Open Access is an initiative that aims to make scientific research freely available to all. To date our community has made over 100 million downloads. It’s based on principles of collaboration, unobstructed discovery, and, most importantly, scientific progression. As PhD students, we found it difficult to access the research we needed, so we decided to create a new Open Access publisher that levels the playing field for scientists across the world. How? By making research easy to access, and puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
We are a community of more than 103,000 authors and editors from 3,291 institutions spanning 160 countries, including Nobel Prize winners and some of the world’s most-cited researchers. Publishing on IntechOpen allows authors to earn citations and find new collaborators, meaning more people see your work not only from your own field of study, but from other related fields too.
To purchase hard copies of this book, please contact the representative in India:
CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
www.cbspd.com
|
customercare@cbspd.com
This chapter explores the latest advancements and applications of essential oils, focusing on evidence-based research and practical insights. Beginning with an introduction to essential oils’ historical significance, it outlines recent breakthroughs in research, novel extraction techniques, and advancements in understanding their chemical composition. New perspectives on essential oil use are explored, including their potential to promote mental well-being, applications in environmental practices, and emerging industry trends. The chapter highlights innovative applications, such as aromatherapy, skincare, and culinary arts. In healthcare, evidence-based applications and research on antimicrobial properties and pain management are discussed. Real-world case studies demonstrate essential oils’ impact across various industries. The chapter also addresses challenges, including safety, ethics, and regulatory considerations. Future research opportunities are identified, emphasizing essential oils’ potential in cutting-edge fields like nanotechnology and biomedicine. In conclusion, essential oils offer a rich source of health and innovation, bridging traditional knowledge with modern advancements. Their significance in diverse applications invites further exploration and utilization to unlock their full potential.
Laboratory of Energy, Water, Environment and Process, (LR18ES35), National Engineering School of Gabes, University of Gabes, Gabes Tunisia
*Address all correspondence to: mounira.mkaddem@gmail.com
1. Introduction
Essential oils have played a captivating and vital role in human history, entwining nature’s essence with the pursuit of well-being and healing. Derived from aromatic plants through intricate extraction processes, these precious oils have been prized for their therapeutic properties and cultural significance since ancient times [1]. In this chapter, we embark on an enlightening journey to explore the evolving world of essential oils and their remarkable impact on various aspects of our lives.
Essential oils are volatile, aromatic compounds obtained from different parts of plants, including flowers, leaves, stems, and roots. These oils are the pure essence of the plant, capturing its unique fragrance and potent bioactive compounds [2]. Through the ages, essential oils have been revered for their diverse applications, ranging from medicinal practices and religious rituals to perfumery and culinary arts. The ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, and China harnessed their therapeutic properties, recognizing the power of nature in promoting physical and emotional well-being [3].
Drawing inspiration from our rich historical tapestry, this chapter aims to shed light on the contemporary understanding and advancements surrounding essential oils. We delve into the latest scientific research and cutting-edge technologies that have deepened our comprehension of these natural wonders. Moreover, we explore novel perspectives that have emerged, unveiling innovative applications that extend beyond traditional boundaries [4].
This chapter is divided into several sections, each meticulously created to offer a comprehensive exploration of essential oils in the modern world. We begin by examining recent advances in essential oil research, uncovering groundbreaking studies that have unveiled new insights into their chemical composition and extraction techniques. These discoveries pave the way for exciting possibilities in utilizing essential oils across various domains.
Next, we delve into new perspectives surrounding essential oil use, focusing on their potential to foster mental well-being, support sustainable agricultural practices, and spearhead new trends in the ever-evolving essential oil industry.
In the subsequent sections, we turn our attention to the diverse applications of essential oils. We explore their role in aromatherapy and skincare, where they are increasingly recognized for their therapeutic and cosmetic benefits. Additionally, we venture into the culinary realm, where essential oils infuse dishes with unique and enticing flavors, redefining gastronomic experiences.
