These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
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This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
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To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
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Initially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
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These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\n
This collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\n
To celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
Electromagnetic (EM) waves are generated when an electric field comes in contact with a magnetic field. The oscillations of the electric field and the magnetic field are perpendicular to each other and they are also perpendicular to the direction of EM waves propagation. EM waves travel with a constant velocity of 3.0 × 108 m/s in vacuum. Unlike mechanical waves (sound waves) which need a medium to travel, EM waves can travel through anything, such as air, water, a solid material or vacuum. EM radiation refers to the EM waves, propagating through space–time, carrying EM radiant energy [1]. It is a form of energy that is all around us. Human activities like using global positioning system (GPS) device to navigate precise location, heating up a food in a microwave or using X-rays detection by a doctor would be impossible without EM radiation. Figure 1 shows the EM spectrum used to describe different types of EM energy according to their frequencies (or wavelengths). The EM spectrum ranges from lower energy waves (longer wavelength), like radio waves and microwaves, to higher energy waves (shorter wavelength), like X-rays and gamma rays. As for the radiated emission which is focused on in this chapter, the frequency locates in the radio frequency spectrum (3 KHz–300 GHz).
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Figure 1.
A diagram of the EM spectrum showing various properties across the range of frequencies and wavelengths.
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Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is a disturbance generated by conduction or external radiation that affects an electrical circuit. The interference emission sources are from the conducted emission (several KHz–30 MHz) to the radiated emission (30 MHz–12 GHz) [2]. The conducted emission is the noise which is internally generated from the poor designed electrical circuit such as electrical cables and power wires. The radiated emission that is externally generated is in the form of transmitting EM waves such as the intended EM radiation from the radio broadcasting antenna and the unintended EM radiation from the high-speed transceivers. While detecting the EMI shielding of the device, it is usually relevant to the radiated emission lonely. The conducted emission is another subject especially for the noise prevention in system level.
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EMI is encountered by all of us in our daily life and are expected to face exponential rise in future due to the growing numbers of wireless devices and standards, including cell phones, GPS, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi and near-field communication (NFC). Great effort has been dedicated for the development of EMI shielding materials. EMI shielding can be achieved by prevention of EM waves passing through an electric system either by reflection or by absorption of the incident radiation power. In the past, metals were conveniently used in many occasions. Among them, galvanized steel and aluminum are the most widely used. Copper, nickel, pre-tin plated steel, zinc and silver are also used for some purposes. When the trend in today’s electronic devices become faster, smaller and lighter, metals are disadvantageous in weight consideration. Moreover, the EM pollution is not truly eliminated or mitigated since the EM signals are almost completely reflected at the surface of the metal protecting the environment only beyond the shield [3]. Hence, intensive research efforts have been focused on the development of EMI shielding materials that work by tunable reflection and absorption based on novel materials that possess lightness, corrosion resistance, flexibility, easy processing, etc.
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This chapter is divided into two sections. In the next section, we will describe the EMI shielding theory in details and the parameters that influence the shielding by reflection and absorption. After that, we introduce three categories of lightweight EMI shielding materials, namely, polymer-based composites, foams and aerogels.
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\n
\n
2. EMI shielding theory
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The EMI capability of a material is called shielding effectiveness (SE). It is defined in terms of the ratio between the incoming power (Pi) and outgoing power (Po) of an EM wave as [4]:
The unit of EMI SE is given in decibels (dB). According to Eq. (1), how much attenuation is blocked at given SE is given in Table 1.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
SE (dB)
\n
20
\n
30
\n
40
\n
50
\n
60
\n
70
\n
\n
\n
Attenuation %
\n
99
\n
99.9
\n
99.99
\n
99.999
\n
99.9999
\n
99.9999
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Shielding effectiveness and attenuation %.
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2.1 Far field and near field
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According to the distance r between the radiating source and the shield material, an EM wave can be divided into near field wave and far field wave relative to the total wavelength λ of the EM wave. As shown in Figure 2, the region within the distance r > λ/2π is the far field while the distance r < λ/2π is the near field.
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Figure 2.
Wave impedance in far field and near field [5].
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In far field, the EM waves can be regarded as plane waves and EMI should consider both electric field (E) and magnetic field (H) effects. It fulfills the conditions as follows,
\n
\n\nZ\n=\n\n\nE\n\n\nH\n\n\n\nE2
\n
\n\nE\n⊥\nH\n\nE3
\n
where Z is the intrinsic impedance or what is sometimes called wave impedance. |E| and |H| are the electric and magnetic fields’ amplitudes, respectively. For air (σ = 0, μ = μ0, ε = ε0), the wave impedance (Z0) is always equal to 377 Ω and can be expressed as
where σ is the electrical conductivity, μr is the relative permeability (μ = μ0μr), μ0 is the permeability of air (4π × 10−7 H/m), ε0 is the permittivity of air (8.85 × 10−12 F/m).
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In near field, the wave front is curved instead of planar, so the wave front is not parallel to the surface of the shielding material. In this case, the wave impedance (|E|/|H|) is not constant and depends on the distance and the dominant field. For an electrical radiation source, the electrical field dominates. The wave impedance is higher than 377 Ω and decreases as the distance r increases. It can be expressed as [5].
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\n\n\nz\n0\n\n=\n\n1\n\n2\nπ\nf\nε\nr\n\n\n\nE5
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For a magnetic radiation source, the near field is mainly magnetic. The wave impedance is lower than 377 Ω and increases as the distance r increases, it can be expressed as [5].
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\n\n\nZ\n0\n\n=\n2\nπ\nf\nμ\nr\n\nE6
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In this chapter, all the formulations and results are taken based on far field condition because a distance of 48 cm associated with operating at a frequency of 100 MHz is already considered as far field.
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2.2 EMI shielding mechanisms for homogeneous shield materials
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Figure 3a illustrates the reflection and transmission of an EM wave when it strikes on a shield material. The uniform EM wave with the electric field Ei and magnetic field Hi is normal incident to the material. When the EM wave strikes the left boundary of the material, portions of the EM wave are reflected in the opposite direction with the electric field Er and magnetic field Hr. Other portions of the EM wave are transmitted though the material with the electric field Et and magnetic field Ht. The electric field SE can be expressed as:
(a) Schematic illustration of EM plane wave is normal incident to a material with thickness t and (b) schematic illustration of attenuation of an incident EM wave by a shield material (thickness of shield material = t).
