Early Marriage and Sexual Abuse Among Female Children

Abstract

Child marriage is a human rights violation that affects millions of girls worldwide. This practice perpetuates gender inequality, poverty, and perpetuates a cycle of poor health and well-being. This chapter examines the causes, consequences, and case studies related to child marriage. It also explores prevention and intervention strategies, including legal frameworks, community-based interventions, and educational and economic empowerment programs. Overall, ending child marriage is a vital step toward achieving gender equality, promoting health, and improving the well-being of girls and women.

1. Introduction

Child marriage is a global issue that affects millions of girls worldwide. According to UNICEF, approximately 12 million girls marry before the age of 18 each year [1]. This practice is prevalent in many countries and is linked to poverty, gender discrimination, and harmful cultural practices [2].

Research has shown that child marriage has severe consequences for the well-being and health of young girls. Child brides are more likely to experience early pregnancy, maternal mortality, and poor health outcomes [3]. Additionally, child marriage perpetuates a cycle of poverty and inequality, trapping young girls in a life of limited opportunities and decreased agency [4].

To address this issue, there have been efforts to prevent child marriage through legal frameworks, community-based interventions, and educational and economic empowerment programs [5]. However, there is still much work to be done to end child marriage and promote gender equality for all girls and women.

1.1 Definition of early marriage and sexual abuse

Early marriage: Early marriage refers to a marriage in which at least one of the parties is below 18 years of age. It is a harmful practice that denies children the right to an education, exposes them to violence and discrimination, and increases the risks of early pregnancy and maternal mortality. [1, 6]

Sexual abuse: Sexual abuse refers to any sexual activity or behavior that is imposed on an individual without their consent. This includes but is not limited to touching, fondling, penetration, and/or exposure of another person’s genitals. Sexual abuse can have long-term physical and psychological effects and is considered a form of violence and/or exploitation. [7, 8]

1.2 Global prevalence of early marriage and sexual abuse

According to the United Nations Population Fund, early marriage is a global problem affecting around 12 million girls each year. The highest rates of early marriage are found in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, but it is also prevalent in parts of Latin America, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia [9].

Sexual abuse, on the other hand, is a widespread problem that affects people of all ages and genders around the world. According to the World Health Organization, up to 1 in 3 women and 1 in 5 men globally have experienced some form of sexual abuse in their lifetime, and in many cases, the perpetrator is someone known to the victim [7]. It is important to note that due to the sensitive nature of sexual abuse, many cases go unreported, and accurate statistics on global prevalence remain difficult to estimate.

1.3 Significance of the problem

Early marriage and sexual abuse have significant negative impacts on individuals, families, and communities.

Early marriage deprives young girls of their childhood and adolescence and exposes them to a higher risk of pregnancy and childbirth complications, such as maternal mortality, obstetric fistulas, and infant mortality. It also limits their access to education and economic opportunities, perpetuating the cycle of poverty and gender inequality [6, 9].

Sexual abuse can have severe physical and psychological consequences on survivors, such as depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, sexually transmitted infections, unwanted pregnancies, and increased risk of suicide. It can also disrupt social and family relationships, and lead to further victimization [7, 8]. Moreover, sexual abuse has significant societal costs related to healthcare, criminal justice, and productivity loss [10].

Addressing early marriage and sexual abuse requires comprehensive and multilevel approaches, including legal, social, and cultural changes, as well as increased access to education, healthcare, and support services for survivors.

2. Understanding early marriage and sexual abuse

2.1 Factors contributing to early marriage and sexual abuse

There are several factors that contribute to early marriage and sexual abuse.

Early marriage is often rooted in cultural, social, and economic factors, such as poverty, gender discrimination, lack of education, traditional practices, and religious beliefs. Parents may also marry off their daughters early to protect them from premarital sex or to improve their economic status [6, 9].

