Open access peer-reviewed chapter - ONLINE FIRST
Abstract
This chapter provides an accessible exploration of the integral role neuroplasticity—the brain’s adaptability—plays in learning, memory, and ultimately, workplace performance. Beginning with an overview of the neurobiology of learning and memory, it elucidates how these processes impact key skills and knowledge in today’s global business environment, and how individual differences affect team performance. The chapter then delves into strategies to enhance neuroplasticity and improve job performance, encompassing cognitive training, brain stimulation, and mindfulness interventions. Finally, it offers practical insights for integrating scientific findings into workplace training and development programs, with a focus on optimizing brain health and harnessing neuroplasticity to boost productivity.
Keywords
- neuroplasticity
- learning
- memory
- workplace performance
- brain health
1. Introduction
1.1 Definition of neuroplasticity
Neuroplasticity, interchangeably known as brain plasticity or neural plasticity, signifies the inherent capability of the brain to restructure its neural pathways and synaptic connections in response to learning, experience, and environmental stimuli [1]. As Kolb and Whishaw [2] elucidate, the term is a portmanteau of ‘neuron,’ signifying the fundamental functioning unit of the brain, and ‘plastic,’ denoting adaptability or malleability. This adaptive nature of the brain enables it to alter its structure and functionality based on new experiences, inputs, and damage, a phenomenon that continues to occur throughout different stages of life.
The process of neuroplasticity occurs at various levels in the brain, extending from individual neurons forming new connections to large-scale adaptations involving cortical remapping or reorganization [3, 4]. It is critical to note that neuroplasticity plays a significant role not just in the brain’s initial development during infancy and childhood but continues to redefine brain functionality across an individual’s lifespan [5]. Neuroplasticity facilitates the continuous learning process, aids in recovery from brain injuries, and allows for effective adaptation to evolving circumstances and environments [6]. It is this very plasticity that equips the brain with the resilience and adaptability it requires to navigate the complexities of life.
1.2 Importance of neuroplasticity in workplace performance
The value of neuroplasticity extends well beyond the confines of neuroscience, offering profound implications for the modern workplace. In today’s dynamic and unpredictable business environment, the ability to learn, adapt, and develop is a requisite for not only surviving but also thriving [7]. The underlying mechanism for such capacities is neuroplasticity. This powerful process serves as the foundational underpinning that enables individuals to acquire, assimilate, and integrate new skills, knowledge, and cognitive functions, empowering them to navigate and adapt effectively to new situations, challenges, and opportunities that arise in the workplace [8].
Consistent participation in lifelong learning and personal development strategies can effectively harness the power of neuroplasticity, leading to significant enhancements in productivity, job performance, and career advancement [9]. For instance, training programs that engage multiple senses can stimulate brain plasticity, improving memory retention and the acquisition of new skills [10]. Similarly, novel and challenging tasks can also stimulate neuroplasticity, thereby fostering cognitive agility, a trait that is increasingly valued in the modern workforce [11].
An understanding of neuroplasticity provides organizations with invaluable insights into how to optimize workplace environments and learning experiences to boost employee performance and productivity. It presents an opportunity for businesses to cultivate a more dynamic, resilient, and adaptable workforce capable of meeting the ever-changing demands of the business world [12].
1.3 Overview of the chapter
The ensuing discussion in this chapter undertakes a comprehensive introductory journey through the complex neurobiology underpinning learning and memory. It seeks to illuminate the intricate processes and structures that are instrumental in facilitating these functions [13]. In the progression of this intellectual expedition, the discussion broadens its scope to highlight the profound impact of learning and memory on workplace performance. The spotlight will be centered particularly on the indispensable role of neuroplasticity in driving these cognitive processes and their outcomes in professional contexts [7].
It outlines a series of effective strategies with the potential to optimize neuroplasticity, thereby augmenting workplace performance [12]. These strategies span a wide array, encompassing aspects such as the promotion of optimal brain health, utilization of cognitive training, application of brain stimulation techniques, and incorporation of mindfulness-based interventions [11, 14]. Each of these factors and their respective impacts on neuroplasticity will be thoroughly scrutinized.
