Introductory Chapter: Elaeis guineensis – An Overview and an Update

1. Introduction

Elaeis guineensis is a species of palm that is commonly known as oil palm; it may sometimes be known as African oil palm or macaw-fat as well [1]. Being native to West and Southwest Africa, it is the principal source of palm oil for the African continent. The species is also now naturalized in Madagascar, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Indonesia, Central America, Cambodia, West Indies, and several islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans [2].

The palm fruit takes approximately 6 months to develop from pollination to maturity. It is red in color and grows in large bunches. Each fruit is made up of an oily, fleshy pericarp, with a single seed (the palm kernel), which is also rich in oil.

1.1 Background

Palm oil is extracted from both the pulp of the fruit (palm oil, which is an edible oil) and the kernel (palm kernel oil, which is used in foods and for soap manufacture). The high yield of palm oil has made it a cooking ingredient in Southeast Asia, Africa, and various other parts of the world as well. Its increasing use in the commercial food industry in other parts of the world is due to cost efficiency, high oxidative stability, and the presence of antioxidants [3].

1.2 Significance of Elaeis guineensis in agriculture

Elaeis guineensis, beyond economic value, plays a vital role in addressing water scarcity in agriculture. Climate change poses challenges to oil palm cultivation, affecting land suitability and economic stability. Understanding soil properties, moisture parameters, and adopting sustainable practices are essential for navigating these complex dynamics [4]. The significance of E. guineensis extends to sustainable agricultural practices, as it impacts the management of water resources, soil properties, and the complex relationship between climate change and oil palm cultivation. Moreover, the multifaceted uses of oil palm make it a valuable and versatile crop with profound implications for agriculture, environment, and society at large. As global demand for palm oil is expected to double by 2050, it is imperative to consider the sustainable management of E. guineensis to ensure a balance between agricultural productivity and environmental conservation [4, 5].

Climate change is expected to reshape the suitability of locations for oil palm plantations in the twenty-first century, making a substantial portion of current cultivation areas unsuitable due to rising temperatures and increased droughts. This will particularly impact countries such as Thailand, Colombia, Nigeria, Indonesia, and Malaysia. Despite potential adaptations, such as elevational shifts, they are unlikely to fully compensate for the loss of suitable cultivation areas. Malaysia, a significant player in the oil palm industry, faces considerable economic and livelihood consequences. This intricate relationship between climate and soil dynamics underscores the need for a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted impacts of climate change on the oil palm industry, as climate plays a major role in the formation and development of soil, including its texture and the soil organic matter cycle [4, 6]. Nevertheless, innovative approaches, such as the use of biofertilizers, have gained attention in oil palm plantations. Biofertilizers, which contain beneficial microorganisms, enhance soil microbial activity and offer a cost-effective and eco-friendly alternative to chemical fertilizers. These microorganisms not only promote plant growth but also reduce the need for inorganic fertilizers, contributing to sustainable farming practices [7].

Furthermore, agricultural waste generated from E. guineensis has proven valuable in the production of pharmaceutical-grade activated charcoal. The unique surface morphology and pore structure of this activated charcoal enhances its adsorption capabilities, making it a promising material for medical and industrial applications, such as biofuel production. It offers a sustainable and eco-friendly solution, utilizing agricultural waste to create valuable resources [8, 9]. Overall, the oil palm holds an insightful significance in agriculture, impacting soil management, water resources, climate change adaptation, and sustainable practices. Its versatile uses and innovative approaches in its cultivation underscore its importance in the agricultural landscape, offering solutions to pressing global challenges.