Sexual abuse can be caused by various factors, including power imbalances, lack of awareness or education about consent and healthy relationships, social norms that tolerate or condone violence and sexual harassment, and individual or social risk factors, such as substance abuse, mental health issues, and exposure to violence and trauma [7, 8].

Furthermore, early marriage and sexual abuse are often interconnected, as early marriage can increase the risk of sexual violence and abuse due to the lack of informed consent, power differentials, and limited knowledge and access to sexual and reproductive health services [6, 7, 9].

Addressing these factors requires a comprehensive and collaborative approach, including legislation and policy changes, public awareness campaigns, community engagement, education and empowerment of girls and women, and provision of prevention and intervention services for survivors.

2.2 Forms of sexual abuse

Forms of sexual abuse include, but are not limited to:

1. Sexual harassment and unwanted sexual advances, which involve unwanted attention of a sexual nature, including verbal, physical, or written conduct [11].

2. Sexual assault, which includes a range of non-consensual sexual acts, from touching to rape [12].

3. Sexual exploitation, which involves any situation in which a person exploits, coerces, or uses another person’s sexuality for personal or commercial gain [13].

4. Child sexual abuse, which involves any sexual activity with a child, including touching, exposure to sexual content, and any other sexual behavior [14].

These forms of sexual abuse can have lifelong physical and psychological impacts on survivors, and it is important to address them through education, prevention, and comprehensive services for survivors.

2.3 Consequences of early marriage and sexual abuse on the girl child

Early marriage and sexual abuse can have severe and long-lasting impacts on the physical, psychological, and social well-being of the girl child.

Physical consequences of early marriage may include early pregnancy and childbirth, which can lead to complications such as maternal mortality, obstetric fistula, and other reproductive health issues. Child brides are also more likely to experience domestic violence, sexual abuse, and forced sex [6, 15].

Sexual abuse can result in physical injuries, sexually transmitted infections, and unwanted pregnancies. It can also lead to psychological trauma, depression, anxiety, self-harm, and suicidal ideation [7, 8].

Early marriage and sexual abuse can also disrupt the girl child’s education and career prospects, leading to limited opportunities for personal growth and economic empowerment. It can perpetuate gender inequality, reinforce harmful cultural norms, and hinder progress toward gender equity and social justice [9, 10, 15].

Addressing the consequences of early marriage and sexual abuse requires interventions at various levels, including policy and legal frameworks, education, health services, and community engagement. Supporting survivors through counseling, healthcare, and economic empowerment can also help mitigate the negative impacts of early marriage and sexual abuse [9, 10, 15].

3. Intersections between early marriage and sexual abuse

3.1 Relationship between early marriage and sexual abuse

There is a strong relationship between early marriage and sexual abuse. Child brides are at a high risk of experiencing sexual abuse, as they often lack the agency to assert their own sexual rights. In many cases, child marriage is a form of sexual abuse itself, as the child bride may not have the capacity to consent to sexual activity or the power to negotiate safe sexual practices.

Early marriage can also lead to domestic violence, including sexual abuse, as child brides are more likely to experience marital rape and intimate partner violence. Research shows that child brides are more likely to suffer from depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as a result of sexual and domestic violence [6].

Furthermore, early marriage can also exacerbate the vulnerability of young girls to trafficking and exploitation, especially in situations where they are forced into marriage without their consent.

Addressing the relationship between early marriage and sexual abuse requires multi-faceted interventions that address the root causes of gender-based violence, including changing social norms and attitudes toward child marriage, improving girls’ access to education, and promoting gender equity and social justice [15].