Finally, this chapter will examine the practical implications of these insights for designing and implementing effective workplace training and development programs. This section will provide actionable recommendations for leveraging the phenomenon of neuroplasticity to enhance workplace performance, thereby equipping organizations with the knowledge to foster a more cognitively agile and resilient workforce [9]. In conclusion, the paper will point toward promising future research directions, underscoring the essentiality of ongoing exploration and understanding of neuroplasticity in the context of workplace performance [10]. The ultimate aim is to contribute to a deeper appreciation and utilization of the brain’s malleability in promoting learning, adaptability, and growth in professional environments.
2. The neurobiology of learning and memory
2.1 Overview of the different types of memory
Memory, as a cognitive process, is a complex, multifaceted construct that enables organisms to learn, retain, and utilize information over time [13]. The classification of memory into different types primarily hinges on two dimensions: time frame (short-term versus long-term) and content (explicit versus implicit).
Short-term memory, also known as working memory, serves as an active processing unit that retains information temporarily for immediate tasks [15]. Conversely, long-term memory retains information over extended periods, ranging from a few minutes to a lifetime [16].
Content-wise, explicit or declarative memory involves conscious recollection of factual information and personal experiences. It is further subdivided into semantic (facts and general knowledge) and episodic (personal experiences) memories [17]. Implicit or nondeclarative memory, however, involves learning skills and habits (procedural memory), classical conditioning, and priming, which occur without conscious awareness [18].
Recognizing these types of memory and their respective neural substrates provides a foundation for understanding the plastic nature of the brain and its capacity for learning and adaptation.
2.2 Brain regions involved in memory processing
Several key brain structures play integral roles in memory processing. The hippocampus, located in the medial temporal lobe, is central to the formation and retrieval of explicit memories, both episodic and semantic [13]. It is involved in binding together different elements of memory, such as sights, sounds, and emotional context, to form a coherent whole [19].
Adjacent to the hippocampus, the entorhinal cortex acts as a critical interface between the hippocampus and neocortex and is especially significant for spatial memory [20].
The prefrontal cortex, primarily involved in working memory, exerts control over the processing and utilization of memories [15]. Meanwhile, the amygdala is critical for processing emotional memories, particularly fear conditioning [21].
Implicit or procedural memory is primarily mediated by the basal ganglia and the cerebellum [22]. Understanding the roles these regions play in memory processing is pivotal for maximizing neuroplasticity and enhancing cognitive performance.
2.3 Basic principles of learning and memory for non-scientific readers
Learning is the process of acquiring new knowledge or skills, while memory involves the storage and subsequent retrieval of this acquired information [13]. One of the fundamental principles of learning and memory is that they are facilitated by repeated experiences or practice, a concept known as repetition priming [18].
Learning and memory also depend on the strengthening of connections between neurons, a process called long-term potentiation (LTP) [23]. When two neurons are activated together, the connection between them is strengthened, which aids the learning process.
Moreover, memories are not static but undergo a process known as consolidation, where they become increasingly stable over time. This process often occurs during sleep and is vital for long-term memory formation [24].
Finally, emotional arousal can enhance memory formation, particularly for events that stimulate a strong emotional response, a process facilitated by the amygdala [25]. Understanding these fundamental principles can help one harness the brain’s potential to learn and remember effectively.
3. The impact of learning and memory on workplace performance
3.1 Essential skills and knowledge for success in the business world
To thrive in the business world, a multitude of skills and knowledge areas are deemed essential. These encompass both ‘hard’ skills specific to certain job roles and ‘soft’ skills that are widely applicable across various professional contexts.
Foremost among the hard skills are digital literacy [26], financial acumen [27], and project management capabilities, reflecting the increasingly digital, data-driven, and project-oriented nature of current business operations.
Simultaneously, soft skills such as critical thinking, creativity, communication, collaboration, and emotional intelligence have been recognized as equally crucial for navigating the complexities and dynamism of the modern workplace [28]. These skills facilitate effective decision-making, problem-solving, interpersonal interactions, and adaptability in the face of change.