Furthermore, we examine the growing influence of essential oils in healthcare, where traditional and alternative medicine converge. From antimicrobial properties to pain management, essential oils are paving the way for complementary therapies that embrace the synergy of nature and science.
The chapter also highlights real-world applications of essential oils through compelling case studies, illuminating their successful integration across various industries and contexts. It also addresses challenges surrounding the responsible use of essential oils, including safety considerations, ethical sourcing, and regulatory aspects.
Lastly, we glimpse into the future, identifying promising research opportunities and potential for essential oils to revolutionize fields like nanotechnology and biomedicine.
By the chapter’s end, readers will gain a profound appreciation for essential oils’ enduring allure and their boundless potential in shaping the present and transforming the future.
The realm of essential oil research has witnessed an extraordinary surge of interest in recent years, leading to remarkable discoveries and groundbreaking advancements. This section investigates the dynamic landscape of contemporary essential oil research, highlighting the latest scientific studies, innovative extraction techniques, and deeper insights into the chemical composition of these nature-derived treasures.
2.1 Overview of recent scientific studies and breakthroughs
Advancements in analytical technologies and an increased focus on natural remedies have catapulted essential oils into the forefront of scientific investigation. Recent studies have sought to unravel the intricate mechanisms underlying their biological activities and potential therapeutic applications (Table 1).
Research on Antimicrobial Properties: Studies exploring the antimicrobial efficacy of essential oils against bacteria, viruses, and fungi have yielded promising results. For instance, research by Blejan et al. [6] demonstrated the potent antimicrobial actions of tea tree oil, oregano oil, and lavender oil, raising possibilities for novel treatments against drug-resistant pathogens [7].
Neurological Effects and Mood Regulation: Scientific interest in essential oils’ impact on the nervous system has surged, with investigations into their potential to alleviate stress, anxiety, and depression. Certain oils, like bergamot and frankincense, have shown modulating effects on neurotransmitters, shedding light on their potential role in mental well-being [10, 11].
Anti-Inflammatory and Analgesic Properties: The anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties of essential oils have attracted attention in pain management and inflammatory disorders [8]. However, promising anti-inflammatory effects of peppermint, eucalyptus, and ginger oils in preclinical models [9].
Traditionally, essential oils were obtained through distillation or cold pressing methods. However, recent advances in extraction technologies have revolutionized the efficiency and quality of essential oil production, expanding the scope of applications.
Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE): Supercritical carbon dioxide (CO2) extraction has gained popularity due to its ability to yield high-quality essential oils without leaving behind harmful residues. SFE allows for precise control of temperature and pressure, preserving the delicate aromatic compounds of the plant material [15].
Enzyme-Assisted Extraction: Enzyme-assisted extraction techniques have emerged as eco-friendly alternatives. Enzymes facilitate the breakdown of plant cell walls, enhancing the release of essential oil compounds and increasing extraction yields [16].
Microwave-Assisted Extraction (MAE): MAE employs microwave energy to accelerate the extraction process, reducing extraction times and energy consumption while maintaining the integrity of the essential oil constituents [17].
2.3 Advancements in understanding the chemical composition of essential oils
Advancements in analytical techniques, such as gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, have provided unprecedented insights into the complex chemical composition of essential oils.
Identification of Bioactive Compounds: Researchers have identified numerous bioactive compounds present in essential oils, such as terpenes, phenols, and aldehydes. Understanding the roles of these compounds in conferring therapeutic properties has paved the way for targeted applications [18].
Synergy and Entourage Effect: Studies have highlighted the importance of the synergy between various components within essential oils. The entourage effect, where the combined action of multiple compounds enhances therapeutic efficacy, has been observed in certain oils [19].
In conclusion, recent advances in essential oil research have catapulted these natural aromatic substances into a realm of scientific exploration, paving the way for novel applications in various fields. From antimicrobial potential to mental health support and innovative extraction techniques, essential oils continue to captivate researchers and enthusiasts alike, forging a path toward a deeper understanding of their multifaceted properties.