3.2 Impact of early marriage on sexual abuse

Early marriage has been identified as a major risk factor for sexual abuse and violence against adolescent girls. According to a review of the literature, girls who marry at an early age are at higher risk of experiencing sexual violence and exploitation than those who marry later in life [16]. Moreover, a report by UNICEF revealed that child marriage is associated with higher rates of sexual violence, unwanted pregnancy, and maternal mortality [17]. The World Health Organization also reported that women who marry before the age of 18 are more likely to experience intimate partner violence and non-partner sexual violence [18]. In Ethiopia, a study found that early marriage was a strong predictor of intimate partner violence [19]. It is important to note that early marriage may also negatively affect sexual satisfaction in the long term, as one longitudinal investigation found that marital quality and sexual satisfaction were associated with lower rates of marital instability [20]. These findings suggest that early marriage can have pervasive and detrimental effects on sexual health and well-being, and highlight the need for interventions to prevent child marriage and provide support for adolescent girls who have already been married off.

4. Effects of early marriage and sexual abuse on the girl child

Early marriage and sexual abuse have been identified as major challenges faced by the girl child, with significant negative effects on their physical and mental health, education, and overall well-being. Early marriage can lead to an increased risk of sexual violence and exploitation, unwanted pregnancy, and maternal mortality, while sexual abuse can cause long-term physical and psychological harm.

According to research, girls who marry at an early age are at higher risk of experiencing sexual violence and exploitation than those who marry later in life [16]. Additionally, early marriage has been linked to intimate partner violence and lower levels of sexual satisfaction in the long term [19, 20].

Furthermore, sexual abuse can result in a range of physical and psychological effects, including depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, and increased risk of sexually transmitted infections and unwanted pregnancies [18].

It is crucial that efforts are made to prevent early marriage and provide support for girls who have already been married off, as well as to address and prevent sexual abuse. These interventions should also aim to promote access to education and economic opportunities for girls, which can reduce their vulnerability to these issues [17].

4.1 Physical health consequences

Early marriage and sexual abuse can have significant physical health consequences for girls. Girls who marry early are at higher risk of complications during pregnancy and childbirth, including obstructed labor, premature birth, low birth weight, and maternal mortality [21]. They may also face a higher risk of obstetric fistula, a devastating childbirth injury that can result in incontinence and social isolation [21].

Sexual abuse can also have physical health consequences such as sexually transmitted infections (STIs), unwanted pregnancies, and injuries from sexual violence [18]. Survivors of sexual violence may also experience a range of physical symptoms, including chronic pain, headaches, and gastrointestinal problems [18].

Efforts to prevent early marriage and address sexual abuse must include interventions to address the physical health consequences faced by girls and women. This may involve providing access to comprehensive reproductive health services, including contraception and STI prevention and treatment, as well as obstetric care for complications related to pregnancy and childbirth. It is also essential to address the social and cultural norms that perpetuate these harmful practices [18, 21].

4.2 Psychological and emotional consequences

Early marriage and sexual abuse can have significant psychological and emotional consequences for girls. Girls who marry early are often forced to drop out of school and give up opportunities to build their social networks and gain economic independence. This can lead to feelings of isolation and disempowerment, and may increase the risk of depression and anxiety [21].

Sexual abuse can cause a range of psychological and emotional problems, including post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, anxiety, and low self-esteem [18]. Survivors may also experience feelings of guilt, shame, and worthlessness, which can make it difficult for them to build trusting relationships [18].

Efforts to prevent early marriage and address sexual abuse must include interventions to address the psychological and emotional consequences faced by girls and women. This may involve providing counseling and mental health services to survivors, as well as educational and economic opportunities that can empower girls and reduce their vulnerability to abuse [18, 21].

4.3 Educational consequences

Early marriage can have significant educational consequences for girls. Girls who marry early are often forced to drop out of school in order to assume the responsibilities of marriage and household management. As a result, these girls may miss out on important educational opportunities, which can limit their future prospects and perpetuate cycles of poverty [21].

The impact of early marriage on educational outcomes is particularly pronounced for girls in developing countries. For example, a study in Bangladesh found that girls who married before age 15 were significantly less likely to be literate than girls who married later [22]. Similarly, a study in Ethiopia found that early marriage was associated with lower levels of school enrollment and completion [19].