Moreover, the ability to continuously learn and adapt, often referred to as a ‘growth mindset’ [29], is deemed pivotal in today’s rapidly evolving business landscape, underlying the ability to acquire new knowledge and skills as necessitated by evolving job roles and market conditions.
3.2 Acquisition and retention of skills and knowledge through learning and memory processes
The processes of learning and memory are fundamental to acquiring and retaining skills and knowledge. As discussed earlier, learning is the act of obtaining new information, whereas memory involves storing and retrieving that information over time [13]. These cognitive functions underpin the development of both hard and soft skills necessary for success in the business world.
Skill acquisition, for instance, often follows a transition from explicit to implicit memory. Early in learning, conscious, effortful processing (explicit memory) is needed. However, with practice, skills become automatic and are stored as implicit memory [16]. This progression is seen in various domains, from motor skills like typing to cognitive skills like problem-solving.
Memory consolidation, where short-term memories are converted into more durable long-term memories, is critical for retaining learned skills and knowledge [24]. Interestingly, consolidation often happens during sleep, emphasizing the importance of healthy sleep habits for effective learning [30].
By leveraging the principles of learning and memory, individuals and organizations can enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of skill and knowledge acquisition and retention.
3.3 Individual learning and memory capacity differences and their impact on team performance
Individual differences in learning and memory capacity can significantly impact team performance. Cognitive abilities, including learning and memory, vary widely among individuals due to factors such as genetic predisposition, environment, lifestyle, and health [31].
High-capacity learners tend to acquire new skills and knowledge more quickly, enabling them to adapt and respond effectively in rapidly changing environments. They can also assist in disseminating knowledge within teams, thereby enhancing collective performance [32].
Conversely, individuals with lower learning and memory capacities may need additional support or resources to achieve their full potential. This diversity within teams, when managed effectively, can promote complementary strengths and foster collective learning [33].
Understanding these individual differences and tailoring learning interventions accordingly can optimize team performance. This approach aligns with the concept of personalized learning, emphasizing the tailoring of educational experiences to meet individual learner needs [34].
4. Enhancing neuroplasticity for improved workplace performance
4.1 Brain health and its impact on neuroplasticity
Brain health, characterized by the optimal functioning of the brain in terms of cognitive, emotional, and motor performance, is a key determinant of neuroplasticity [35]. Numerous factors influence brain health, including physical exercise, nutrition, sleep, and stress management, which in turn modulate neuroplasticity.
Regular physical exercise, for example, is known to induce neurogenesis (the birth of new neurons), enhance synaptic plasticity, and improve cognitive functions, thereby bolstering neuroplasticity [36]. Similarly, adequate sleep is essential for synaptic homeostasis, which supports neuroplasticity and promotes learning and memory [37].
Good nutrition, particularly diets rich in antioxidants and omega-3 fatty acids, also promotes brain health and neuroplasticity by reducing oxidative stress and inflammation and enhancing synaptic function [38]. Conversely, chronic stress can impair neuroplasticity and cognitive function, underscoring the importance of effective stress management for brain health [39].
Maintaining optimal brain health thus enhances neuroplasticity, facilitating learning, memory, and adaptive behavior.
4.2 Cognitive training and its impact on neuroplasticity
Cognitive training, encompassing activities designed to enhance cognitive functions such as memory, attention, and problem-solving, has been shown to induce changes in neuroplasticity. These changes are believed to underlie the improvements in cognitive performance observed following cognitive training [40].
One form of cognitive training, known as working memory training, has been demonstrated to enhance working memory capacity, with imaging studies revealing associated increases in prefrontal and parietal cortex activity indicative of neuroplastic changes [41]. Similarly, attention training programs have been associated with alterations in brain regions involved in attention control, such as the anterior cingulate cortex and prefrontal areas [14].
Moreover, cognitive training can enhance the brain’s resilience by promoting compensatory processes and neuroplastic changes that can offset the impact of age or disease-related cognitive decline [42].
In essence, cognitive training capitalizes on the brain’s neuroplasticity to augment cognitive functions, demonstrating potential benefits for workplace performance.