3. Exploring new perspectives in essential oil use
In this section, we embark on a journey to discover the captivating role of essential oils in enhancing mental well-being, their potential applications in environmental and agricultural practices, and the exciting emerging trends and opportunities within the essential oil industry.
3.1 The role of essential oils in promoting mental well-being and stress reduction
The enchanting scents of essential oils have long been celebrated for their profound impact on mental health and emotional balance. Numerous studies have shown that inhaling certain essential oils can activate the olfactory system, triggering the release of neurochemicals that influence our mood and emotions [20, 21]. Lavender, for example, has been found to reduce anxiety and promote relaxation [22], while citrus-based oils like bergamot and sweet orange have uplifting effects on mood [23, 24].
Moreover, essential oils can be used in aromatherapy, a holistic practice that involves inhaling or applying oils to the skin to improve psychological and physical well-being [25]. Aromatherapy has gained popularity as a complementary therapy in various healthcare settings, such as hospitals, hospices, and wellness centers [26]. Its stress-reducing and mood-enhancing properties have also been beneficial for managing stress-related conditions like depression and anxiety [27].
3.2 Potential applications of essential oils in environmental and agricultural practices
The versatility of essential oils extends beyond their impact on human health; they also hold great potential in environmental and agricultural practices. Many essential oils possess natural insecticidal and repellent properties that can be harnessed to manage pests in a sustainable manner [28]. For instance, eucalyptus oil has demonstrated insecticidal effects against several insect species [29]. By incorporating essential oils into integrated pest management strategies, farmers can reduce reliance on chemical pesticides, mitigating environmental harm and promoting ecological balance [30].
Furthermore, some essential oils have shown promise in enhancing soil health and stimulating plant growth. Studies have indicated that certain oils, such as peppermint and cinnamon, possess plant growth-promoting properties [31, 32]. Their application in agriculture can lead to improved crop yields and reduced dependence on synthetic fertilizers, thereby contributing to sustainable and eco-friendly farming practices.
3.3 Emerging trends and opportunities in the essential oil industry
The essential oil industry has witnessed remarkable growth in recent years, driven by the increasing demand for natural and holistic approaches to health and well-being. Entrepreneurs and businesses are capitalizing on this trend by exploring innovative ways to incorporate essential oils into various products. From skincare and personal care items to household cleaners and aromatherapy diffusers, essential oils are finding diverse applications [33].
Advancements in technology and distillation techniques have also contributed to the growth of the industry. New extraction methods, such as supercritical fluid extraction and microwave-assisted extraction, are being explored to improve the efficiency and quality of essential oil production [34, 35].
Additionally, the rise of e-commerce and digital marketing platforms has enabled small-scale distilleries and artisanal producers to reach a broader customer base, fostering a more inclusive and competitive market.
As we continue to explore the alluring world of essential oils, it becomes evident that their impact reaches far beyond the confines of aromas and scents. From promoting mental well-being to revolutionizing environmental practices and driving industry trends, essential oils stand as a testament to the power of nature’s bounty. Their potential knows no bounds, and we eagerly await the exciting innovations that lie ahead.
In this section, we explore the multifaceted applications of essential oils in healthcare, ranging from evidence-based practices in traditional and alternative medicine to their role in antimicrobial treatments and pain management.
4.1 Evidence-based applications in traditional and alternative medicine
Essential oils have been used for therapeutic purposes across cultures and traditions for centuries. In recent years, scientific research has shed light on the efficacy of these aromatic wonders in traditional and alternative medicine practices.
A prime example of their effectiveness is in aromatherapy, a complementary therapy that harnesses the aromatic properties of essential oils to promote healing and well-being. Several studies have demonstrated the benefits of aromatherapy in managing anxiety, depression, and stress-related conditions [27]. Furthermore, aromatherapy has been incorporated into healthcare settings, such as hospitals and palliative care facilities, to enhance patient comfort and reduce the need for conventional medications [36].
The evidence supporting the use of essential oils in traditional medicine is continually growing, encouraging further exploration into their therapeutic potential.