Theoretically, the SE of a material is contributed from three mechanisms including reflection, absorption and multiple-reflections., the materials with mobile charge carriers (electrons or holes) can interact with the incoming EM wave to facilitate reflection. Absorption depends on the thickness of the shield materials. It increases with the increase of the thickness of the shield materials. For significant absorption, the shield materials possess electric and/or magnetic dipoles which could then interact with the EM fields. Multiple-reflections is the third shielding mechanism, which operates via the internal reflections within the shield material. Therefore, the overall SE is the sum of all the three terms:
The EMI SE of the material depends on the distance between radiation source and the shielding material. When the radiation source is far from the shielding material, the SE is called as far field SE. In the case of the short distance between radiation source and the shielding material, the SE is called as near field SE.
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Figure 3b illustrates three EMI shielding mechanisms in a conductive shield material. When an EM wave strikes the left boundary of the homogenous conductive material, a reflected wave and a transmitted wave will be created at the left external and right external surface, respectively. As the transmitted wave propagates within the shield material, the amplitude of the wave exponentially decreases as a result from absorption, and the energy loss due to the absorption will be dissipated as heat [6]. Once the transmitted wave reaches the internal right surface of the shield (t), a portion of wave continues to transmit from the shield material and a portion will be reflected into the shield material. The portion of internal reflected wave will be re-reflected within the shield material, which represents the multiple-reflections mechanism. The skin effect would affect the effect of multiple-reflections to the overall shielding to a great extent. The depth at which the electric field drops to (1/e) of the incident strength is call the skin depth (δ), which is given as follows [7]:
\n
\nδ\n=\n\n1\n\nπ\nf\nσ\nμ\n\n\n\nE10
\n
where f is frequency (Hz). μ and σ are the magnetic permeability and the electrical conductivity of the shield material, respectively. If the shield is thicker than the skin depth, the multiple-reflections can be ignored. However, the effect of multiple-reflections will be significant as the shield is thinner than the skin depth.
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As shown in Figure 3b, in case the shield material is a good conductor, Zm ≪ Z0, then [8].
where \n\n\nZ\nm\n\n=\n\n\njωμ\n\nσ\n+\njωε\n\n\n\n≅\n\n\njωμ\nσ\n\n\n\n, \n\n\nZ\n0\n\n=\n\n\n\nμ\n0\n\n\nε\n0\n\n\n\n\n . So SEMR can be expressed as [8].
where ω = 2πf, σr = σ/σCu is the relative conductivity of the material, it is related to the electrical conductivity of the copper, the electrical conductivity of copper is σCu = 5.8 × 107 S/m. If the shield material possesses electric and/or magnetic dipoles, the attenuation of incident EM wave happens inside the shield material due to the absorption and multiple-reflections, the amplitude of the EM wave declines during wave traveling, and it can be expressed as [8].
where t is the thickness of the shield material, δ is the skip depth under the operation frequency, β is the propagation constant.
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The mechanism of multi-reflections is complicated. For a good conductor material, the multiple-reflection is usually insignificant because most of the incident EM waves are reflected from the external conductive surface of the shield material, and only few penetrated EM waves can be retained for multiple-reflections. The influence is more important for a material that has high permeability and low electrical conductivity. In this case, EM waves can easily penetrate through the external surface of the shield material and most penetrated EM waves are reflected from the second surface of the shield material. The influence is more important in low frequency and is reduced when the frequency gets higher because the ratio between material thickness and skin depth (t/δ) become larger as the frequency increases.
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\n
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2.3 EMI shielding mechanisms for composites
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Composites are made from fillers and matrices with significantly different physical or chemical properties. Hence, EMI shielding mechanisms are more complicated than those for homogeneous shield materials because of the huge surface area available for reflection and multiple-reflections. The EMI SE of composites can be measured experimentally, and it also can be calculated theoretically. The effective relative permittivity εeff of composites, which is one of the most important parameters in the calculation, can be approximately calculated from the Maxwell Garnett formula as [9]:
where εe is the relative permittivity of the matrix, εi is the relative permittivity of the filler and f is the volume fraction of the filler. If the filler are electrical conductive particles, the relative permittivity εi can be expressed as [10]:
where ε′ and ε′′ are the real and imaginary part of the complex relative permittivity of the filler, respectively. σ is the electrical conductivity of the filler. As shown in Figure 3b, the transmission coefficient T can be expressed as [10]:
where T1 and T2 are the transmission coefficients at the boundary 0 and t, respectively. R1 and R2 are the reflection coefficients at the boundary 0 and t, respectively. γm is the complex propagation constant. The T1, T2, R1, and R2 can further be expressed in terms of the impedance Z0 and Zm [10]:
where Z0 and Zm are the impedance of the air and the composite material, respectively. Z0 can be expressed in Eq. (4) and Zm can further be expressed as:
When modern electronic devices are designed, high performance EMI shielding materials are highly demanded. In addition, lightweight is one additional important technical requirement for potential applications especially in the areas of automobile and aerospace. In the following section, we will briefly review state-of-the-art research work regarding polymer-based composite, foams and aerogels used for EMI shielding.
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\n
3.1 Polymer-based composites
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Polymer/conductive fillers composites was seen as a promising advanced EMI shielding materials since the discovery that an insulating polymer would allow the flow of current through the conductive network stablished by conductive fillers above the percolation threshold. The conductive composite materials preserve the advantages of lightness of polymers, low cost, design flexibility and ease of processing, and the incorporation of conductive fillers circumvent intrinsic nature of polymers being transparent to EM waves through interaction between EM wave and the conductive fillers. Metallic fillers, intrinsically conductive polymers and carbon based electrically conductive fillers are discussed in this section with specific examples. Polymer/magnetic particles composites will also be briefly introduced as magnetic portion is an important component in EM waves that should not be ignored. This section aims to provide a general overview on the preparation of polymer-based EMI shielding materials and the advantages and challenges faced by each category and possible strategies towards enhancing the EMI shielding performances.
