorphic cycles has been established. The Keivian metamorphogenic type is characterised by the formation of high-alumina complexes under conditions of high pressures and average temperatures of amphibolite and less frequently granulite facies of metamorphism. The main industrial mineral is kyanite. The second metamorphogenic type (Svecofennian) is associated with the Svecofennian Province. The manifested metamorphism corresponds to a metamorphic series of low and medium pressures and medium and high temperatures. The main industrial mineral is andalusite. Two areas are distinguished: southeastern and northwestern. The third metamorphogenic type (Southwestern Gneissian) characterised by a wider range of PT conditions of metamorphism, which is reflected in the formation of industrial minerals of the sillimanite group (sillimanite and kyanite). Polycyclic metasomatosis of the acid-leaching stage plays the main role in the formation of deposits of the sillimanite group of minerals.
Institute of Geology Karelian Research Centre RAS, Russia
Petrozavodsk State University, Petrozavodsk, Russia
*Address all correspondence to: vv.shchiptsov@gmail.com
1. Introduction
The main criterion for distinguishing high-alumina rocks from other formations is the chemical composition: Al2O3 > K2O + Na2O or 2Al/2 (K + Na) + Ca > 1, i.e., chemically, these rocks are supersaturated with aluminium [1, 2]. The most important factors in the formation of the sillimanite group of minerals are temperature (T) and pressure (P), redox conditions of the environment (Eh), depending on the content of free oxygen, chemical potentials of carbon dioxide, sulphur, fluor and some other elements affecting the acidity-alkalinity (pH) of the mineral formation environment. Under these conditions, depending on thermodynamic conditions, other minerals supersaturated with alumina relative to alkali and calcium were formed – corundum, spinel, garnets of the pyralspite group, cordierite and sapphirine. In addition, in high-alumina rocks, there are “neutral” minerals with respect to alumina content – quartz, hypersthene, mica, magnetite and sulphides.
The group of sillimanite minerals includes kyanite, sillimanite and andalusite, modifications of the same composition of matter but with characteristics of crystal structures. The Precambrian is mainly formed by areas with metamorphic high-alumina rocks. Andalusite occurs in low and medium-pressure metamorphic rocks (e.g., large deposits are known in South Africa, India and Australia). Sillimanite is characteristic of metamorphic rocks of low and medium pressures and medium and high temperatures (e.g., deposits are known in India, South Africa, the USA and Australia). Kyanite is found in metamorphic rocks of medium and high pressures and medium temperatures (for example, deposits are known in the USA, India, Russia and Brasilia). High-alumina complexes are productive for forming deposits of sillimanite-group minerals in them. Deposits of natural metamorphogenic deposits and quartz+(kyanite+sillimanite+andalusite) associations are formed, forming significant concentrations of the mineral sillimanite group in the stage of acid leaching during postmagmatic metasomatosis.
This article gives an overview of areas with high-alumina complexes of the Fennoscandian Shield. Three metamorphogenic types of high-alumina formations have been identified: the Keivian (Archean), the Svekofennian (Palaeoproterozoic) and the Southwestern Gneissian (Mesoproterozoic) with the location of deposits and occurrences of industrial minerals of the sillimanite group on the territory of Norway, Finland, Sweden and the Karelian-Kola region of Russia. Deposits of the sillimanite group of minerals of the metamorphogenic series are objects of practical importance for use in creating various industrial materials.
All minerals of the sillimanite group are characterised by the empirical formula Al2SiO5 and have the composition: Al2O3 – 63.1%, SiO2 – 36.9%, but with characteristic features of crystal structures – coordination number 6 (for kyanite) Al2(SiO4)O, 4 (for sillimanite) Al(AlSiO5) and 5 (for andalusite) AlAl(SiO4)O [3, 4]. All modifications are industrial but differ among themselves in the conditions of formation.
The equilibria of Al2SiO5 polymorpth (andalusite, kyanite and sillimanite) with a triple point at P = 3.73 kbar and T = 506°C were calculated by using the thermodynamic dataset compiled by [5, 6]. These stable fields of andalusite, kyanite and sillimanite are used to determine the pressure boundaries between the And-Sil (high thermal T/P gradient) and Ky-Sil (low thermal T/P gradient) metamorphic facies series [7].
In the world practice, sillimanite-group minerals are formed in high-alumina metamorphic rocks under favourable conditions of metamorphism, accumulations of which are of industrial interest as sources of valuable mineral raw materials – kyanite, sillimanite and andalusite. The conditions of metamorphism and metasomatosis play the most important role in the formation of sillimanite-group deposits [4, 8, 9, 10]. Minerals of the sillimanite group, which are characterised by high melting point and are acid-resistant, do not soften when heated.
One of the essential properties of the sillimanite group is transition to mullite. Unlike other sillimanite-group minerals, kyanite passes into mullite at lower temperatures, but its volume increases more considerably. The most important application field of mullite is the refractory industry. Mullite consists of connected crystals that resist temperatures of up to 1800°C [9].