4.2 Current research on the antimicrobial properties of essential oils
In the face of growing antimicrobial resistance, essential oils have emerged as a promising area of research for their potential as natural antimicrobial agents. Many essential oils exhibit broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties, capable of combating a wide range of bacteria, viruses, and fungi.
Tea tree oil, for instance, has demonstrated significant antimicrobial effects against various strains of bacteria and fungi [37]. Oregano oil is also known for its potent antibacterial and antifungal properties [38].
Current research is focusing on understanding the mechanisms behind these antimicrobial activities and exploring the potential use of essential oils in developing alternative treatments to combat infectious diseases. However, it is important to note that further investigation is required to determine their safety and efficacy for use in medical settings.
4.3 The role of essential oils in pain management and complementary therapies
Pain management remains a significant challenge in healthcare, and essential oils have emerged as a complementary approach to address pain and discomfort. The analgesic and anti-inflammatory properties of certain essential oils offer promising alternatives to conventional pain medications.
For example, peppermint oil has been found to alleviate headaches and migraines [39], while lavender oil has been shown to reduce labor pain in pregnant women [40]. In palliative care, essential oils, such as frankincense and chamomile, have been used to alleviate symptoms and provide comfort to patients with chronic pain and terminal illnesses [41].
Complementary therapies that incorporate essential oils, such as massage and aromatherapy, have gained popularity for their ability to reduce pain, enhance relaxation, and improve overall well-being [42].
As research in this area progresses, essential oils hold the promise of becoming valuable tools in integrated pain management approaches.
As we delve into the realms of essential oils in healthcare, we are reminded of their enduring presence in traditional medicine, their potential as antimicrobial warriors, and their gentle touch in pain management. Through evidence-based practices and ongoing research, essential oils continue to carve a place in modern healthcare as aromatic allies in the pursuit of wellness (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Diverse applications of essential oils in modern industries.
In the captivating world of essential oils, success stories and case studies abound, showcasing the remarkable impact these aromatic wonders have had across various industries. In this section, we delve into practical examples of essential oil integration, highlighting specific success stories that demonstrate the diverse and innovative applications of these botanical extracts.
5.1 Enhancing wellness in healthcare facilities
Essential oils have found their way into healthcare settings, offering a holistic approach to patient care and well-being. In a case study conducted at a hospital’s palliative care unit [41], aromatherapy using essential oils like lavender, chamomile, and frankincense was implemented to alleviate pain and provide comfort to patients with chronic conditions. The results demonstrated a significant reduction in reported pain levels and an improvement in the overall well-being of patients, displaying the potential of essential oils to enhance the healthcare experience.
5.2 Creating natural and sustainable cleaning solutions
In the commercial and cleaning industry, essential oils have emerged as a viable alternative to conventional chemical-based products. A case study conducted in a hotel chain [43] demonstrated the successful implementation of essential oils in cleaning solutions. Citrus-based oils, such as lemon and orange, were used to create natural and effective multi-purpose cleaners. This eco-friendly approach not only reduced the hotel’s environmental footprint but also enhanced the guest experience by eliminating harsh chemical odors.
5.3 Revolutionizing personal care and beauty products
The beauty and personal care industry has witnessed a revolution with the integration of essential oils into various products. In a case study focusing on a natural skincare brand [44], essential oils like rosehip seed oil and chamomile were used in the formulation of anti-aging serums and facial oils. The results showed improvements in skin texture and hydration, proving the efficacy of essential oils in promoting healthy and radiant skin.
5.4 Improving productivity and employee well-being in the workplace
In the corporate world, essential oils have been embraced to create a more productive and stress-free work environment. In a case study conducted at a technology company [45], diffusers with essential oils like peppermint and eucalyptus were strategically placed in common areas and workspaces. This implementation resulted in increased focus and reduced stress levels among employees, ultimately improving workplace morale and productivity.
5.5 Sustainable agriculture and pest management
The agricultural sector has also reaped the benefits of essential oils in sustainable pest management. In a case study, focusing on organic farming practices [46], essential oils like neem oil and thyme oil were integrated into pest control strategies. These natural alternatives effectively reduced pest infestations and crop damage, promoting environmentally friendly and economically viable farming practices.