4.3 Brain stimulation and its impact on neuroplasticity
Brain stimulation techniques, such as transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), are powerful tools that can modulate neuroplasticity. These noninvasive methods can selectively stimulate or inhibit neuronal activity, leading to alterations in brain function and structure and consequently enhancing cognitive abilities [43].
TMS, for instance, has been shown to improve cognitive functions, such as working memory and attention, by inducing changes in neuroplasticity within the stimulated brain regions [44]. Similarly, tDCS can modulate cortical excitability and induce long-lasting neuroplastic changes, leading to improved cognitive performance, including enhanced learning and memory [45].
Research indicates that these brain stimulation techniques can boost the brain’s plasticity, making them promising interventions for cognitive enhancement in both healthy individuals and those with neurological conditions [46].
4.4 Mindfulness-based interventions and their impact on neuroplasticity
Mindfulness-based interventions, which encourage individuals to focus their attention on the present moment nonjudgmentally, have been found to facilitate neuroplastic changes in the brain, leading to cognitive and emotional benefits [47].
These interventions have been associated with increased gray matter density in the prefrontal cortex, a brain region involved in executive functions like decision-making and self-regulation, and in the hippocampus, a region crucial for learning and memory [48]. Such changes suggest enhanced neuroplasticity in these areas, associated with improved cognitive performance.
Mindfulness-based interventions have also been linked to reduced activity in the amygdala, a brain structure associated with emotional processing, reflecting an enhanced capacity for emotion regulation [49].
These neuroplastic changes induced by mindfulness practice may yield significant improvements in attention, memory, emotional regulation, and stress management, making these interventions valuable for optimizing performance in the workplace.
5. Implications for workplace training and development programs
5.1 Practical recommendations for optimizing employees’ brain health
Maintaining optimal brain health is crucial for promoting neuroplasticity and enhancing cognitive performance in the workplace. Organizations can implement several strategies to support employees’ brain health.
Firstly, promoting a healthy lifestyle is paramount. Regular physical activity has been linked to enhanced cognitive functioning and neuroplasticity, likely mediated by increased cerebral blood flow and neurotrophic factors [50]. Encouraging exercise, providing gym facilities, or organizing active team-building activities could be beneficial.
Adequate nutrition also plays a crucial role in brain health. Omega-3 fatty acids, for example, are vital for brain function and can support neuroplasticity [38]. Companies might consider providing healthy food options in cafeterias and organizing nutritional education workshops.
Lastly, stress management is vital, as chronic stress can impair neuroplasticity and cognitive performance [39]. Companies can offer stress management programs, including mindfulness training or relaxation techniques, to mitigate the harmful effects of stress on brain health.
5.2 Incorporating neuroplasticity techniques in workplace training and development programs
Understanding and harnessing neuroplasticity could significantly enhance workplace training and development programs. In line with this, organizations could adopt strategies that stimulate and capitalize on the brain’s plasticity.
One approach could be the incorporation of active learning strategies, such as problem-based learning and experiential learning. These methods are found to promote deeper processing, encourage neural network formation, and improve the retention of new information [51].
In addition, integrating cognitive training exercises can help refine critical cognitive skills, including attention, memory, and problem-solving [52]. Such exercises could be customized to the specific needs and job functions of employees.
The use of brain stimulation methods, like transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), could also be explored. Recent studies suggest that tDCS can potentially enhance learning and skill acquisition [53].
Mindfulness training should not be overlooked either, given its positive impacts on attention, stress management, and emotional regulation [54].
5.3 Potential benefits of using neuroplasticity techniques in the workplace
Leveraging neuroplasticity techniques in the workplace can bring numerous benefits to both employees and organizations. These techniques can lead to improved learning and memory, enabling employees to acquire and retain new skills more efficiently, which is particularly crucial in a constantly evolving business environment [55].
Moreover, neuroplasticity techniques can promote the development of cognitive skills, such as attention, problem-solving, and decision-making, which are key to task performance and productivity [56].
These techniques can also facilitate emotional regulation and stress management, contributing to better employee well-being and lower rates of burnout [47].