The United States is prevalent as to kyanite. Significant resources of andalusite are known from China, France, Peru and South Africa. Kyanite resources have also been identified in Brazil, India and Russia. India is the leading producer of sillimanite [11] (Table 1).
Country
2021
2022
United States (kyanite)
105,000
100,000
France (andalusite)
65,000
65,000
India (kyanite and sillimanite)
15,000
15,000
Peru (andalusite)
42,000
42,000
South Africa (andalusite)
170,000
160,000
Table 1.
Kyanite and related minerals: World production (metric tonnes) [12].
The review is based on the generalised analysis of own and literature data.
2. High-alumina complexes of the Fennoscandian shield
The formation of high-alumina complexes is associated with Precambrian polycyclic processes under conditions of amphibolite and granulite facies metamorphism from low to high-pressure and medium-high-temperature series with superposition of later metasomatic transformations of acid-leaching facies, which caused the formation of deposits and occurrences of sillimanite group on the Fennoscandian Shield.
High-alumina rocks on the Fennoscandian Shield include deep metamorphosed complexes supersaturated with alumina relative to alkali and calcium. The pre-metamorphic nature is determined by primary sedimentary-volcanogenic deposits, among which, in Precambrian strata, high-alumina rocks have undergone polymetamorphic transformations, which is typical for all shields of the world [10]. The main deposits of kyanite, sillimanite and andalusite ores in the Precambrian (USA, India, Brazil, South Africa and Russia) were formed in the productive rocks for sillimanite-group minerals [11, 12].
The most important factors of mineral formation include temperature (T) and pressure (P), redox conditions of the medium (Eh) depending on the content of free oxygen, chemical potentials of carbon dioxide, sulphur, fluor and other elements affecting the acidity-alkalinity (pH) of the mineral formation medium [4, 13]. The connection of conditions with thermal regimes, and hence with geodynamic conditions of metamorphism and magmatism, has been established [10]. The most important factors of mineral formation include temperature (T) and pressure (P), redox conditions of the medium (Eh) depending on the content of free oxygen, chemical potentials of carbon dioxide, sulphur, fluor and other elements affecting the acidity-alkalinity (pH) of the mineral formation medium. The connection of conditions of metasomatic petrogenesis with thermal regimes, and hence with geodynamic conditions of metamorphism and magmatism, has been established [14].
Analytical data on the Fennoscandian Shield, in the author’s opinion, high-alumina complexes are represented by three metamorphogenic types – Keivian, Svecofennian and southwestern gneiss, associated with polycyclic evolution of belts (Figure 1). High-alumina formations of the Fennoscandinavian Shield belong to the Neoarchean and Proterozoic with overlapping acid stage metasomatism, which was the main reason for the formation of sillimanite-group deposits. Occurrences of high-alumina formations in Scandinavian Caledonides are noted in Norway.
Figure 1.
Distribution of deposits and occurrences of industrial minerals of the sillimanite group in pelitic rock metamorphism on the Fennoscandian Shield. Compiler V. Shchiptsov. 1 – Phanerozoic <550 Ma; 2 – Oslo rift, 250–300 Ma; 3 – Scandinavian Caledonides, 490–390 Ma; 4 – Southwestern gneiss province (900–1700 Ma), including the Transcandinavian magmatic belt (650–1800 Ma); 5 – Svecofenian Province, 1800–2000 Ma; 6 – Archean and Paleo-Mesoproterozoic rock complexes (1600–3400 Ma) – Norbotten, Karelian, Belomorian; Kola Provinces and Lapland-Kola zone; 7 – deposits and occurrences of sillimanite group; 8 – development boundaries of high-alumina formations of I, II and III metamorphogenic types. Note: simplified geological map based on [15]. Deposits and occurrences of sillimanite group 1 – Keivskoe; 2 – Vorgelurta, Tavurta, Tyapsh-Manyuk; 3 – Chervyrta, Bolshoi Rov, Vostochnaya Shyyryrta, Kirpyrta, Yagelyrta, Bezimyannaya, Shyyryrta; 4 – Kayvurta, Nyssi, Manyuk; 5 – Khizovaara; 6 – Terbeostrov; 7 – Hokkalampi; 8 – Hirvivaara; 9 – Koli; 10 – Kivisuo; 11 – Tetrilampi; 12– Leteensuo; 13– Hallavaara; 14 – Mutsoiva; 15 – Mantuvaara; 16 – Skjomen; 17 – Nasafjellet; 18 – Vakhvayarvi; 19 – Rantakylä; 20 – Boliden; 21 – Säter; 22 – Øyungen, 23 Tverrådalen; 24 – Fongen-Hyllingen; 25 – Åreskutan; 26 – Hålsjöberg; 27 – Hökensås; 28 – Romsdal; 29 – Solø; 30 – Odal; 31 – Sumadalen; Sormbrua, Gullsteinberget, Knøsberget, Kjeksberget; 32 Bample; 33 – Lesjaverk; 34 – Dønnesfjord.