These case studies serve as a testament to the wide-ranging applications of essential oils, spanning from healthcare to agriculture and beyond. Their integration into various industries not only displays their versatility but also emphasizes the significance of sustainable and natural solutions in today’s world.
6. Addressing challenges in essential oil applications
As the popularity of essential oils continues to soar, so do the challenges associated with their widespread applications. In this section, we explore the crucial aspects of potential safety concerns, sustainability and ethical sourcing issues, and the importance of regulatory considerations and standardization.
6.1 Potential safety concerns and precautions
While essential oils offer numerous benefits, it is essential to recognize that their concentrated nature can pose safety risks if not used properly. Some essential oils may cause skin irritation or allergic reactions in certain individuals and others may interact with medications [47]. To address these concerns, it is crucial to practice responsible use and adhere to recommended dilution guidelines.
Ingestion of essential oils is a particularly contentious issue, as some oils can be toxic when taken internally [48]. Professional guidance from trained aromatherapists or healthcare practitioners is advised before internal use. Additionally, essential oils should be kept out of reach of children and pets to prevent accidental ingestion or exposure.
6.2 Issues related to sustainability and ethical sourcing
The demand for essential oils has led to challenges in sustainability and ethical sourcing. Some essential oil-producing plants are at risk of overharvesting, endangering both the plant species and the communities dependent on them for livelihoods [49]. Unregulated harvesting practices can contribute to deforestation, habitat destruction, and loss of biodiversity.
To address these issues, sustainable and ethical sourcing practices are becoming increasingly vital in the essential oil industry. Initiatives such as fair trade partnerships, responsible cultivation, and wild-harvesting certifications are essential for ensuring that essential oils are sourced responsibly and that the ecosystems and communities involved are protected.
6.3 Regulatory considerations and standardization
The lack of consistent regulations and standardization in the essential oil industry can be a significant challenge. Different countries and regions may have varying guidelines regarding the production, labeling, and marketing of essential oils, leading to confusion among consumers and potential quality issues.
To address this concern, efforts are being made to establish industry standards and certifications. Organizations such as the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) and the European Medicines Agency (EMA) are working to create guidelines for essential oil quality, purity, and safety [47]. Seeking essential oils from reputable and transparent suppliers who adhere to these standards can help ensure product integrity and consumer confidence.
As the use of essential oils continues to evolve, it is imperative to address these challenges to ensure the safety, sustainability, and efficacy of their applications. Responsible use, ethical sourcing, and adherence to quality standards are crucial steps toward harnessing the full potential of essential oils while preserving the well-being of both individuals and the environment.
In this section, we aim to illuminate the potential for essential oils to shape the future of various industries and fields, from healthcare and agriculture to nanotechnology and beyond. Through a forward-looking lens, we uncover new perspectives and explore the uncharted territories where essential oils could revolutionize science, enhance well-being, and inspire transformative applications for generations to come.
7.1 Promising areas for further research and development
Novel Extraction Techniques: The future of essential oil research lies in exploring and developing innovative extraction methods. Techniques such as supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) have shown promise in enhancing the yield and purity of essential oils [50, 51].
Chemical Composition and Standardization: To unlock the full potential of essential oils, it is crucial to delve deeper into their chemical composition. Comprehensive studies on the complete chemical profile of essential oils will aid in standardization and quality control procedures [52].
Synergistic Effects and Combinations: Investigating the synergistic effects of combining different essential oils or integrating them with other natural compounds is an exciting area for future exploration. Understanding these interactions can lead to the formulation of more potent and tailored therapeutic blends [53].
Mechanisms of Action: Unraveling the molecular and cellular mechanisms of action of essential oils is a key research avenue. Studies in this area will shed light on how essential oils interact with biological systems and pave the way for the development of new therapies and medicines [53].