At the organizational level, adopting neuroplasticity techniques can lead to a more adaptive and resilient workforce, better prepared to navigate changes and challenges, potentially improving overall organizational performance [57].
6. Conclusion
6.1 Summary of the key points
This chapter explored the intricate nexus between neuroplasticity and workplace performance. Neuroplasticity, a fundamental brain property that allows for structural and functional changes in response to experience, plays a vital role in enabling continual learning and adaptation [1]. This property underlies essential cognitive processes like learning and memory and manifests in the capacity of employees to acquire, retain, and utilize knowledge and skills in the workplace [51].
Several regions of the brain, such as the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and amygdala, were highlighted as central to memory processing and learning [58]. Moreover, the paper explored how individual differences in learning and memory capacity could impact team performance, underscoring the importance of diversity in cognitive strengths within a team [7].
The chapter emphasized various strategies to enhance neuroplasticity and, by extension, workplace performance. These strategies encompass maintaining optimal brain health, engaging in cognitive training, using brain stimulation techniques, and adopting mindfulness-based interventions [38, 39, 50, 53, 54]. The potential benefits of implementing neuroplasticity techniques, including improved learning, cognitive skills development, and enhanced emotional regulation, were also discussed [47, 55, 56].
6.2 Future directions for research
Despite the promising evidence, further research is required to deepen our understanding of neuroplasticity and its applications in the workplace. Future studies could investigate how to best tailor neuroplasticity techniques to different organizations and their populations, considering factors such as age, cognitive profiles, and job roles. It would also be beneficial to explore the long-term effects of these techniques on employee performance, well-being, and career progression.
Furthermore, future research could focus on how neuroplasticity techniques can be integrated into digital platforms, such as e-learning and virtual reality, to create innovative and effective training programs. Lastly, with emerging technologies like tDCS showing the potential to enhance learning and skill acquisition, research exploring the ethical, safety, and efficacy aspects of such interventions in the workplace context is needed [53].
6.3 The necessary focus and importance of neuroplasticity for workplace performance
The concept of neuroplasticity is a cornerstone in understanding how individuals can adapt, learn, and perform in a dynamic work environment. As the business landscape continues to evolve, organizations must recognize the importance of fostering a neuroplasticity-conducive environment that empowers employees to optimize their cognitive potential. By doing so, organizations can cultivate a more agile, innovative, and resilient workforce capable of driving performance and success in the face of rapid change and uncertainty.
The application of neuroplasticity in the workplace is a testament to how neuroscience can illuminate our understanding of human performance in practical contexts, opening a frontier for the exploration of brain-based approaches to enhancing workplace learning, productivity, and overall organizational performance.
References
- 1.
Pascual-Leone A, Amedi A, Fregni F, Merabet LB. The plastic human brain cortex. Annual Review of Neuroscience. 2005; 28 :377-401 - 2.
Kolb B, Whishaw IQ. Brain plasticity and behavior. Annual Review of Psychology. 1998; 49 (1):43-64 - 3.
Buonomano DV, Merzenich MM. Cortical plasticity: From synapses to maps. Annual Review of Neuroscience. 1998; 21 (1):149-186 - 4.
Sur M, Rubenstein JL. Patterning and plasticity of the cerebral cortex. Science. 2005; 310 (5749):805-810 - 5.
Draganski B, May A. Training-induced structural changes in the adult human brain. Behavioural Brain Research. 2008; 192 (1):137-142 - 6.
Cramer SC, Sur M, Dobkin BH, O'Brien C, Sanger TD, Trojanowski JQ , et al. Harnessing neuroplasticity for clinical applications. Brain. 2011; 134 (6):1591-1609 - 7.
Hutchinson S, Skinner N, Lee M. The influence of adaptability on perceived career opportunity and career satisfaction in the Australian ICT sector. Personnel Review. 2019; 48 (1):19-37 - 8.
Davidson RJ, McEwen BS. Social influences on neuroplasticity: Stress and interventions to promote well-being. Nature Neuroscience. 2012; 15 (5):689-695 - 9.
Schwartz JM, Davidson RJ, Maerlender A. Life-Span Development and Behavior. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers; 2005 - 10.