The Keivian type was formed due to palaeogeodynamic processes in the Archean (Figure 1 – Area I). This type is associated with the formation of mainly large deposits of kyanite in conditions of kyanite type of high-baric metamorphism and accompanying metasomatism at later stages. This area is characterised by deeper erosion. The Archean protoliths of the host gneisses were formed by erosion and redeposition of Neoarchean rocks. The widespread occurrences in this zone of high-temperature subfacies – kyanite-biotite-muscovite and garnet-kyanite-biotite-orthoclase, corresponding to the conditions of temperature (on average) 600°C and pressure 7.5–8 kbar, is characteristic. Kyanite and staurolite–kyanite schists and gneisses are potential sources of kyanite.
In the western part of area I, high-alumina pelitic complexes are metamorphosed under conditions of moderately baric kyanite-sillimanite type of metamorphism. The formation of deposits and occurrences of kyanite, partly sillimanite and andalusite (the latter, we can assume, as a result of superimposed metamorphism of the sillimanite-andalusite type) in the western part of the Karelian Province in the Neoarchean greenstone belts is associated with them.
The metamorphogenic high-alumina type is distinguished for area II (Figure 1). This type is widespread in the southeastern part of the Svecofennian Province and in Sweden in the Skelefteo County area, including the neighbouring Counties, as well as in relict remains noted in the Scandinavian Caledonides. Paleoproterozoic metamorphic transformations of high-alumina rocks were manifested with different intensities repeatedly under conditions of low-baric metamorphism in the range of 650–730°C, 3.8–5 kbar and 460–500°C, 3–4 kbar [16, 17]. There is no mineral paragenesis of progressive metamorphism in the Svecofennian Province containing kyanite, which is an important distinguishing feature. Advanced stage metamorphism was manifested in relatively low-temperature transformations corresponding to andalusite-muscovite subfacies. The pattern of mineral alteration of the metapelites is evidence of falling temperature and increasing water and alkali potential. The conditions correspond to the stability of andalusite; sillimanite is formed much less frequently.
The third metamorphogenic type is the southwestern gneissic type (Province III, Figure 1). An important feature of this type is the presence in the Southwestern Gneiss Province of polygenic and polychrome high-alumina formations (900–1700 Ma), also formations related to high-alumina rocks of the Caledonian orogeny (490–390 Ma). Several bodies of rare kyanite-bearing quartz rocks with aluminium phosphates are formed on the border of the Svekonorwegian Province and the Svekofennian Province.
3. Deposits and occurrences of industrial minerals of the sillimanite group on the Fennoscandian shield
The main factors causing the occurrence of alumina deposits and occurrences include, along with the concentration of the sillimanite mineral group, the multistage transformation of their transformation, accompanied by the concentration of the useful component, its separation in the appropriate mineral form with certain physical properties, crystal size, purity of the crystal lattice, etc. [18].
The mode of the leading endogenous processes, and hence the associated metasomatism, changed in a regular way [19, 20]. Three natural types of ores of the sillimanite mineral group were distinguished: metamorphogenic, metamorphogenic-metasomatic and metasomatic.
3.1 Features of deposits and occurrences of the Keivian type (Archean)
Kyanite-bearing gneisses of the Neoarchean Keivian Formation are represented by kyanite, quartz-kyanite and staurolite–kyanite gneisses [1]. Crystalline high-alumina gneisses represent a unique accumulation of alumina from scientific and practical points of view. The Greater Keivy is the world’s largest surface area Kyanite Province. On about 2000 km2, 90% of explored reserves of high-quality kyanite ores are easily enriched [10, 21, 22]. The main deposits and large occurrences are shown in Figure 1, namely Vorgelurta, Tavurta, Tyapsh-Manyuk, Chervyrta, Bolshoi Rov, Vostochnaya Shyyryrta, Kirpyrta, Yagelyrta, Bezimyannaya, Shyyryrta, Kayvurta, Nyssi, Manyuk. The gneisses contain, on average, 35% of kyanite. In addition, the rock-forming minerals are quartz, muscovite, biotite, plagioclase and staurolite. Garnet, chlorite, graphite zircon, etc., are present in varying quantities in the host complexes. In some parts, there are accumulations of andalusite and sillimanite. The last accumulations of sillimanite are marked in Figure 1 (point 1).
Three types of kyanite ores are distinguished by textural and structural features [23]. The ore types are: (1) fibrous-needle ores, among which fine-prismatic, parallel-fibrous, sheaf-like fibrous and radial-beam varieties are distinguished; (2) paramorphic – coarsely paramorphic with kyanite crystals up to 12 × 3 cm and finely paramorphic; (3) concretionary radial-structural with kyanite nodules up to 10–15 cm across.