Metals are typical wave-reflection materials used for EMI shielding purpose owing to their abundance in mobile charge carriers that can interact with the incident EM radiation. Metallic fillers of various physical forms, such as fibers or nanoparticles, were dispersed in the polymer matrix to increase the interaction with the incident EM radiation. Injection-molding provides a direct method to disperse metallic fillers into a polymer matrix. Stainless steel fibers (SSF) introduced into polycarbonate matrix through injection molding shown that EMI SE is heavily dependent on the molding parameters which would give an optimum electrical conductivity [11]. Blended textiles of polyester fibers with SSF showed that the EMI SE is more than 50 dB in the frequencies ranging from 30 MHz to 1.5 GHz [12] (see Figure 4a). As shown in Figure 4b and c, comparison of reflectance, absorbance and transmittance, (identified as reflectivity, absorptivity and transmissibility in Figure 4) for SSF and SSF/polyester fiber fabrics as a function of frequency revealed absorption as the dominant EMI shielding mechanism. In the case of SSF/polyester with 10 wt% SSF, EMI shielding by absorption increased from 30 MHz to maximum at 500 MHz and then decreased with the increase in frequency.
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Figure 4.
(a) The EMI SE of the SSF/PET fabric as a function of frequency; (b) reflectivity/absorptivity/transmissibility of SSF fabric and (c) SSF/PET fabric with 10 wt% SSF as a function of frequency [12].
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The challenges in achieving a good dispersion of metallic fillers and the weight increase make polymer/metallic fillers composites a less popular choice. Much attention was switched to intrinsically conductive polymers (including polyaniline, polyacetylene, and polypyrrole), carbon-based materials (including carbon fibers, carbon black, graphite, graphene, carbon nanotubes and mesoporous carbon), and magnetic materials like carbonyl iron and ferrites (including Fe3O4 and α-Fe2O3).
Blends of a polymer with an intrinsically conductive polymer results in a composite combining the desired properties of the two components, that is, adequate mechanical properties of the polymer matrix for mechanical support and the electrically conducting component for interaction with the EM radiation. Conducting polymers are conjugated polymers, which on doping exhibit electronic conductivity. Distinctive to metallic fillers, the electrical conductivity of conducting polymers arises from the polymer molecular structure. Alteration of parameters such as chain size, doping level, dopant type and the synthesis route directly affect the molecular structure, hence the EMI shielding properties of the material.
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Among the available conducting polymers, polypyrrole (PPY) and polyaniline (PANI) are the most widely used conductive fillers for EMI shielding purposes. PPY is known to possess high conductivity, easy synthesis, good environmental stability and less toxicological problem. Chemical and electrochemical polymerization of PPY on a polyethylene terephthalate (PET) fabric is given as an example for electrically conducting composite. Pyrrole was first dissolved in an aqueous solution containing 10 wt% polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and sprayed on the PET fabric before subject to electrochemical polymerization at room temperature under a constant current density. The resultant PPY coated PET fabric was shown to exhibit EMI SE about 36 dB over a wide frequency range up to 1.5 GHz [13].
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PANI was studied extensively for its various structures, unique doping mechanism, excellent physical and chemical properties, stability, and the readily obtainable raw materials. Lakshmi et al. [14] prepared PANI-PU composite film by adding aniline to polyurethane (PU) solution in tetrahydrofuran (THF). Doping of composites was done by adding camphor sulfonic acid to the composite solution. The EMI SE of the PU-PANI film was found to increase with thickness and the frequency specific material is ideal for shielding at 2.2 and 8.8 GHz.
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Other intrinsically conducting polymers, such as poly(p-phenylene-vinylene) [15, 16] and poly(3-octylthiophene) [17], were also investigated for EMI shielding applications, but too much lesser extent, mainly due to the unsatisfactory performance and complex processing procedures involved.
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In general, the EMI shielding performance arises by the addition of conductive polymer consequently dominated by reflection mechanism due to the increase of the level of impedance mismatch with air. One obvious advantage of such polymer-polymer system is the lightweight being preserved, also there is no issue on substrate flexibility as those associated with metallic or carbon-based fillers. However, the main drawbacks of such composites include (1) poor mechanical properties of the most of the intrinsically conducting polymers require a matrix material for structural support; (2) the insoluble and infusible characteristics caused conducting polymers to exhibit poor processability and (3) high filler (conducting polymer) level is usually needed for acceptable performances.
Similar to metallic fillers, carbon-based fillers come in various shapes and aspect ratios. Carbon black (CB), including graphite and CB, is the generic name given to small particle size carbon pigments which are formed in the gas phase by thermal decomposition of hydrocarbons [18]. Carbon fibers (CFs) are 1D carbon structure of diameter generally lies between 50 and 200 nm and aspect ratios around 250 and 2000, largely produced by chemical vaporization of hydrocarbon [19, 20]. Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) can be considered as rolled-up hollow cylinders of graphene sheets of very high aspect ratio due to the small diameter, constituted of a single hollow cylinder, that is, single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) or of a collection of graphene concentric cylinders, that is, multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs) [21, 22]. Graphene sheet (GS), an atomically thick two-dimensional structure, exhibited excellent mechanical, thermal and electrical properties [23]. Both CNTs and graphene offer substantial advantages over conventional carbon fillers and the percolation threshold can be achieved by both at very low content if properly dispersed.
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In general, carbon fillers with high aspect ratio are generally more effective in imparting electrical conductivities to a polymer matrix, hence it is no surprise to observe the highest SE from fillers with the highest aspect ratio, that is, SWCNTs > MWCNTs > CNFs > CB when the volume fraction of the fillers is the same. The different methods of fillers dispersion and various carbon filler surface modification methods were comprehensively reviewed in the published paper and will not be discussed in detail here [3, 24]. The EMI shielding performance of the polymer/carbon-fillers composites can also be found in Ref. [3, 7, 24, 25].
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\n
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3.1.4 Polymer-based composites containing magnetic particles composites
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A binary or even ternary component consists of two or more types of the fillers provide an effective way to bypass the inherent shortcomings of a single-filler composite. The incorporation of magnetic components will supplement the attenuation properties of a carbon-based EMI shielding material.
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Physical blending or deposition of metallic particles within a polymer blend or structure is the most direct way of incorporation a third element, however, such method faces the problem of uniform dispersion and deposition at the bottom layers due to the higher density of metallic particles. Electroless plating of metals on carbon substrates provides a neat way of incorporating metal components uniformly into a system without excessive weight addition. Works by Kim et al. [26] and Yim et al. [27] dispersed nickel coated MWCNT through electroless plating in epoxy and high-density polyethylene, respectively. Figure 5a gives an illustration of the nickel coated MWCNTs. It is apparent that the nickel coated MWCNTs appeared rougher comparing to the pristine ones due to the presence of nickel particles as shown Figure 5b. Yim achieved 140% (at 1 GHz, Figure 5c) in enhancement of the EMI SE compared to the pristine MWCNT/polymer composites. The enhancement was attributed to the increased surface conductivity. Figure 5d shows the proposed shielding mechanism of Ni-MWCNTs/HDPE. EM wave was firstly reflected at the composite surfaces upon reaching the surface of the composite. When the penetrated EM wave meets the nickel layer on the MWCNTs, the metallic layer functioned as EM absorbable or reflective fillers. It is evident that the EMI absorbing nature of the metallic layer can be used as an effective additional shielding material despite the small amount present in the systems.