Sagi Y, Tavor I, Hofstetter S, Tzur-Moryosef S, Blumenfeld-Katzir T, Assaf Y. Learning in the fast lane: New insights into neuroplasticity. Neuron. 2012; 73 (6):1195-1203 - 11.
Stahn AC, Gunga HC. Cognitive performance in space and analogue environments. Nature Reviews Neurology. 2019; 15 (10):567-580 - 12.
Walsh F. Family resilience: A developmental systems framework. European Journal of Developmental Psychology. 2013; 10 (1):12-24 - 13.
Eichenbaum H. On the integration of space, time, and memory. Neuron. 2017; 95 (5):1007-1018 - 14.
Tang YY, Posner MI. Training brain networks and states. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2014; 18 (7):345-350 - 15.
Baddeley A. Working memory: Theories, models, and controversies. Annual Review of Psychology. 2012; 63 :1-29 - 16.
Squire LR, Dede AJ. Conscious and unconscious memory systems. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology. 2015; 7 (3):a021667 - 17.
Tulving E. Episodic memory: From mind to brain. Annual Review of Psychology. 2002; 53 (1):1-25 - 18.
Schacter DL. Implicit memory: History and current status. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 1987; 13 (3):501 - 19.
Bird CM, Burgess N. The hippocampus and memory: Insights from spatial processing. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2008; 9 (3):182-194 - 20.
van Strien NM, Cappaert NL, Witter MP. The anatomy of memory: An interactive overview of the parahippocampal–hippocampal network. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2009; 10 (4):272-282 - 21.
LeDoux J. The amygdala. Current Biology. 2007; 17 (20):R868-R874 - 22.
Doyon J, Benali H. Reorganization and plasticity in the adult brain during learning of motor skills. Current Opinion in Neurobiology. 2005; 15 (2):161-167 - 23.
Bliss TV, Lomo T. Long-lasting potentiation of synaptic transmission in the dentate area of the anaesthetized rabbit following stimulation of the perforant path. The Journal of Physiology. 1973; 232 (2):331-356 - 24.
Stickgold R. Sleep-dependent memory consolidation. Nature. 2005; 437 (7063):1272-1278 - 25.
LaBar KS, Cabeza R. Cognitive neuroscience of emotional memory. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2006; 7 (1):54-64 - 26.
Helsper EJ, Eynon R. Pathways to digital literacy and engagement. European Journal of Communication. 2013; 28 (6):653-669 - 27.
Becker WC. Consequences of different kinds of parental discipline. Review of Child Development Research. 1964; 1 (4):169-208 - 28.
Robles MM. Executive perceptions of the top 10 soft skills needed in today’s workplace. Business Communication Quarterly. 2012; 75 (4):453-465 - 29.
Dweck AC. Isoflavones, phytohormones and phytosterols. Journal of Applied Cosmetology. 2006; 24 (1):17 - 30.
Diekelmann S, Born J. The memory function of sleep. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2010; 11 (2):114-126 - 31.
Garlick D. Understanding the nature of the general factor of intelligence: The role of individual differences in neural plasticity as an explanatory mechanism. Psychological Review. 2002; 109 (1):116 - 32.
Salas E, Sims DE, Burke CS. Is there a “big five” in teamwork? Small Group Research. 2005; 36 (5):555-599 - 33.
van Knippenberg D, De Dreu CK, Homan AC. Work group diversity and group performance: An integrative model and research agenda. Journal of Applied Psychology. 2004; 89 (6):1008 - 34.
Pane JF, Steiner ED, Baird MD, Hamilton LS. Continued Progress: Promising Evidence on Personalized Learning. Rand Corporation; 2015 - 35.
Cotman CW, Berchtold NC. Exercise: A behavioral intervention to enhance brain health and plasticity. Trends in Neurosciences. 2002; 25 (6):295-301 - 36.
Voss M, Bange HW, Dippner JW, Middelburg JJ, Montoya JP, Ward B. The marine nitrogen cycle: Recent discoveries, uncertainties and the potential relevance of climate change. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 2013; 368 (1621):20130121 - 37.