The main crystallographic shapes of kyanite in the ore are acicular (Figures 2 and 3) and columnar (Figure 4). Acicular or fibrous-acicular kyanite makes up 61.9% of the deposits and columnar or paramorphic kyanite 35.7%. Kyanite crystal morphology is largely responsible for the morphology of aggregates (Figure 4) and ore washability.
Figure 2.
The most common form of needle-like crystals in the kyanite schists Keivy [18].
Figure 3.
Typical unit – concretion of needle-like crystals of kyanite [18].
Figure 4.
The second major form of crystals of kyanite – columnar [18].
An important feature of high-alumina kyanite gneisses of the Keivian ore field is their carbon saturation, which affects the colour of kyanite. Most researchers accept the primary sedimentary biogenic origin of carbon [23].
The content of rare metals and REE in concentrates of kyanite, muscovite, graphite and quartz show that muscovite and graphite are enriched with La, Ce and Nd, high contents of zirconium were identified in muscovite [24].
Formation bodies of amphibolites are widely developed among the crystalline gneisses of the Keivian group.
The Khizovaara structure is a relict part of the North Karelian greenstone belt; in its northern part, kyanite ores formed, forming the Khizovaara kyanite field (Figure 5).
The metaandesites underwent successive endogenous and exogenous reworking, the source of alumina accumulation. Two horizons of high-alumina gneisses have been identified [25]. The first horizon is represented by metaandesites, metamorphism of which is manifested in conditions of garnet-kyanite-biotite-orthoclase subfacies with the transition to staurolite-jedrite-kyanite and garnet-kyanite-biotite-muscovite subfacies of the kyanite-sillimanite facies series according to V.A.Glebovitsky [13].
The second horizon consists of rocks of the graywacke series, in which the signs of chemical weathering crust have been established [25, 26]. The source of high-alumina minerals is aluminosiliceous sediments, a significant part of which may represent poorly sorted siliciclastic material of underlying rocks of the dacite-andesite formation.
The genesis of kyanite ores of the Khizovaara ore field depends entirely on the specificity and degree of manifestation of regional metamorphism and metasomatism. A favourable environment is characterised by an alumina content of at least 20% Al2O3 in the natural rock. Acidic and basic metasomatites are developed in metamorphic rocks at average temperatures of 450–600°C and pressures of 5–8 kbar [27, 28, 29, 30]. Kyanite ore formation is shown in the example of the Yuzhnaya Lens deposit, which is geochemically characterised as an area of acid-leaching facies (Figure 6). The formation of primary metamorphogenic kyanite ores occurred before the acid-leaching phase and is detached by a significant time interval. Acid metasomatites of the Yuzhnaya Lens deposit were formed under conditions of medium temperatures and elevated pressures with high activity of volatiles, which leads to stability of other minerals, for example, pyrite (Figure 7). Three types of natural kyanite ores are localised in the Khizovaara ore field – metamorphic, metamorphogenic-metasomatic and metasomatic. The metamorphogenic-metasomatic type occupies an intermediate position when mineral aggregates are formed by an incomplete metasomatic mechanism, partially preserving the features of metamorphic rocks.
Figure 6.
Southeast side of the pilot pit No. 4. Photo by V. Shchiptsov.
Figure 7.
Pyrite veining in kyanite quartzites (open pit No. 4). Photo by Shchiptsov.
The main deposits of the Khizovaara ore field are the Yuznaya Lens, Severnaya Lens and Vostochnaya Lens deposits. In Figure 5 the Yuzhnaya Lens deposit is labelled by number 2, and the Severnaya Lens deposit – by number 1.
The Yuzhnaya Lens deposit consists of six deposits. Two types of kyanite ore are identified in the main deposit No. 4 (Figure 5) [26, 28]. The first type is ores with needle kyanite. The needles are mostly less than 1 mm in size and grey in colour with a steel tint, but fine-needle kyanite with a delicate blue colour up to 10 cm in size has also been noted (Figure 8a). This type contains pyrite up to 15%, which is explained by high activity of volatiles in conditions of quite mobile behaviour of iron (Figure 7). The second type is the ores with radial-radial kyanite and massive texture (Figure 8b). They make up only 9%. The negative point is the relatively high content of TiO2 associated with finely dispersed rutile. The results of U–Pb dating on zircons in the zones of submeridional folding and the associated stage of metasomatic kyanite formation gave the age of 1800 ± 7 Ma [31].
Figure 8.
Morphological types of kyanite ores of the deposit Yuzhnaya Lense. a – elongate thinly-acicular kyanite aggregate (needle thickness 0.5–1.00 mm); b – radial-beam (beam size 0.5–1.00 cm in length). Photo by V. Shchiptsov.
Morphological parameters and compositions of the two deposits are given in Table 2.