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Figure 5.
(a) Schematic diagram of the electroless Ni-plating process; (b) SEM images of (1) pristine MWCNTs and (2) Ni-coated MWCNTs, respectively; (c) comparison of the EMI SE of MWCNTs/HDPE and Ni-MWCNTs/HDPE and (d) the proposed shielding mechanism of Ni-MWCNTs/HDPE [27].
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\n
\n
\n
3.2 Foams and aerogels used in EMI shielding
\n
In view of the rigid index of fuel-economy in the applications of automobile and aerospace, lightweight EMI shielding materials with the combination of reduced density and high EMI SE are much preferred. In this section, we aim to provide a general overview on the preparation of foam and aerogel materials used in EMI shielding and the advantages and challenges faced by each category and possible strategies towards enhancing their EMI shielding performances. The specific EMI SE, defined as the ratio of the EMI SE to the density (SSE) or both density and thickness (SSE/t), is a more appropriate criterion to compare the EMI shielding performance with those of other typical materials for the applications where lightweight is required.
\n
\n
3.2.1 Polymer-based composite foams
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Conductive polymer-based composites foams offer significant reduction in weight, while the pores decrease the real part of the permittivity, accordingly reducing the reflection at the material surface. The porous structure enhances the energy absorption through wave scattering in the walls of the pores. Electrically conductive fillers, including CNFs, CNTs and graphene sheets, are commonly used to form a desirable conducting network within the inherently insulating polymer foam matrix. Yang et al. [28] first reported CNFs reinforced polystyrene (PS) composite foam as a conductive foam for EMI shielding application. The EMI SE of PS/CNFs foam containing 1 wt% CNFs was less than 1 dB, upon increasing CNFs content to 15 wt%, EMI SE increased to 19 dB. Following this work, the authors reported PS/CNTs composite foam with varying CNTs contents from 0 to 7 wt% [4]. The PS/CNTs composite foam achieved a higher EMI SE of above 10 dB compared to 3 dB for the PS/CNFs composite foam at the same filler content of 3 wt%. The difference in the results originated from the remarkable electrical and structural properties of CNTs, such as larger aspect ratio, smaller diameter, higher electrical conductivity and strength, compared to CNFs.
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\n
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3.2.2 Syntactic foams
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Syntactic foam, filling hollow spheres in a matrix, is a kind of lightweight composite materials. The approaches to enhance the EMI SE of syntactic foams include (i) hollow particles made of a conductive material; (ii) coating a conductive layer onto the surface of hollow particles and (iii) adding a second conductive filler in syntactic foam matrix.
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Zhang et al. [29] added a second conductive filler, (CNFs, chopped carbon fiber (CCF), and long carbon fiber (LCF)), into syntactic foams containing conductive hollow carbon microspheres (HCMs). The EMI SE values of used syntactic foams at the same filler content were compared, as shown as Table 2. The results showed that CNFs is more effective in providing EMI shielding compared to CCF and LCF due to the larger aspect ratio of CNFs.
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\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Filler content (vol%)
\n
CNF Aspect ratio: 500–1700
\n
CCF Aspect ratio: 6–50
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LCF Aspect ratio: 150–750
\n
\n\n\n
\n
0.5
\n
5.2
\n
2.2
\n
2.8
\n
\n
\n
1.0
\n
11.3
\n
3.4
\n
4.4
\n
\n
\n
1.5
\n
16.4
\n
3.7
\n
6.5
\n
\n
\n
2.0
\n
24.9
\n
4.3
\n
7.5
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Comparison of the EMI SE (dB) of CNF, CCF, and LCF reinforced syntactic foam.
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Zhang et al. [30] also demonstrated the effect of functionalization of HCMs on the EMI SE of the epoxy-HCMs syntactic foam. HCMs were coated with polydopamine (PDA) via the self-polymerization of dopamine. The PDA coating promotes dispersion and served as a reducing agent to deposit silver (Ag) particles on the surface of HCMs as illustrated in Figure 6a. The average EMI SE of the epoxy-HCMs syntactic foam containing Ag-PDA-HCMs with 28.5 and 30.5 wt% of silver in the X-band achieved 49.5 and 60.2 dB, respectively as shown in Figure 6b. The SSE reached up to 46.3 dB cm3/g, demonstrating the prospect of epoxy/Ag-PDA-HCMs syntactic foam as a lightweight high-performance EMI shielding material. The corresponding EMI shielding mechanism of this syntactic foam was analyzed by comparing the values of reflectance (R), absorptance (A), and transmittance (T) in Figure 6c. The specimens were both reflective and absorptive towards EM radiation at silver content less than 17.8 wt%. The contribution of reflection (0.83) towards EMI SE surpassed that from absorption (0.16) when silver content increased to 28.5%. The dense and thick electrically conductive silver formed due to further increasing the silver content to 30.5 wt% increased the R to 0.97 and resultant in reflection as the dominant shielding mechanism.
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Figure 6.
(a) Schematic illustration of the procedure for preparation of PDA-HCMs and Ag-PDA-HCMs; (b) EMI SE in the frequency range from 8 to 12 GHz for syntactic foam containing pristine HCMs and Ag-PDA-HCMs with different silver contents; and (c) reflectance (R), absorbance (A), and transmittance (T) of EM radiation over syntactic foams containing Ag-PDA-HCMs with different silver content at 10 GHz [30].
\n
Xu et al. [31] fabricated syntactic foams (“hybridized epoxy composite foams” according to authors) through impregnating expandable epoxy/MWCNT/microsphere blends into a preformed, highly porous, and 3D silver-coated melamine foam (SF) sponge. The highly conductive SF resolved the problem of the foam reduction of high filled epoxy blends and provided channels for rapid electron transport. MWCNTs were used to offset the loss of conductive pathways due to the crystal defects in the silver layer and the insulating epoxy resin. As a result, the EMI SE of 68.1 dB was achieved with only 2 wt% of MWCNTs and 3.7 wt% of silver due to the synergy of the MWCNT and SF.