Efforts to prevent early marriage and address its educational consequences must include interventions that prioritize girls’ education. This may involve providing financial incentives for families to keep their daughters in school, as well as implementing policies that ensure equal access to education for all children, regardless of gender or socioeconomic status [21].

5. Prevention and intervention strategies

Prevention and intervention strategies are crucial for addressing a range of social issues that impact individuals and communities. Effective prevention strategies aim to reduce the incidence of negative outcomes before they occur, while intervention strategies seek to mitigate the adverse effects of an existing problem. While these strategies may be employed in a range of contexts, they are frequently implemented in relation to issues such as substance abuse, mental health, and violence prevention.

Prevention and intervention strategies are critical for promoting well-being and addressing a range of social issues. By targeting risk and protective factors and implementing evidence-based interventions, these strategies can help individuals and communities thrive.

5.1 Legal frameworks and policies

Legal frameworks and policies have been recognized as essential prevention and intervention strategies for early marriages and sexual abuses among girl child. These frameworks and policies provide a legal framework for addressing these practices, as well as promoting awareness and education on the rights of the girl child.

Legal frameworks against early marriages have been enacted in many countries, making it illegal for girls to be married before the age of 18 years. For instance, in India, the Prohibition of Child Marriage Act 2006 prohibits child marriage and provides penalties for those involved in such acts [23]. This has helped to raise awareness on the issue of early marriages and reduce the incidence rates of child marriages.

Similarly, policies have been developed to address sexual abuse and exploitation of girl child. These policies aim to create a safe environment for girls and facilitate access to support services for those who may have experienced abuse. For instance, in Nigeria, the Child Rights Act 2003 provides a legal framework for preventing and addressing child molestation, abuse, and exploitation [15]. The policy also advocates for the prosecution of offenders and encourages reporting of such abuses.

Legal frameworks and policies can also be used to promote education and awareness on the rights of the girl child. For instance, laws may provide mandatory education for girls, making it compulsory for all girls to attend school. This can help to prevent early marriages and sexual abuse by keeping girls in school and away from harmful practices.

Overall, legal frameworks and policies are critical in preventing and addressing the issues of early marriages and sexual abuse among girl child. However, their effectiveness depends on their enforcement and the resources provided for implementation. Therefore, governments and relevant organizations must ensure these policies are enforced, and resources are provided to address these issues.

5.2 Community-based interventions

Community-based interventions have been recognized as effective ways to prevent and address early marriages and sexual abuse among the girl child. These interventions involve working with communities to promote awareness, education, and advocacy on the rights of the girl child and to create safe spaces for girls.

One example of a community-based intervention is the Girls Education Initiative of Ghana (GEIG). The GEIG works with communities to promote girl child education while also addressing issues such as early marriage and sexual abuse. The program utilizes community empowerment strategies that involve working with local leaders, teachers, parents, and girls themselves to address the cultural and social factors that lead to these practices [24]. The result has been an increase in enrollment and retention of girls in school, with improved academic performance, thereby reducing the prevalence of early marriage and sexual abuse.

Another community-based intervention is the Safe Village Program implemented by the International Rescue Committee (IRC) in Ethiopia. The program involves working with communities to promote safe spaces for girls, where they can receive support in a protective environment. The program also utilizes community-led intervention, with trained community members advocating for girls’ education, raising awareness of harmful practices, and referring girls who have experienced abuse to support services [25]. The result has been an increase in girls’ enrollment and retention in school while also reducing the incidence rates of early marriage and sexual abuse.

Overall, community-based interventions have been effective in preventing and addressing early marriage and sexual abuse among the girl child. By working with communities to understand and address the underlying factors that contribute to these practices, these interventions have been successful in promoting girl child education, creating safe spaces for girls, and reducing the prevalence of harmful practices.

5.3 Educational and economic empowerment programs

Educational and economic empowerment programs have been recognized as effective strategies for addressing gender inequality and enhancing the status of women at both the individual and societal level. These programs focus on providing women with the tools and resources they need to access education, secure jobs, and achieve economic independence.