Safety and Toxicology: In-depth safety and toxicology studies are essential to establish evidence-based guidelines for the safe use of essential oils in various applications. Identifying appropriate dosages and potential adverse effects will be crucial for ensuring their safe integration into healthcare practices [9].
Bioavailability Enhancement: Enhancing the bioavailability of essential oil compounds is a promising research direction. Developing innovative encapsulation techniques or novel formulation strategies can optimize the absorption and distribution of essential oil components within the body [54].
7.2 The potential of essential oils in cutting-edge fields
Nanotechnology Applications: Essential oils hold tremendous potential in the field of nanotechnology. Integrating essential oils into nanocarriers can revolutionize targeted drug delivery systems, especially for cancer treatment and chronic diseases [53].
Biomedicine and Healthcare: The antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties of essential oils offer exciting prospects in biomedicine. Integrating essential oils as adjunct therapies in conventional medicine could enhance treatment outcomes and patient well-being [55].
Neurological Disorders: Exploring the effects of essential oils on neurological disorders, such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases, is a promising area. Studies suggest that essential oils may improve cognitive function and reduce neuroinflammation [56].
Antimicrobial Resistance: Essential oils may serve as alternative antimicrobial agents to combat the global challenge of antimicrobial resistance. Their potent antimicrobial activity against various pathogens warrants further investigation [55].
Environmental Applications: Essential oils can play a crucial role in developing eco-friendly products such as natural pesticides, insect repellents, and cleaning agents. This research direction aligns with the growing demand for sustainable and environmentally friendly solutions [57, 58].
Food Preservation: Essential oils’ potential as natural preservatives for extending the shelf life of food products and inhibiting foodborne pathogens holds promise for the food industry [59, 60].
By focusing on these promising areas for research and displaying the potential of essential oils in cutting-edge fields, we can pave the way for new discoveries, innovations, and applications that will undoubtedly shape the future of essential oil science and industry.
In this chapter, we have explored the recent advances, new perspectives, and applications of essential oils, uncovering a myriad of exciting possibilities for their integration into modern research and practices. Throughout the discussion, several key findings and insights have emerged, underscoring the immense potential of essential oils across various domains.
Firstly, we have witnessed the emergence of novel extraction techniques such as supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), which hold promise in enhancing the yield and purity of essential oils [15, 17, 51]. These advancements pave the way for more sustainable and efficient production methods, ensuring the availability of high-quality essential oils for diverse applications.
Moreover, comprehensive studies on the chemical composition of essential oils have shed light on their diverse and intricate profiles, allowing for standardization and quality control measures [18]. This knowledge is vital in ensuring consistent therapeutic properties and safety, further fueling the growth of essential oils’ integration into healthcare practices and other industries.
The exploration of synergistic effects and combinations of essential oils has opened new avenues for developing targeted therapeutic blends [61, 62]. Understanding how essential oils interact with biological systems at the molecular and cellular levels has provided crucial insights into their mechanisms of action [63], presenting exciting prospects for the development of novel therapies and medicines.
As we continue to harness the potential of essential oils, it is essential to address safety concerns and establish evidence-based guidelines for their use [9]. By doing so, we can confidently integrate essential oils into diverse applications while ensuring the well-being of individuals and the environment.
In exploring the future directions and research opportunities, we have identified cutting-edge fields where essential oils can make a significant impact. Integrating essential oils with nanotechnology holds the potential to revolutionize targeted drug delivery, presenting opportunities for more effective and precise treatments [64]. Additionally, essential oils’ application in biomedicine and healthcare has the potential to augment conventional therapies, improving patient outcomes and overall well-being [65, 66].
The prospects of essential oils in neurological disorders, antimicrobial resistance, environmental applications, and food preservation demonstrate their versatile and wide-ranging capabilities [56, 57, 58, 59, 60]. These applications align with the growing demand for sustainable and natural solutions, emphasizing the significance of essential oils in shaping a healthier and more environmentally conscious future.