\n
\n
\n
3.2.3 Carbon foams
\n
Carbon foam is a class of three-dimensional (3D) architecture consisting of a sponge-like interconnected network of porous carbon. Carbon foams have been wildly used as candidates for realistic EMI shielding applications due to their excellent properties, such as low density, resistance to chemical corrosion, high thermal and electrical conductivity, and high temperature resistance.
\n
Zhang et al. [32] prepared a novel ultralight (0.15 g/cm3) carbon foam by direct carbonization of phthalonitrile (PN)-based polymer foam, as shown in Figure 7a. High EMI SE of ∼ 51.2 dB (see Figure 7b, C1000 was labeled as the carbonization of 1000°C) was contributed by the high graphitic carbonaceous species and the intrinsic nitrogen-containing structure. The carbon foams showed the best SSE of 341.1 dB cm3/g so far when mechanical property was considered. The carbon foam developed by Zhang provides an excellent low-density and high-performance EMI shielding material for use in areas where mechanical integrity is desired.
\n
Figure 7.
(a) Schematic representation of the preparation of PN-based carbon foams and (b) EMI SE of carbon foams [32].
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\n
\n
3.2.4 CNTs/graphene foams
\n
The EMI SE of carbon foams was closely related to the char yield of polymer precursors and the demanding carbonization conditions. Therefore, a new kind of filler-free lightweight EMI shielding material, is in demand, which can be prepared without the stringent processing conditions. In view of the lightweight requirement, assembling one dimensional (1D) CNTs and two-dimensional (2D) graphene sheets into three dimensional (3D) macroscopic porous structures (e.g., sponges, foams and aerogels) emerged as an efficient approach.
\n
Lu et al. [33] synthesized a flexible CNTs sponge with a density of 10.0 mg/cm3 via chemical vapor deposition (CVD) process, composed of self-assembled and interconnected CNT skeletons. The freestanding CNTs sponge showed the high EMI SE and SSE of 54.8 dB and 5480 dB cm3/g in X-band, respectively. After composited with polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) by directly infiltrating method, the CNT/PDMS composites still exhibited excellent EMI SE (46.3 dB) at the thickness of 2.0 mm, while the CNT loading content was less than 1.0 wt%.
\n
Surface modification is employed to increase the EMI shielding ability of graphene foams. Zhang et al. [34] prepared surfaced modified 3D graphene foams via self-polymerization of dopamine with a subsequent foaming process, as shown in Figure 8a. The polydopamine (PDA) served as a nitrogen doping source and an enhancement tool to achieve higher extent of reduction of the graphene through providing wider pathways and larger accessible surface areas. The enhanced reduction of graphene sheets and the polarization effects introduced by PDA decoration compensated the negative effect of the barrier posed by PDA. As a result, the resultant EMI SE showed 15% improvement compared to PDA-free graphene foam as shown in Figure 8b. Wu et al. [35] also fabricated an ultralight, high performance EMI shielding graphene foam (GF)/poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) composites by drop coating of PEDOT:PSS on the freestanding cellular-structured GFs, as illustrated in Figure 8c. The GF/PEDOT:PSS composites possess an enhanced electrical conductivity from 11.8 to 43.2 S/cm after the incorporation of PEDOT:PSS. The modified grapheme foam with a density of 18.2 × 10−3 g/cm3 provide a remarkable EMI SE of 91.9 dB (identified as SET in Figure 8d).
\n
Figure 8.
(a) Schematic representation of the preparation of PDA-GO and PDA-rGO; (b) EMI SE of rGO foam and PDA-rGO foam [34]; (c) schematic procedure of the preparation of GF/PEDOT:PSS composites; (d) EMI SE of GF/PEDOT:PSS composites as a function frequency [35].
\n
\n
\n
3.2.5 Graphene aerogels
\n
Aerogel is a synthetic porous ultralight material derived from a gel, in which the liquid component used in gel are replaced by air. In recent years, the great potential of graphene aerogel (GAs) in EMI shielding applications has been confirmed by several researchers. Song et al. [36] reported that the EMI SE of GA-carbon textile hybrid with a thickness of 2 mm was 27 dB. The 3D scaffold GA greatly enhances the conductive network while maintaining the advantage of light carbon textile. Singh et al. [37] studied the EMI SE of pure GA, which was 20 dB, with a density ∼75 mg /cm3 and a thickness of 2 mm. They discussed the EMI shielding mechanism by correlating the EM wave interaction with the 3D porous structure. Zeng et al. [38] fabricated an ultralight and highly elastic rGO/lignin-derived carbon (LDC) composite aerogel with aligned microspores and cell walls by directional freeze-drying and carbonization method. The EMI SE of rGO/LDC composite aerogels with a thickness of 2 mm could reach up to 49.2 and 21.3 dB under ultralow densities of 8.0 and 2.0 mg/cm3, respectively.
\n
The graphitization of GAs facilitates to improve its electrical conductivity, thus improving the EMI SE. Liu et al. [39] reported an effective method of manufacturing an integrated graphene aerogel (IGA) using a complete bridge between rGO sheets and polyimide macromolecules via graphitization at 2800°C, as shown in Figure 9a. The rGO sheets were efficiently reduced to graphene during graphitization, while the polyimide component was graphitized to turbostratic carbon to connect the graphene sheets, resulting in a high EMI SE of ∼83 dB in X-band at a low density of 18 mg/cm3, as shown in Figure 9b. The EMI shielding mechanism analysis for the porous IGA revealed that most of the incident EM wave was dissipated through absorption, thus forming an absorption-dominant EMI shielding mechanism.
\n
Figure 9.
(a) Schematic illustration for fabricating IGA and (b) effect of annealing temperature on EMI shielding performance of IGAs [39].