Deposit
Yuzhnaya Lens
Severnaya Lens
Number of deposits (ore bodies)
6
1
Deposit parameters, m
From – to m)
40–100
500
Average thickness
55
Length, m
950
500
Mineral composition of ore
Two types of ores: the first type – quartz 70–85%, kyanite 10–25% muscovite 0. 5–1%, plagioclase, biotite, amphibole, graphite, talc; pyrite 0–15%, pyrrhotite, magnetite; rutile, apatite, titanite, garnet, turmaline; the second type – quartz 50–60%, kyanite 10–40%; pyrite 0–10%, muscovite, feldspar, graphite, pyrrhotite, arsenopyrite, rutile
SiO2 54.26;TiO2 0.74; Al2O3 32.30; Fe2O3 7.33; FeO 0.14; MnO 0.01; MgO 0.10; CaO 0.42; Na2O 0.15; K2O 0.16; Loi 4.34; S 5.66
SiO2 69.90; TiO2 0.57; Al2O3 20.36; Fe2O3 4.16; FeO 0.43 MnO 0.01; MgO 0.31; CaO 0.63; Na2O 0.47; K2O 0.14; Loi 2.53; S 2.62
Table 2.
Characteristics of the main deposits of kyanite ores of the Khizovaara ore field.
Note: Figure 3 shows the Yuzhnaya Lens deposit under 2, the Severnaya Lens deposit under 1.
Valence and coordination unsaturated aluminium atoms are present in kyanite grains, the arrangement of which for kyanite of three varieties differs by different degree of ordering. The highest-frequency part of the spectrum is close to light grey and dark grey kyanites; blue kyanite has a significant difference in the silicate part of the IR spectrum, is structured and has a perfect packing [30].
Highly aluminous complexes are present in the composition of the Chupa paragneissic complex. The formation of structural and textural features and mineral composition of the pseudostratified complex in the modern sense. This complex by composition and rock ratio corresponds to tectonic breccia [32]. It is in the conditions of polycyclic high-baric metamorphism of the kyanite type [13, 33] that high-alumina metamorphogenic formations were formed in a favourable environment. Their areas in the White Sea Province are quite widespread, but they have no economic importance due to the low kyanite content in these formations. Only small deposits of kyanite ores in metamorphites of the Belomorian mobile belt are noted, and the temperature decrease from garnet-kyanite to kyanite-muscovite subfacies is recorded [34].
In the northwestern area of distribution of high-alumina rocks of the Keivian type in the active tectonic zone of the Karelian Province, deposits and occurrences of kyanite and less frequently andalusite ores have been identified, shown in Figure 1 (Hokkalampi, Hirvivaara, Koli, Kivisuo, Tetrilampi, Leteensuo, Hallavaara, Mutsoiva, Mantovaara) [35, 36]. A distinctive feature is that metamorphic rocks are products of transformation or solid-phase recrystallisation of existing Archean protoliths metamorphosed at the lowest temperatures of the kyanite facies.
The Hokkalampi, Hirvivaara and Koli deposits are associated with sericite-quartz schists and quartzites with a more uniform mineral composition (Figure 9). The main minerals are quartz, sericite, kyanite and andalusite; minor minerals are pyrophyllite, tourmaline, chlorite and sometimes dumortierite. The kyanite content ranges from 4 to 25% [37]. Figure 9 shows a band of small occurrences of kyanite ores in schists and quartzites along the shore of Lake Pielinen [37].
Figure 9.
Geological scheme of the Koli – Hirvivaara area (Finland). Compiled by V. Shchiptsov on the General Geological Map of Koli-Hirvivaara district [37]. 1 – gneiss-granites; 2 – micaceous quartzites; 3 – kyanite quartzites; 4 – staurolite schists; 5 – conglomerates; 6 – intrusive rocks of basic composition.
The Hallavaara occurrence represents kyanite formations resulting from intense chemical weathering processes at the turn of 2.2 Ga and subsequent metamorphism of buried kaolin clays. Between 1973 and 1981, Partek Corp. mined andalusite-bearing mica schist at Mantovaara [35].
In eastern Norway, small deposits of kyanite ores (Skjomen and Nasafjellet) have been identified in Archean protoliths in the Scandinavian Caledonides [38, 39].
3.2 Features of deposits and occurrences of the Svecofennian type (Paleoproterozoic)
The Svekofennian Province covers an area of 800 × 800 km in Finland and Sweden. In the east, the province borders with the Karelian Province, in the northeast with the Norrbotten Province, and in the west with the Scandinavian Caledonides and the South Scandinavian province [40]. In this area, deposits and occurrences associated with high-alumina complexes are noted in the southeastern and northwestern parts of the Svekofennian Province (Svekofennian type II, Figure 1).
The andalusite formation occurs in layered and thinly rhythmically layered quartz-biotite and phyllite schists with staurolite, andalusite and garnet [41]. Under low-pressure conditions, andalusite ore accumulations are formed in the upper parts of rhythms that previously included a large amount of clayey material in a favourable zone of amphibolite metamorphism under successive facies change – biotite, garnet (epidote-amphibolite facies), staurolite-andalusite, sillimanite-muscovite, sillimanite-potassium feldspar with subzones of biotite-sillimanite and cordierite-garnet (amphibolite facies) and hypersthene (granulite facies) zones [42, 43].