One example of an educational empowerment program is the Camfed (Campaign for Female Education) program in Zimbabwe. The program provides education scholarships, school supplies, and mentorship to girls from poor families, ensuring that they complete their education [26]. By removing the financial barriers that prevent girls from accessing education, the program has succeeded in increasing the enrollment and retention of girls in school while also improving their academic performance.

Another example of an economic empowerment program is the Women’s Livelihood Bond (WLB), launched by the UN Women. The WLB is a financial instrument that enables investors to invest in a portfolio of sustainable livelihood projects that are led by women in Southeast Asia [27]. By combining financial returns with social impact, the program has succeeded in providing women with the capital and resources they need to launch sustainable livelihood projects, generate income, and become economically independent.

Overall, educational and economic empowerment programs have been successful in promoting gender equality, enhancing the status of women, and increasing their participation in the workforce. By addressing the systemic barriers that prevent women from accessing education and securing economic opportunities, these programs have succeeded in promoting sustainable development and enhancing the economic growth of communities.

6. Case studies

6.1 Stories of girls who have experienced early marriage and sexual abuse in different contexts

The stories of girls who have experienced early marriage and sexual abuse in different contexts illustrate the devastating impact of these harmful practices on their lives and well-being.

• In Bangladesh, 16-year-old Sumi (not her real name) was forced into marriage by her parents when she was only 12 years old. After she moved in with her husband, she was subjected to sexual abuse and violence on a daily basis. When she tried to escape, her husband and his family beat her and locked her up. Sumi was eventually rescued by a local women’s organization and is now receiving counseling and support to rebuild her life [28].

  • Sumi’s story is unfortunately not unique in Bangladesh, where child marriage is a prevalent practice. According to Girls Not Brides, approximately 52 percent of girls in Bangladesh are married before they turn 18. Child marriage often cuts short a girl’s education and puts her at risk of violence, abuse, and poor health outcomes.

  • Thankfully, Sumi was able to receive help and support from a local organization that offers shelter, education, and legal support to girls and women who are victims of violence and abuse. The organization also works with the community to raise awareness about the harmful effects of child marriage and advocate for girls’ education and empowerment.

  • Sumi is now working toward rebuilding her life and is determined to use her voice and experiences to advocate for change in her community.

• In Nigeria, 15-year-old Aisha (not her real name) was abducted by Boko Haram militants and forced into marriage with a member of the group. She was subjected to sexual abuse, beatings, and forced labor. She eventually escaped and was reunited with her family, but her experience has left her traumatized and struggling to cope with the psychological effects of her ordeal [29].

  • Unfortunately, Aisha’s story is also not uncommon in Nigeria, where Boko Haram and other extremist groups have abducted thousands of girls and young women for forced marriage, sexual slavery, and other forms of exploitation. According to the UN, up to 7000 women and girls have been abducted by Boko Haram since 2014.

  • The psychological effects of such experiences can be long-lasting and devastating, including depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress disorder, and suicidal thoughts. In addition, survivors often face stigma and ostracism from their communities, who may view them as “spoiled” or “impure” after being in captivity.

  • Organizations such as the International Organization for Migration offer support to survivors of human trafficking and other forms of exploitation, including psychosocial counseling, medical care, and vocational training. These services can help survivors heal and rebuild their lives, but they also require sustained funding and political support to be effective.

• In Guatemala, 14-year-old Isabel (not her real name) was sexually abused by her stepfather from the age of 10. When she became pregnant, her stepfather threatened to kill her if she told anyone. Isabel eventually confided in her mother, but her stepfather denied the allegations and she was forced to leave her home and move in with her grandmother [30].

  • Isabel’s story highlights the prevalence of sexual abuse and violence against girls and young women in Guatemala, where rates of gender-based violence are among the highest in the world. According to UN Women, 42 percent of Guatemalan women have experienced some form of violence in their lifetimes, including sexual, physical, and emotional abuse.