\n
Different reduction process of graphene oxide (GO), including chemical reduction and thermal reduction would affect the EMI shielding performance of GAs. Bi et al. [40, 41] carried out a comprehensive study of EMI shielding mechanisms of GAs solely consisted of graphene sheets to determine the main parameters of high EMI SE. As shown in Figure 10a, two types of ultralight (4.5–5.5 mg/cm3) 3D GAs were prepared by chemical reduction and thermal reduction of GO aerogels. The EMI SE reached 27.6 and 40.2 dB for chemically reduced graphene aerogel (GAC) and thermally reduced graphene aerogel (GAT), respectively. The distinct graphene surface resulted from different processing pathway led to different EM wave response upon striking the graphene/air interface. Nitrogen-doping and side polar groups induced strong polarization effects in GAC. Higher extent of reduction of the grapheme sheets in GAT left a smaller amount of side polar groups and formed more sp2 graphitic lattice, both favored π-π stacking between the adjacent graphene sheets. The enhanced polarization effects and the increased electrical conductivity of GAT contributed to better EMI shielding performance. Bi further investigated the effect of porosity on EMI shielding mechanisms compressing the aerogel (GA9) into thin film (GA9F), as shown in Figure 10b. The highly connected conducting network resulted in a significant increase in the electrical conductivity of GA9F, while the EMI SE remained unchanged at constant rGO content. The observation was contradictory to the previous outcomes that higher electrical conductivity or better-connected network contributed to higher EMI SE. Hence, the fact can be believed that the EMI SE is highly dependent on the effective amounts of materials response to the EM waves. Despite the similar intrinsic properties of rGO, the amount of absorption of EM waves in GA9 was much higher than that in GA9F when the EM waves penetrated through the porous structure. The cavities within the highly porous GA absorbed the EM waves through multiple internal reflections and eventually depleted the energy. Hence, the tightly connected conducting network within GA9F changed the EMI shielding mechanism from absorption to reflection.
\n
Figure 10.
(a) Schematic representation of the preparation process of GAC and GAT [42] and (b) R & A of GA9 and GA9F [41].
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Conclusions
\n
Generally, EMI shielding is defined as the prevention of the propagation of EM waves from one region to another by using shield materials. With the development of electronic industry, weight reduction is an additional technical requirement besides the good EMI shielding performance. Metal as a traditional EMI shielding material has been replacing with lighter materials, such as polymer-based composites, foams and aerogels. This chapter reviewed various types of lightweight materials with their EMI SEs corresponding to their EMI shielding mechanisms. To verify the benefits of using lightweight materials for EMI shielding applications, a comprehensive comparison was performed as shown in Figure 11. All the data in Figure 11 were collected from the reference papers listed in this chapter. Although the data are not involved all the published results, they are representative to the library of lightweight EMI shielding materials. The reported EMI SEs of polymer-based composites containing conductive fillers varied in the range of 20–60 dB corresponding to the densities higher than 0.8 g/cm3. Polymer-based foams reinforced with additional conductive fillers and carbon foams outperform polymer-based composites in terms of EMI SE. They possessed comparable EMI SE of 20–80 dB with the lower density (<0.8 g/cm3). Aerogels with ultralow densities (<100 mg/cm3) exhibited high EMI SEs in the same range of polymer- and carbon-based foams, indicating they can be used as an ideal potential lightweight EMI shielding materials though the mechanical properties of aerogels still remain a big issue.
\n
Figure 11.
Comparison of EMI SEs of lightweight materials as a function of density of materials.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
Liying Zhang would like to acknowledge the support by the initial research funds for young teachers of Donghua University. Shuguang Bi would like to acknowledge the financial support of Wuhan Engineering Center for Ecological Dyeing & Finishing and Functional Textiles, Key Laboratory of Textile Fiber & Product (Wuhan Textile University), Ministry of Education, Hubei Biomass Fibers and Eco-dyeing & Finishing Key Laboratory. Zhang and Bi would also thank the funding support by State Key Laboratory for Modification of Chemical Fibers and Polymer Materials, Donghua University (KF1827). Ming Liu would like to acknowledge the support from School of Materials Science and Engineering at Nanyang Technological University for this work.
\n
Conflict of interest
No conflict of interest.
\n',keywords:"lightweight, EMI shielding, polymer-based composite, foam, aerogel",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64584.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/64584.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64584",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64584",totalDownloads:2416,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:3,dateSubmitted:"July 23rd 2018",dateReviewed:"October 26th 2018",datePrePublished:"December 2nd 2018",datePublished:"January 22nd 2020",dateFinished:"November 28th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Motivated by the increase of stress over electromagnetic pollution issues arising from the fast-growing development and need for electronic and electrical devices, the demand for materials with high electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding performance has become more urgently. Considering the energy consumption in real applications, lightweight EMI shielding materials has been attentive in this field of research. In this chapter, first of all, the EM theory will be briefly discussed. Secondly, the EMI shielding performance and corresponding mechanisms of three categories of lightweight materials, such as polymer-based composites, foams and aerogels, are reviewed. Finally, the summary and conclusions of this field will be addressed.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64584",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64584",signatures:"Liying Zhang, Shuguang Bi and Ming Liu",book:{id:"8653",type:"book",title:"Electromagnetic Materials and Devices",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Electromagnetic Materials and Devices",slug:"electromagnetic-materials-and-devices",publishedDate:"January 22nd 2020",bookSignature:"Man-Gui Han",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8653.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-83880-101-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-226-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-102-1",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"250649",title:"Prof.",name:"Man-Gui",middleName:null,surname:"Han",slug:"man-gui-han",fullName:"Man-Gui Han"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"268866",title:"Prof.",name:"Liying",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",fullName:"Liying Zhang",slug:"liying-zhang",email:"lyzhang@dhu.edu.cn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"268868",title:"Prof.",name:"Shuguang",middleName:null,surname:"Bi",fullName:"Shuguang Bi",slug:"shuguang-bi",email:"sgbi@wtu.edu.cn",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null},{id:"268869",title:"Dr.",name:"Ming",middleName:null,surname:"Liu",fullName:"Ming Liu",slug:"ming-liu",email:"liuming@ntu.edu.sg",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. EMI shielding theory",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Far field and near field",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 EMI shielding mechanisms for homogeneous shield materials",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 EMI shielding mechanisms for composites",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Lightweight EMI shielding materials",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Polymer-based composites",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.1.1 Polymer-based composites containing metallic fillers",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"3.1.2 Intrinsically conductive polymers-based composites",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.1.3 Polymer-based composites containing carbon-based fillers",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"3.1.4 Polymer-based composites containing magnetic particles composites",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.2 Foams and aerogels used in EMI shielding",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"3.2.1 Polymer-based composite foams",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"Table 2.