For example, in the Rantasalmi area, it was found that polymorphic alteration occurs under conditions very close to those under which the decomposition of muscovite into potassium feldspar and sillimanite occurs at a temperature of 645°C and pressure of 3.4 kb.
The metapelites contain sub-latitudinal bands of high-alumina rocks, which were the source for the formation, under favourable conditions, of promising lenticular deposits, most of which were subjected to acid leaching associated with Svecofennian activation at the turn of 1.9–1.8 Ga.
Pseudomorphs filled with muscovite and sillimanite, interpreted as melted staurolite porphyroblasts, occur in this area. Such a process is described for an area northwest of town Kitee, which hosts deposits of andalusite schist, labelled 18 and 19 in Figure 1. Andalusite and staurolite ores are formed in a sub-latitudinal band of high-alumina rocks in the southeastern part of the Svecofennian Province [17, 44].
Figure 10 shows a schematic map of metamorphism, where areas with high-alumina rocks of polycyclic formation are highlighted. In the northeastern part of the figure, number 4 shows a band of andalusite-staurolite-mica schists in a generalised format; it is here that the occurrences of staurolite schists shown in Figure 1 (points 18 and 19) are located. 1 (points 18 and 19), in the southwest direction the thickness of sillimanite-staurolite gneisses, passing to garnet-cordierite-sillimanite-feldspar-biotite gneisses, is traced, and in the southwest, the metamorphic thickness is represented by cordierite gneisses. The granitoid and gneiss-granite complexes are in fact satellites of the Central Finland granitoid complex (age 1890–1870 Ma [40]).
Figure 10.
Schematic metamorphic map of the southeastern part of Svecofennian Province (compiled by V. Shchiptsov on the basis of the map of metamorphism [44]). 1 – granitoids; 2 – gneiss-granite; 3 – gabbro, 4 – andalusite-staurolite-micaceous schists, 5 – sillimanite-staurolite gneiss; 6 – garnet- cordierite- sillimanite-K-feldspar- biotite gneiss, 7 – cordierite gneiss; 8 – fault or shear zone, 9 – the state border between Russia and Finland.
The Andalusitovy occurrence, located 4 km west of the Kharlu settlement, is a cluster of grey andalusite ores. The andalusite ores of metamorphogenic type morphologically represent a ridge of high-alumina schists extending in the NW direction (Figure 11). Formed xenomorphic and with prismatic outlines, andalusite in association with staurolite is not paragenetic. Early cross-bedded staurolite is replaced by andalusite.
Figure 11.
Garnet-staurolite-andalusite schists (Andalusite section, northern Ladoga). Photo by V. Shchiptsov.
The band of alumina schists, stretched in the sublatitudinal direction, experienced metamorphism of andalusite-sillimanite type, according to V.A. Glebovitsky [13].
Promising andalusite occurrences, formed because of the active metamorphism of Proterozoic supracrustal rocks, were discovered in the Skellefteo Ore Field area, northern Sweden (Figure 1, point 20). Composition: sericite-quartz and muscovite-sericite schist contain 30–40% andalusite.
To the west (Kristineberg area), there are also several andalusite occurrences known from literature sources [45], among which Säter (Figure 1, point 21; Figure 12) is currently among the most promising [46]. Most of the fine-grained andalusite occurs as brownish or pinkish grains in sericite quartzite. While sericite quartzite is coarser-grained and weakly banded, andalusite is also coarser-grained. The andalusite content is estimated to be up to 30–40 volume % at UV light and up to 27 weight % by regulatory calculations. Andalusite is formed by metasomatosis in association with muscovite. Quartz vein formations complete the process.
Figure 12.
Andalusite-sericite quartzites at the large Säter occurrence (Sweden). Photo by V. Shchiptsov.
The shown occurrences of sillimanite-group minerals (Figure 1, point 25 Åreskutan) is related to the Seve nappe complex of caledonite and is not related to the Svekofennian type. Sillimanite and kyanite belong to the accessory group of minerals according to the latest materials [47].
In andalusite schists containing up to 30–35% of andalusite in the rock (Figure 12), two varieties of metasomatic andalusite associations are recorded in the Svekofennian and southwestern provinces: andalusite-quartz and muscovite-andalusite-quartz. The metasomatic columns are as follows (Table 3):
Note: St – staurolite; And – andalusite; Sil – sillimanite; Qtz – quartz; Bt – biotite; Ms – muscovite; Grt – garnet; Pl – plagioclase.
3.3 Features of deposits and occurrences of the Southwestern Gneissian type (Mesoproterozoic)
The third metamorphogenic type belongs to the southwestern part of the Fennoscandian Shield (type III, Figure 1).
The specificity of the type consists in the fact that in this territory, promising objects for andalusites, kyanites and sillimanites associated with Mesoproterozoic high-alumina complexes of the Gothian (1.5–1.27 Ga) and Svekonorwegian (1.1–0.92 Ga) tectonic-metamorphic cycles have been identified [48].