  • Survivors of sexual abuse and violence in Guatemala often face significant barriers to justice and support. Many are afraid to come forward due to fear of retribution, shame, or discrimination. The country’s weak and under-resourced justice system also often fails to hold perpetrators accountable, leading to a culture of impunity.

  • Organizations such as UN Women, Oxfam, and local women’s rights groups are working to address gender-based violence in Guatemala through a variety of interventions, including advocacy, legal aid, and support services for survivors. However, much more support is needed to combat the root causes of violence, including gender inequality and deeply ingrained attitudes that perpetuate harmful cultural norms and practices.

These stories highlight the urgent need to address early marriage and sexual abuse in all contexts and to provide support and protection to girls who have experienced these harmful practices. Governments, civil society organizations, and communities must work together to promote human rights and gender equality and to empower girls to assert their rights and demand justice.

6.2 Analysis of the root causes of the issue

The issue of early marriage and sexual abuse is complex and deeply rooted in social, cultural, and economic factors. Here are some of the key root causes of the issue:

1. Traditional gender roles and stereotypes: “Gender norms and stereotypes continue to be a significant factor leading to early marriage, and societal beliefs about the role of girls and women contribute to their continued vulnerability” [29].

   1. Traditional gender roles and stereotypes can also contribute to sexual abuse and violence against girls and young women. These norms and stereotypes often reinforce traditional notions of masculinity and femininity, with males expected to be dominant and aggressive, while females are expected to be submissive and passive.

   2. This can manifest in a variety of ways, such as victim-blaming and shaming of survivors of sexual violence, or the belief that women who dress or behave in a certain way are “asking for it”. These attitudes can make it difficult for survivors to come forward and seek help and can contribute to a culture of silence and impunity around sexual abuse and violence.

   3. Additionally, traditional gender roles and stereotypes can contribute to early marriage and other harmful practices, such as female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) and forced labor. Girls are often seen as a burden on their families, and marrying them off at an early age is seen as a way to ensure their safety and security. However, early marriage can result in a range of negative consequences for girls, such as limited access to education and healthcare, increased risk of sexual abuse and violence, and early pregnancy and childbirth.

   4. To address these issues, it is important to challenge traditional gender roles and stereotypes, promote gender equality and human rights, and empower girls and young women to make informed choices about their own lives and bodies. This can include efforts to increase girls’ access to education and healthcare, promote community dialog and awareness-raising around harmful practices, and strengthen laws and policies to protect girls and young women from sexual abuse and violence.

2. Poverty: “Early marriage is often seen as a way to reduce the economic burden of raising a daughter, particularly in families experiencing poverty and economic hardship” [31]. In many cases, families may view early marriage as a way to ensure their daughter’s economic security or to alleviate their own financial struggles.

   1. However, early marriage can actually perpetuate the cycle of poverty. Girls who are married at a young age are often forced to drop out of school, limiting their access to education and future economic opportunities. Additionally, early marriage increases the risk of early and repeated pregnancies, which can have negative health consequences for both the mother and child. This can further perpetuate the cycle of poverty, as families struggle to provide for their newborns and young children.

   2. To address this issue, it is important to explore alternative ways to support families experiencing poverty and economic hardship. This can include expanding access to education and job training programs, increasing support for small businesses and community development initiatives, and strengthening social safety nets, such as cash transfer programs and social assistance. Additionally, targeted efforts to address the root causes of poverty and gender inequality, such as gender-based violence and discrimination, can help to address the underlying factors that contribute to early marriage.

3. Limited access to education and healthcare: “Girls’ lack of knowledge of their rights can result in increased exposure to harm, including the risks of child marriage and sexual violence” [32].

   1. When girls are not educated on their rights, they may not recognize when those rights are being violated. For example, they may not understand that they have the right to refuse a marriage proposal or understand that sexual violence is a crime. The lack of access to healthcare can exacerbate this problem by limiting their ability to seek help or support in cases of abuse or violence.