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"3.2.3 Carbon foams",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"3.2.4 CNTs/graphene foams",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"3.2.5 Graphene aerogels",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18",title:"4. 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Superelastic and multifunctional graphene-based aerogels by interfacial reinforcement with graphitized carbon at high temperatures. Carbon. 2018;132:95-103\n'},{id:"B40",body:'Bi S, Zhang L, Mu C, Lee HY, Cheah JW, Chua EK, et al. A comparative study on electromagnetic interference shielding behaviors of chemically reduced and thermally reduced graphene aerogels. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science. 2017;492:112-118\n'},{id:"B41",body:'Bi S, Zhang L, Mu C, Liu M, Hu X. Electromagnetic interference shielding properties and mechanisms of chemically reduced graphene aerogels. Applied Surface Science. 2017;412:529-536\n'},{id:"B42",body:'Bi S, Zhang L, Mu C, Lee HY, Cheah JW, Chua EK, et al. A comparative study on electromagnetic interference shielding behaviors of chemically reduced and thermally reduced graphene aerogels. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science. 2017;492:112-118\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Liying Zhang",address:"lyzhang@dhu.edu.cn",affiliation:'
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Finally, future aspects and outlooks for further advancements at the “material” or “device” level for efficient power generation are remarked.",book:{id:"7626",slug:"advanced-thermoelectric-materials-for-energy-harvesting-applications",title:"Advanced Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting Applications",fullTitle:"Advanced Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting Applications"},signatures:"Lazaros Tzounis",authors:[{id:"288931",title:"Dr.",name:"Lazaros",middleName:null,surname:"Tzounis",slug:"lazaros-tzounis",fullName:"Lazaros Tzounis"}]},{id:"11871",title:"X-ray Micro-Tomography as a New and Powerful Tool for Characterization of MgB2 Superconductor",slug:"x-ray-micro-tomography-as-a-tool-for-quantitative-characterization-of-mgb2-superconducting-materials",totalDownloads:2815,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:null,book:{id:"3573",slug:"superconductor",title:"Superconductor",fullTitle:"Superconductor"},signatures:"Gheorghe Aldica, Ion Tiseanu, Petre Badica, Teddy Craciunescu and Mattew Rindfleisch",authors:null},{id:"66134",title:"Heat Recovery and Power Generation Using Thermoelectric Generator",slug:"heat-recovery-and-power-generation-using-thermoelectric-generator",totalDownloads:1271,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"In this chapter, experimental analysis of the direct conversion of thermal energy into electric energy was carried out, in order to encourage the conscious use of energy and to reduce waste. The conversion of thermal energy into electrical energy occurs in a thermoelectric generator through the Seebeck effect. This effect is associated with the appearance of an electric potential difference between two different materials, placed in contact at different temperatures. This relation between temperature and electrical properties of the material is known as thermoelectricity. This experimental study has as objective the obtaining of operating characteristic curves of the thermoelectric generator TEG1-12611-6.0, for different temperature gradients and under constant pressure between the heater plate and the heat sink. Resistors were used to heat the thermoelectric generator, which simulates the residual heat, and insulation material to minimize the dissipation of heat to the environment. For cooling, a heat exchanger was used in order to maximize the temperature difference between the sides of the thermoelectric generator. In this way, it was possible to perform an experimental analysis of the obtained electric power for different temperature ranges between the faces of the generator and, with this, verify the applicability in real systems.",book:{id:"7626",slug:"advanced-thermoelectric-materials-for-energy-harvesting-applications",title:"Advanced Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting Applications",fullTitle:"Advanced Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting Applications"},signatures:"Luis Vitorio Gulineli Fachini, Pedro Leineker Ochoski Machado, Larissa Krambeck, Romeu Miqueias Szmoski and Thiago Antonini Alves",authors:[{id:"227996",title:"Prof.",name:"Thiago",middleName:null,surname:"Antonini Alves",slug:"thiago-antonini-alves",fullName:"Thiago Antonini Alves"},{id:"229395",title:"MSc.",name:"Larissa",middleName:null,surname:"Krambeck",slug:"larissa-krambeck",fullName:"Larissa Krambeck"},{id:"286032",title:"Mr.",name:"Luis Vitorio",middleName:null,surname:"Gulineli Fachini",slug:"luis-vitorio-gulineli-fachini",fullName:"Luis Vitorio Gulineli Fachini"},{id:"293535",title:"Mr.",name:"Pedro Leineker",middleName:null,surname:"Ochoski Machado",slug:"pedro-leineker-ochoski-machado",fullName:"Pedro Leineker Ochoski Machado"},{id:"293537",title:"Prof.",name:"Romeu",middleName:null,surname:"Miqueias Szmoski",slug:"romeu-miqueias-szmoski",fullName:"Romeu Miqueias Szmoski"}]},{id:"66622",title:"Thermoelectric Generator Using Passive Cooling",slug:"thermoelectric-generator-using-passive-cooling",totalDownloads:899,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"This chapter presents an analysis of a point-of-use thermoelectric generator that is patented by one of the authors. The design, implementation and performance of the generator for powering electronic monitoring devices and charging batteries is discussed. This passive generator has no moving parts and relies on ambient air cooling. In one iteration it produces 6.9 W of steady state power using six Laird thermoelectric modules (Laird PB23 Series, HT8, 12) when placed on a 160°C steam pipe with a 30°C ambient environment (\n\nΔ\nT\n\n of 130°C). The generator produced 31.2 volts (V) open circuit and 0.89 amperes (A) short circuit. It successfully powered two microcontroller-based security cameras, one with a wireless Local Area Network (LAN) and another with cellular connectivity. In another scenario, the generator produced approximately 6 W with a steam pipe temperature of 140°C and an ambient of 25°C (\n\nΔ\nT\n\n of 115°C). This second system powered LED lights, a cellular-interfaced video surveillance system, and monitoring robots, while simultaneously trickle charging batteries. A third installation totally powered a stand-alone 3G web security camera system.",book:{id:"7626",slug:"advanced-thermoelectric-materials-for-energy-harvesting-applications",title:"Advanced Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting Applications",fullTitle:"Advanced Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting Applications"},signatures:"Robert Dell, Michael Thomas Petralia, Ashish Pokharel and Runar Unnthorsson",authors:[{id:"86966",title:"Dr.",name:"Runar",middleName:null,surname:"Unnthorsson",slug:"runar-unnthorsson",fullName:"Runar Unnthorsson"},{id:"285210",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Dell",slug:"robert-dell",fullName:"Robert Dell"},{id:"294487",title:"MSc.",name:"Michael Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Petralia",slug:"michael-thomas-petralia",fullName:"Michael Thomas Petralia"},{id:"294497",title:"BSc.",name:"Ashish",middleName:null,surname:"Pokharel",slug:"ashish-pokharel",fullName:"Ashish Pokharel"}]},{id:"67254",title:"Quantum Theory of the Seebeck Coefficient in YBCO",slug:"quantum-theory-of-the-seebeck-coefficient-in-ybco",totalDownloads:737,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The measured in-plane thermoelectric power (Seebeck coefficient) \n\n\nS\nab\n\n\n in YBCO below the superconducting temperature \n\n\nT\nc\n\n\n (\n\n∼\n\n94 K) \n\n\nS\nab\n\n\n is negative and \n\nT\n\n-independent. This is shown to arise from the fact that the “electrons” (minority carriers) having heavier mass contribute more to the thermoelectric power. The measured out-of-plane thermoelectric power \n\n\nS\nc\n\n\n rises linearly with the temperature \n\nT\n\n. This arises from moving bosonic pairons (Cooper pairs), the Bose-Einstein condensation (BEC) of which generates a supercurrent below \n\n\nT\nc\n\n\n. The center of mass of pairons moves as bosons. The resistivity \n\n\nρ\nab\n\n\n above \n\n\nT\nc\n\n\n has \n\nT\n\n-linear and \n\nT\n\n-quadratic components, the latter arising from the Cooper pairs being scattered by phonons.",book:{id:"7626",slug:"advanced-thermoelectric-materials-for-energy-harvesting-applications",title:"Advanced Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting Applications",fullTitle:"Advanced Thermoelectric Materials for Energy Harvesting Applications"},signatures:"Shigeji Fujita and Akira Suzuki",authors:[{id:"82812",title:"Prof.",name:"Shigeji",middleName:null,surname:"Fujita",slug:"shigeji-fujita",fullName:"Shigeji Fujita"},{id:"87760",title:"Prof.",name:"Akira",middleName:null,surname:"Suzuki",slug:"akira-suzuki",fullName:"Akira Suzuki"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"736",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:320,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:16,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:null,scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:0,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. In 2017, Usha was awarded the Marquis Who’s Who Lifetime Achiever Award.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"RMIT University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:5,paginationItems:[{id:"91",title:"Sustainable Economy and Fair Society",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/91.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11975,editor:{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/181603/images/system/181603.jpg",biography:"Antonella Petrillo is a Professor at the Department of Engineering of the University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy. She received her Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Cassino. Her research interests include multi-criteria decision analysis, industrial plant, logistics, manufacturing and safety. 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She is a member of the Digital Skills and Jobs Coalition Sweden and Vice President of the Swedish Association for Distance Education. She is currently working on a government initiative on quality in distance education at the National Council for Higher Education. She holds a Ph.D. from the University of Oulu, Finland.",institutionString:"Swedish Association for Distance Education, Sweden",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"94",title:"Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/94.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11978,editor:{id:"61855",title:"Dr.",name:"Yixin",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yixin-zhang",fullName:"Yixin Zhang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYWJgQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-06-09T11:36:35.jpg",biography:"Professor Yixin Zhang is an aquatic ecologist with over 30 years of research and teaching experience in three continents (Asia, Europe, and North America) in Stream Ecology, Riparian Ecology, Urban Ecology, and Ecosystem Restoration and Aquatic Conservation, Human-Nature Interactions and Sustainability, Urbanization Impact on Aquatic Ecosystems. 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Current research interests include trophic flows across ecosystems; watershed impacts of land-use change on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning; ecological civilization and water resource management; urban ecology and urban/rural sustainable development.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Soochow University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"95",title:"Urban Planning and Environmental Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/95.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11979,editor:{id:"181079",title:"Dr.",name:"Christoph",middleName:null,surname:"Lüthi",slug:"christoph-luthi",fullName:"Christoph Lüthi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRHSqQAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-12T15:51:33.png",biography:"Dr. Christoph Lüthi is an urban infrastructure planner with over 25 years of experience in planning and design of urban infrastructure in middle and low-income countries. 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Dr. Şentürk currently works as an professor of Biochemistry in the Department of Basic Pharmacy Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ağri Ibrahim Cecen University, Turkey. \nDr. Şentürk published over 120 scientific papers, reviews, and book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists. \nHis research interests span enzyme inhibitor or activator, protein expression, purification and characterization, drug design and synthesis, toxicology, and pharmacology. \nHis research work has focused on neurodegenerative diseases and cancer treatment. Dr. Şentürk serves as the editorial board member of several international journals.",institutionString:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Ağrı İbrahim Çeçen University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}],selectedSeries:null,selectedSubseries:null},seriesLanding:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:319,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. Thus all studies on metabolism will be considered for publication.",annualVolume:11413,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"243049",title:"Dr.",name:"Anca",middleName:null,surname:"Pantea Stoian",fullName:"Anca Pantea Stoian",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243049/images/system/243049.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"203824",title:"Dr.",name:"Attilio",middleName:null,surname:"Rigotti",fullName:"Attilio Rigotti",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pontifical Catholic University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"300470",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanfei (Jacob)",middleName:null,surname:"Qi",fullName:"Yanfei (Jacob) Qi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300470/images/system/300470.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centenary Institute of Cancer Medicine and Cell Biology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}]},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",keywords:"Mono- and Two-Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis (1-and 2-DE), Liquid Chromatography (LC), Mass Spectrometry/Tandem Mass Spectrometry (MS; MS/MS), Proteins",scope:"With the recognition that the human genome cannot provide answers to the etiology of a disorder, changes in the proteins expressed by a genome became a focus in research. Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. The Proteomics topic aims to attract contributions on all aspects of MS-based proteomics that, by pushing the boundaries of MS capabilities, may address biological problems that have not been resolved yet.",annualVolume:11414,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"72288",title:"Dr.",name:"Arli Aditya",middleName:null,surname:"Parikesit",fullName:"Arli Aditya Parikesit",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72288/images/system/72288.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indonesia International Institute for Life Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"40928",title:"Dr.",name:"Cesar",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Camarillo",fullName:"Cesar Lopez-Camarillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40928/images/3884_n.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"81926",title:"Dr.",name:"Shymaa",middleName:null,surname:"Enany",fullName:"Shymaa Enany",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/81926/images/system/81926.png",institutionString:"Suez Canal University",institution:{name:"Suez Canal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"chapter.detail",path:"/chapters/8916",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"8916"},fullPath:"/chapters/8916",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()