Tononi G, Cirelli C. Sleep function and synaptic homeostasis. Sleep Medicine Reviews. 2006; 10 (1):49-62 - 38.
Gómez-Pinilla F. Brain foods: The effects of nutrients on brain function. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2008; 9 (7):568-578 - 39.
McEwen BS. Sex, stress and the hippocampus: Allostasis, allostatic load and the aging process. Neurobiology of Aging. 2002; 23 (5):921-939 - 40.
Klingberg T. Training and plasticity of working memory. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 2010; 14 (7):317-324 - 41.
Jolles DD, Crone EA. Training the developing brain: A neurocognitive perspective. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience. 2012; 6 :76 - 42.
Belleville S, Clement F, Mellah S, Gilbert B, Fontaine F, Gauthier S. Training-related brain plasticity in subjects at risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease. Brain. 2011; 134 (6):1623-1634 - 43.
Nitsche MA, Cohen LG, Wassermann EM, Priori A, Lang N, Antal A, et al. Transcranial direct current stimulation: State of the art 2008. Brain Stimulation. 2008; 1 (3):206-223 - 44.
Guse B, Falkai P, Wobrock T. Cognitive effects of high-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation: A systematic review. Journal of Neural Transmission. 2010; 117 :105-122 - 45.
Kuo MF, Nitsche MA. Effects of transcranial electrical stimulation on cognition. Clinical EEG and Neuroscience. 2012; 43 (3):192-199 - 46.
Dayan E, Censor N, Buch ER, Sandrini M, Cohen LG. Noninvasive brain stimulation: From physiology to network dynamics and back. Nature Neuroscience. 2013; 16 (7):838-844 - 47.
Tang YY, Hölzel BK, Posner MI. The neuroscience of mindfulness meditation. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2015; 16 (4):213-225 - 48.
Hölzel BK, Carmody J, Vangel M, Congleton C, Yerramsetti SM, Gard T, et al. Mindfulness practice leads to increases in regional brain gray matter density. Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging. 2011; 191 (1):36-43 - 49.
Taren AA, Creswell JD, Gianaros PJ. Dispositional mindfulness co-varies with smaller amygdala and caudate volumes in community adults. PloS One. 2013; 8 (5):e64574 - 50.
Ratey JJ, Loehr JE. The positive impact of physical activity on cognition during adulthood: A review of underlying mechanisms, evidence and recommendations. Reviews in the Neurosciences. 2011; 22 (2):171-185 - 51.
Doyle T, Zakrajsek TD. The New Science of Learning: How to Learn in Harmony With Your Brain. Stylus Publishing, LLC; 2018 - 52.
Kable JW, Caulfield MK, Falcone M, McConnell M, Bernardo L, Parthasarathi T, et al. No effect of commercial cognitive training on neural activity during decision-making. Journal of Neuroscience. 2017; 37 (31):7390-7402 - 53.
Bikson M, Grossman P, Thomas C, Zannou AL, Jiang J, Adnan T, et al. Safety of transcranial direct current stimulation: Evidence-based update 2016. Brain Stimulation. 2016; 9 (5):641-661 - 54.
Jha AP, Morrison AB, Dainer-Best J, Parker S, Rostrup N, Stanley EA. Minds “at attention”: Mindfulness training curbs attentional lapses in military cohorts. PLoS One. 2015; 10 (2):e0116889 - 55.
Murre JM, Janssen SM, Rouw R, Meeter M. The rise and fall of immediate and delayed memory for verbal and visuospatial information from late childhood to late adulthood. Acta Psychologica. 2013; 142 (1):96-107 - 56.
Dahlin E, Neely AS, Larsson A, Bäckman L, Nyberg L. Transfer of learning after updating training mediated by the striatum. Science. 2008; 320 (5882):1510-1512 - 57.
Bavelier D, Green CS, Pouget A, Schrater P. Brain plasticity through the life span: Learning to learn and action video games. Annual Review of Neuroscience. 2012; 35 :391-416 - 58.
Eichenbaum H. A cortical-hippocampal system for declarative memory. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 2000; 1 (1):41-50