   2. Conversely, education and healthcare can be powerful tools in preventing child marriage and sexual violence. Education provides girls with the knowledge and skills to advocate for their rights and make informed decisions about their bodies and futures. Education also improves economic opportunities, enabling girls to become more financially independent and reducing their vulnerability to early marriage.

   3. Access to healthcare can also play a critical role in preventing child marriage and sexual violence by increasing girls’ access to information, services, and support. This includes prenatal care, contraception, and counseling services for survivors of violence.

   4. Promoting education and healthcare for girls is essential to addressing the root causes of child marriage and sexual violence. By investing in these areas, we can empower girls with the knowledge and tools they need to make informed decisions about their lives, reduce their vulnerability to harm, and promote gender equality and human rights.

4. Societal norms and peer pressure: Societal norms and peer pressure can contribute to the prevalence of child marriage and sexual violence, particularly among girls. These norms and pressures often stem from deeply ingrained gender stereotypes and expectations that limit girls’ autonomy, agency, and access to opportunities and resources.

5. One of the most significant effects of societal norms and peer pressure is the increased risk of forced or coerced sexual relationships. Girls may face strong pressure from male peers to engage in sexual activity and may be subjected to threats, coercion, or violence if they resist [33]. These pressures may be further exacerbated by the traditional gender roles and expectations that are prevalent in many communities, which view girls as inferior and submissive to males.

   1. In some cases, these peer pressures may manifest in the form of child marriage, as girls may feel pressure to conform to societal norms and expectations of early marriage and motherhood. This can lead to girls being married off before they are physically, emotionally, or mentally ready, and without their consent.

   2. To address these challenges, it is important to change societal attitudes and norms that perpetuate gender stereotypes and limit girls’ potential. This can be done through education and awareness-raising campaigns that challenge harmful cultural practices and promote gender equality and human rights. Additionally, it is important to provide girls with safe spaces and supportive networks to help them resist peer pressure and make informed decisions about their lives and futures. This includes access to education, healthcare, and other resources that enable girls to achieve their full potential and assert their rights and autonomy.

6. Conflict and displacement: “Displacement and the breakdown of social structures often lead to an increase in forced early marriage as families seek to secure their daughters’ futures and protect them from harm” [34].

   1. Displacement and the breakdown of social structures can have severe consequences for girls, including an increased risk of forced early marriage. When families are uprooted from their homes and communities, they may face economic insecurity, lack of access to basic services and amenities, and increased risks of violence and exploitation. In these circumstances, families may view marriage as a way to protect their daughters from harm, secure their futures, and ensure their economic stability.

   2. Moreover, the social structures that existed before displacement may no longer be intact, leaving girls more vulnerable to negative influences and harmful practices. For example, in refugee camps or other temporary settlements, girls may be exposed to new values and beliefs that challenge their traditional cultural norms and lead to increased pressure for early marriage.

   3. The consequences of early marriage for girls are well-documented, including adverse health outcomes, limited educational and economic opportunities, and increased risk of violence and abuse. Early marriage also perpetuates the cycle of poverty, as girls who marry young are more likely to have children at a young age and face limited opportunities for personal and economic growth.

   4. To address the issue of forced early marriage in displacement settings, humanitarian actors should focus on supporting families to meet their basic needs, providing education and training opportunities for girls and their families, and engaging with communities to raise awareness about the negative consequences of early marriage. This requires a comprehensive approach that addresses the root causes of the problem, including the breakdown of social structures and the economic and social pressures faced by displaced families.

6.3 Possible solutions and interventions to address the cases

1. Education and awareness-raising campaigns: “Community-based interventions that promote education for girls, engage men and boys, and challenge harmful gender norms can lead to positive change and help prevent early marriage” [29].

2. Access to healthcare and family planning services: “Improving access to reliable contraception services and comprehensive reproductive health education can help young people make informed decisions about their sexual health and prevent unintended pregnancies and early marriages” [32].