So far, geological exploration has been carried out to evaluate deposits of predominantly kyanite mica schist and some kyanite quartzites.
Until 1993, the Swedish company Svenska Kyanite AB had mined the Hålsjöberg deposit, but as it failed to compete with American producers, mining was terminated and the company ceased to operate.
Here, alumina-phosphate mineralisation is widespread in the kyanite high-baric complex (Figure 1 – 26 – Hålsjöberg; 27 – Hökensås), which is of great scientific interest. Only a few areas with widespread aluminophosphate mineralisation have been studied worldwide. Among the known ones is the Swedish kyanite complex. This group was formed in a high-baric environment (kyanite-muscovite schist subface) and is represented by muscovite-kyanite and kyanite-andalusite schists [49, 50]. The genetic model proposed by Wise and Loh [51], according to which kyanite and early phosphates were formed as a result of the impact of hydrothermal solutions on high-alumina rocks, is accepted.
Some authors [52, 53], based on chemical data and field observations, assumed that granitoids represent the protolith. Others argue because of field observations in favour of a sedimentary origin [54, 55]. The answer to this question, as the Master’s thesis [56] suggests, is still open. Although D. Larsson [53] has presented convincing empirical evidence in favour of a granitoid origin of the protolith, controversy exists, primarily due to field observations of distinctly sedimentary in appearance structures.
Currently, the most common hypothesis is that of a two-stage evolution of leaching in an epithermal volcanic environment, followed by metamorphism of the amphibolite facies. Although this hypothesis seems rather complicated in some respects, it allows explaining the structure of sedimentary rocks found in kyanite-bearing rocks.
Sillimanite occurrences are most widely distributed in the Mesoproterozoic gneisses of Southern Norway, which underwent medium- and high-gradient metamorphism. Sillimanite-bearing metasedimentary rocks interbedded with felsitic gneisses of the Mesoproterozoic volcanic origin of the Telemark Supergroup (1.0–1.5 Ga) in the Bumble-Modum sector and neighbouring areas. The Bamble sector consists mainly of supracrustal gneisses (including metapelites and metasemipelites), quartzites and amphibolites, penetrated by gabbroic to granitic intrusions. Sillimanite occurrences have so far been found only in pelitic strata of the Bumble-Modum sector (Figure 1, point 32) [57, 58], which are like the strata hosting sillimanite deposits of Bushmanland (South Africa). They contain sillimanite-cordierite rocks in the Bumble area [57] and small bodies of massive sillimanite rocks found in mica gneisses, Modum area [59]. Of course, these bodies are too small to attract industrial attention, but they may serve as indicators of a suitable environment for the deposition of the necessary aluminium protoliths.
Aluminium, silicon and oxygen form bonds with each other in large amounts. In this respect, the three Al2SiO5 polymorphs (andalusite, kyanite and sillimanite) represent the equilibria caused by changing RT conditions during related or unrelated tectonic-metamorphic events. The equilibria of Al2SiO5 polymorpth (andalusite, kyanite and sillimanite) with triple points are of great interest when considering high-alumina rocks. Recently, rocks containing three subdimensions have been discovered and described in Norway [60]. The presence of three minerals in the Lesjaverk deposit (Figure 1, point 33) is a rare occurrence in nature. There are six possible crystallisation sequences established in 17 deposits studied in the world.
Polymorphic rocks with three Al2SiO5 from the Lesjaverk deposit were described by D. Whitney and W. Samuelson [61]. They interpreted the sequence as andalusite → kyanite → sillimanite. In strata with early andalusite, the formation of andalusite is generally not associated with later Barrovian metamorphism that formed kyanite-sillimanite under moderate P–T conditions. This object has important petrological significance in evaluating occurrences of sillimanite-group minerals of the Southwestern Gneiss Metamorphogenic Type III.
It is noteworthy that Norwegian kyanite quartzites from Gullsteinberget, Knøsberget, Kjeksberget, Sormbrua, containing 15–30% kyanite, are in the Southwestern Gneiss Province (high-alumina formation of III metamorphogenic type). These occurrences are labelled in Figure 1 with a generalised point under No. 31. Figure 13 shows a generalised scheme of one of the kyanite quartzite occurrences studied by geologists of the Geological Survey of Norway. In addition to kyanite, quartz was studied in similar metasomatites. It was found that fine-grained quartz, which forms 70 to 85 vol.% of these rocks, generally contains less than 50 μg g−1 (total sum) of the structurally incorporated trace elements B, Li, Al, Ge, Ti, Fe, Mn, K and P. Such analytical results allow us to define this quartz as high-purity quartz (HPQ) for use as raw material for special applications in high-technology industries [39, 62]. These rocks can be considered as potential resources of kyanite and high-purity quartz, which occur in Proterozoic supracrustal rock units.
Figure 13.