2. Origins and global distribution

Oil palm holds a significant interest in terms of its origins and global distribution. This tropical perennial plant, a member of the Arecaceae family, is native to the coastal regions of the Gulf of Guinea in West and Central Africa, displaying a unique “temporally dioecious” reproductive pattern. Historical findings dating back to 3000 BC in an Egyptian tomb in West Africa suggest the utilization of palm oil for over 5000 years, with the species introduced to the Americas during the sixteenth century. It was not until 1940 that its formal cultivation began in Honduras and Costa Rica, leading to its establishment in Ecuador, Guatemala, Venezuela, Peru, and Mexico. As a crucial source of edible oil from its fruit mesocarp and kernels, oil palm serves as a vital dietary component globally, with its by-products finding diverse applications in various industries. Predominantly, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand in Southeast Asia lead in oil palm cultivation, contributing to 88% of the world’s total fruit yield, with smaller yet notable contributions from Colombia and Nigeria. The origins of oil palm trace back to West and Central Africa, along the Atlantic Coast, spreading from Cape Verde to Angola and extending inland into parts of Congo-K and Congo-B. Early trade routes facilitated the distribution of oil palm from West Africa to regions as distant as East Tanzania and islands such as Pemba, Zanzibar, and Madagascar. The primary oil palm-growing countries include Angola, Benin, Cameroon, Congo, Ghana, Cote d’Ivoire, Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea, and Thailand. Indonesia and Malaysia dominate global production, contributing 81% of the total fruit yield. Global palm oil production has significantly increased, covering an extensive area of 17 million hectares, with India cultivating oil palm across 11 states, primarily led by Andhra Pradesh. Various factors, including genetic resources, environmental conditions, and cultural practices, influence oil yield, with oil palms displaying adaptability to diverse environments. Soil compaction minimally affects fresh fruit bunch yield, and ongoing research into oil palm nutrition and production technologies continues to shape the industry, particularly with the development of new breeds and genetic makeup uniformity [10, 11, 12].

2.1 Role as a major agricultural crop

Today, oil palm remains central to human consumption, supplying essential edible oil derived from its fruit mesocarp and kernels. This crop extends its value beyond the culinary world, as its by-products play crucial roles in the food, cosmetic, chemical, and biofuel industries, making it a versatile and economically attractive commodity. The majority of oil palm cultivation now thrives in Southeast Asia, specifically in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand, accounting for 81% of the world’s total fruit yield, with additional contributions from countries such as Colombia and Nigeria. The global oil palm production has significantly increased, spanning approximately 17 million hectares. In India, oil palm is now cultivated across 11 states, with Andhra Pradesh holding a prominent position. It’s essential to understand that various factors influence oil yields, such as genetic resources, environmental conditions (humidity, water availability, and soil texture), and cultural practices. The future of oil palm lies in ongoing research to develop new breeds with uniform genetic makeup, advanced production technologies, and an ever-growing global demand due to its diverse applications across industries [9, 10, 12].

3. Palm oil production and trade

Palm oil production and trade are integral components of the global economy, particularly in regions like Southeast Asia. Oil palm, a perennial monocotyledonous plant, is the primary source of palm oil, a valuable commodity with diverse applications [13]. The significance of palm oil in the global economy is exemplified by Indonesia’s substantial contribution. Indonesia’s palm oil-related businesses have been instrumental in the country’s economic development, contributing significantly to its GDP and foreign exchange revenue. The Crude Palm Oil (CPO) by-product of the E. guineensis tree plays a central role in this economic growth. Not only does the palm oil industry provide employment to over 16 million people, but it also enhances social welfare through innovative programs like the nucleus-plasma model, fostering partnerships between plantation companies and local communities. This dynamic sector has witnessed tremendous growth, with Indonesia surpassing Malaysia as the world’s largest CPO producer. Presently, Indonesia dominates the global CPO production, accounting for over 60% of the total production, with Malaysia as the second largest producer. The demand for CPO is on the rise, driven by various industries, including food, biofuels, oleochemicals, and stearin, making it a cornerstone of Indonesia’s economic landscape. However, the industry faces environmental challenges, especially concerning deforestation, which has raised concerns about biodiversity loss. These challenges underscore the need for sustainable practices and environmental conservation within the palm oil sector [14, 15].

Palm oil production and trade play a pivotal role not only in economic growth but also in shaping the environmental and social landscape of producing countries. Addressing issues such as seed dormancy and sustainable cultivation practices is vital to ensure the continued prosperity of the palm oil industry while minimizing its impact on the environment. The global demand for palm oil remains significant, underscoring the importance of effective and responsible management in this critical sector.