3. Economic empowerment and support: “Providing economic support and opportunities for girls and families can reduce the financial pressures to marry early and help build pathways to secure futures” [31].

4. Strengthening laws and policies: “Strong legal and policy frameworks, combined with effective implementation and enforcement, can help protect girls from child marriage and provide them with access to justice and support” [34].

5. Child protection services: “Child protection services, including child helplines, shelters, and legal aid, can provide girls with support and a safe space to seek help and protection” [33].

7. Conclusions

7.1 Summary of key points

The prevalence of early marriage and sexual abuse among girl children is a grave concern with profound psychological and societal implications. The impact of these practices on the lives of girls is immense and far-reaching, affecting their physical, psychological, and social development.

Early marriage not only deprives girls of their basic rights but also perpetuates the cycle of poverty, as most families opt for early marriage due to economic constraints. The psychological impact of early marriage on young girls is severe, as it often leads to high levels of stress and anxiety, depression, and other mental health issues. Girls who marry early are more likely to experience domestic violence, sexual and emotional abuse, and limited opportunities for personal and social development, leading to long-term psychological trauma.

Sexual abuse, on the other hand, exposes young girls to physical harm, emotional distress, and psychological trauma, leading to low self-esteem, poor academic performance, and other negative consequences. Victims of sexual abuse are often stigmatized and marginalized in society, leading to social exclusion and psychological distress.

Society can play a significant role in ending these harmful practices. Societal norms and attitudes toward early marriage and sexual abuse must be changed through awareness-raising and advocacy campaigns. Education and skill-building programs offer a way out of poverty and provide young girls with a pathway for success, thus providing an alternative to early marriage.

In conclusion, early marriage and sexual abuse among girl children are not only harmful but also violate their fundamental human rights. Psychological and societal implications demand a sustained focus on addressing the root cause and providing viable solutions for prevention, protection, and support. A collective effort from individuals, communities, and governments is essential to create a just and inclusive society that protects all children from abuse and neglect.

7.2 Call to action

As a global community, we need to recognize the harmful effects of early marriage and take action to prevent it. We need to invest in education, healthcare, economic empowerment, and legal protection for girls to ensure they have the opportunity to reach their full potential and have control over their own lives. We also need to challenge harmful gender norms and work toward gender equality to create a world where girls are valued and can thrive. It is time for us to come together and act to end child marriage once and for all.

Acknowledgments

I express my gratitude to the University of Maiduguri, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Political Science, for the invaluable support and resources provided during my academic journey.

Notes/thanks/other declarations

I would like to express my sincere thanks to God and also to IntechOpen for providing me with the opportunity to share my idea. Their platform has allowed me to showcase my work and reach a wider audience. I am grateful for their support and encouragement, which have been instrumental in shaping my academic journey. Thank you, IntechOpen.

Nomenclature

Here’s a possible nomenclature for the subject of early marriage and sexual abuse among the girl child:Early marriage

the practice of marrying girls before they reach the age of 18.

Sexual abuse

any sexual activity that is forced upon a person without their consent.

Child marriage

the marriage of a child under the age of 18.

Forced marriage

a marriage that is entered into without the full and informed consent of both parties.

Bride price

a payment made by the groom or his family to the family of the bride.

Dowry

a transfer of property or money from the bride’s family to the groom’s family.

Female genital mutilation (FGM)

the removal or alteration of female genitalia.

Child sexual abuse

any sexual activity between an adult and a child under the age of 18.

Human trafficking

the exploitation of individuals for the purpose of forced labor or sexual exploitation.

Domestic violence

any form of violence that occurs within the family.

Rape

any non-consensual sexual act.

Child protection

a set of policies and practices aimed at protecting children from harm.

Child rights

the rights of children to be protected from harm and to have access to education, healthcare, and other essential services.

This nomenclature provides a brief definition of the key terms and concepts related to early marriage and sexual abuse among the girl child.