Simplified scheme of the geological structure of the Gullsteinberget kyanite quartzite deposit (Norway). Compiler V. Shchiptsov. 1 – kyanite quartzites; 2 – biotite gneisses; 3 – amphibolites.
The advantages of Norwegian kyanite quartzites have been shown by A Müller et al. [62].
The Fennoscandinavian Shield is represented by the largest Precambrian bedrock in Europe, covering more than a million km2 throughout Norway, Sweden, Finland and the Karelian-Kola region in Russia [40]. In Sweden and Norway, partly Precambrian crystalline rocks are overlain by the Scandinavian Caledonides, and in the Kola Peninsula, certain areas are occupied by outcrops of Palaeozoic alkaline massifs (Khibiny, Lovozero, Kovdor and others) and in Norway by the Oslo rift complex. The most important events are associated with the evolution of 2800–2700 Ma, 2000–1800 Ma and 1500–1270 Ma.
In those times, continental crust was segregated from the Earth’s mantle in three multiphase orogenies. The resultant Archean, Paleoproterozoic and Mezoproterozoic crust divided into some areas with characteristic litologic traits [40].
As a result of these events, the areas of distribution of high-alumina strata, which are present in all Precambrian structures – Southwestern Gneiss Province (900–1700 Ma), including the Transcandinavian magmatic belt (650–1800 Ma); Svecofennian Province, 1800–2000 Ma; Archean and Paleo-Mesoproterozoic rock complexes (1600–3400 Ma) – Norbotten, Karelian, Belomorian; Kola Provinces and Lapland-Kola zone – were isolated (Figure 1).
High-alumina rocks metamorphosed in amphibolite and granulite facies of metamorphism created a favourable environment for forming deposits of the sillimanite group of minerals.
The equilibrium of Al2SiO5 polymorpth (andalusite, kyanite and sillimanite) with triple point allows its use in characterising the fields of high-alumina strata and identifying three metamorphogenic types of high-alumina rocks determined by PT-parameters of metamorphism [5, 6]. The first type is the Keivian, the second is the Svecofennian, and the third is the Southwestern Gneissian type (Mesoproterozoic). Deposits and occurrences of kyanite, andalusite and sillimanite are associated with these types. Deposits and occurrences of kyanite were formed in metamorphic rocks of medium and high pressures and medium temperatures. Deposits and occurrences of andalusite are formed in metamorphic rocks of low and medium pressures and low and medium temperatures. Sillimanite is characteristic of metamorphic rocks of low and medium pressures and medium and high temperatures.
In a certain way, we can conclude that for the first type, the main industrial mineral is kyanite, the second type – andalusite, the third type – sillimanite and andalusite. As emphasised above, postmagmatic metasomatosis (acid leaching) played a major role in the formation of deposits and occurrences of the sillimanite group of minerals, especially characteristic of the Keivian type [29, 30].
Summarising the materials on high-alumina complexes of the Fennoscandinavian Shield, we can conclude that three types in this territory formed polycyclic and under various geodynamic conditions. Great importance is attached to the manifestation of processes related to acid leaching. The list of literature sources reflects the depth and versatility of the research conducted on the Fennoscandian Shield.
Thus, these mineral assemblages are important both from geological sense and economic geology. In the world economy, industrial minerals of the sillimanite group (andalusite, sillimanite and kyanite) are mined from Precambrian shield rocks. The Fennoscandian Shield is no exception. The Keivsky type with world-class kyanite reserves evidences this. Magmatogenic formations have low contents of sillimanite-group minerals, e.g. pegmatites. Magmatogenic minerals of the sillimanite group belong in practice to the class of gemstones, and samples of these minerals can be found in many mineralogical museums of the world.
The Kola Peninsula has large reserves of kyanite ores in the Keiv Province (kyanite as a non-traditional metallic raw material) Khizovaara kyanite ore field (kyanite as an industrial mineral for multi-purpose use).
In Sweden, there are still prospects for the development of the Hålsjöberg and Hökensås kyanite deposits. Significant andalusite occurrences exist in the Shellefteå area of Boliden, Mångfallberget and Säter, Nyborg.
Norway is a promising area for discovering large deposits of kyanite and sillimanite.
Finland market research on the global andalusite, kyanite and sillimanite trade is carried out. The end of 2022 report shows the trend of Finland’s participation in the global andalusite, kyanite and sillimanite market and estimates the country’s foreign trade in andalusite, kyanite and sillimanite during 2011–2021 [63]. It can be concluded that an in-depth analysis of the prospects of the country’s foreign trade in andalusite, kyanite and sillimanite has been carried out, and a forecast of the development of the andalusite, kyanite and sillimanite market until 2026 has been given.
This research was funded by state assignment to the Institute of Geology Karelian Research Centre, RAS, with theme N10220404400124-6-1.5.5.
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Written By
Vladimir Shchiptsov
Submitted: 24 August 2023Reviewed: 28 August 2023Published: 23 February 2024
Open access peer-reviewed chapter - ONLINE FIRST