3.1 Overview of palm oil production worldwide

Palm oil production is a crucial industry with global significance, primarily driven by the cultivation of Elaeis guineensis, the high-yielding species native to West Africa. This valuable crop found its way to Southeast Asia, specifically Indonesia and Malaysia, during the nineteenth century, where it quickly evolved into a major economic force. Malaysia, in particular, has embraced oil palm cultivation, and by 2020, it stood as one of the world’s largest producers. The global palm oil industry now boasts a staggering worth of approximately US$60 billion. Currently, these two countries account for approximately 84% of the world’s total oil palm cultivation. The significance of this industry is further underscored by the fact that oil palm is the highest produced vegetable oil globally, outstripping soybean and rapeseed oils. As demand for palm oil increases, driven by its widespread use in cooking and various consumer products across Africa and Asia, production is anticipated to continue its upward trajectory. Estimates suggest that as the global population expands, palm oil production will soar to between 93 and 156 million tons by 2050 [4, 5, 13, 15].

3.2 Dominant producers: Malaysia and Indonesia

Oil palm cultivation is predominantly concentrated in equatorial tropical regions, with 42 countries worldwide engaging in its growth. Key players in this industry are Indonesia and Malaysia, which together contribute a significant 84% to the global output. Malaysia, in particular, stands as the world’s second largest oil palm producer after Indonesia, with the sector contributing a substantial 37.7% of revenues to the country’s agricultural sector in 2019. The economic importance of palm oil cannot be overstated, and its continued growth is critical to these countries’ prosperity. Oil palm’s versatility, high yield per unit of land, and profitability have solidified its place as a major global oil crop. It is used in a wide range of products, from cooking oil to cosmetics and biodiesel. Malaysia and Indonesia, as the world’s top producers, play a pivotal role in meeting global palm oil demand. However, climate change and environmental concerns may impact Malaysia’s oil palm output in the future. Nevertheless, the palm oil industry continues to thrive, offering significant economic benefits and a reliable source of vegetable oil and biofuels for the world [4, 7, 13, 15].

Despite its economic potential, oil palm cultivation has not been without controversy. Its expansion has led to large-scale land conversion, particularly in Southeast Asian peatlands, resulting in significant carbon emissions [4]. Sustainable management and environmental considerations are vital aspects of the industry’s future, especially in Malaysia and Indonesia, where large-scale peatland conversions have occurred. Stricter regulations and better practices are needed to address the environmental impact while still harnessing the economic potential of palm oil [4].

3.3 Global significance in edible oil production and trade

The global significance of palm oil in the realm of edible oil production and trade is of paramount importance, especially as the world anticipates a substantial population increase by 2050. The intricate process of palm oil production begins with the collection of crude oil extracted from the sterilized mesocarp and kernel. This crude oil undergoes rigorous refining stages, including bleaching and deodorization, resulting in the creation of highly refined oils that find application both independently and in combination with other cooking oils, salad dressings, and margarines. Beyond the realm of culinary use, palm oil’s reach extends further through a fractionalization process that yields olein and stearin, alongside the extraction of valuable fatty acids and alcohols. These derivative products play a pivotal role in the food and oleochemical industries, encompassing applications in cosmetics, packaging, and a myriad of other sectors. The versatility and ubiquity of palm oil underscore its indispensability in global trade, rendering it a highly sought-after commodity. The escalating demand for palm oil extends beyond the final product and encompasses the germinated seeds essential for cultivating oil palm trees. As the industry continues to grow, a steady supply of these seeds becomes imperative. In essence, palm oil serves as the linchpin of global edible oil production and trade, addressing the world’s ever-expanding dietary and industrial requirements while remaining a versatile and indispensable component of the global economy [4, 5, 13].

4. Objectives of the book

The purpose of this book is to provide scientific and nonscientific audiences alike with an overview of the palm oil industry, processing, by-products, needs, and opportunities. Not just the African palm oil industry, the book provides insights into the practices all around the world. It is hoped that the contents of the book will provide new knowledge and information, and elucidate best practices since the environmental impact of the palm oil industry is a matter of concern and debate around the world.