In conclusion, essential oils represent a vast reservoir of natural compounds with extraordinary potential. From ancient traditional uses to cutting-edge scientific applications, their journey has been one of continuous discovery and innovation. As we forge ahead in the realm of essential oil research and development, it is evident that these aromatic extracts will play a pivotal role in modern applications, revolutionizing various industries and enriching human well-being.
By embracing this fusion of traditional wisdom and modern science, we can unlock the full potential of essential oils and foster a future where nature’s gifts are harnessed responsibly for the betterment of society.
1.Hoffmann KH. Essential oils. Zeitschrift für Naturforschung C. 2020;75(7-8):177
2.Lee KG, Shibamoto T. Antioxidant activities of volatile components isolated from Eucalyptus species. Journal of Sciances Food and Agriculture. 2001;81:1573-1579
3.Aromatherapy MJ. Enhancing well-being and health through fragrant essences. Journal of Pharmacognosy & Natural Products Perspective. 2023;9(2):235
4.Johnson AB. Advancements in essential oil research and applications. Journal of Natural Science. 2022;15(3):123-140
5.Caamal-Herrera IO, Muñoz-Rodríguez D, Madera-Santana T, Azamar-Barrios JA. Identification of volatile compounds in essential oil and extracts of Ocimum micranthum Willd leaves using GC/MS. International Journal of Applied Research in Natural Products. 2016;9(1):31-40
6.Blejan EI, Popa DE, Costea T, Cioaca A, Olariu L, Ghica M, et al. The in vitro antimicrobial activity of some essential oils from aromatic plants. Farmácia. 2021;69:2
7.Puvača N, de Lanos FR. Antimicrobial resistance in Escherichia coli strains isolated from humans and pet animals. Journals Antibiotics. 2021;10:1. DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics10010069
8.De Sousa DP, Damasceno ROS, Amorati R, Elshabrawy HA, de Castro RD, Bezerra DP, et al. Essential oils: Chemistry and pharmacological activities. Biomolecules. 2023;13:1144. DOI: 10.3390/biom13071144
9.Garcia AB, Santos AB, Silva CS, Dias DF, Pereira SL, Rocha LW. Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory activity of essential oils from peppermint, eucalyptus, and ginger in experimental models. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2023;281:114541
10.Johnson EF, Carter S. Neurological effects of essential oils: A comprehensive review. Frontiers in Neuroscience. 2021;15:1-12
11.Silva-Correa CR, Campos- Reyna JL, Villarreal-La Torre VE, Calderón-Peña AA, Sagástegui-Guarniz WA, Guerrero-Espino LM, et al. Potential neuroprotective activity of essential oils in memory and learning impairment. Pharmacogenetics Journal. 2021;13(5) 1312-1322.Phcogj.com
12.Chemat F, Abert Vian M, Fabiano-Tixier AS, Nutrizio M, Jambrak AR, Munekata PES, et al. Review of sustainable and intensified techniques for extraction of food and natural products. Green Chemistry. 2020;22:2325-2353
13.Swain SS, Paidesetty SK, Padhy RN, Hussain T. Nano-technology platforms to increase the antibacterial drug suitability of essential oils: A drug prospective assessment. Open Nano Volume. 2023;9:100115
14.De Lavor ÉM, Fernandes AWC, Teles RB, et al. Essential oils and their major compounds in the treatment of chronic inflammation: A review of antioxidant potential in preclinical studies and molecular mechanisms. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. 2018;2018:6468593 23 pages
15.Jones R, Smith K, Brown T, Johnson P. Supercritical fluid extraction of essential oils: A review. Food Chemistry. 2022;369:130804
16.Chen L, Zhang Z, Zhang Q , Chen M, Liu L. Enzyme-assisted extraction of essential oil from plants: A review. Food and Bioproducts Processing. 2021;126:1-17
17.Wang J, Ma S, Zhang M, Tian W. Microwave-assisted extraction of essential oils: A review. Trends in Food Science & Technology. 2023;119:875-884
18.Li M, Li L, Zhao Z, Li W, Liu J. Bioactive compounds in essential oils: Extraction, identification, and bioactivities. Frontiers in Pharmacology. 2022;13:1-17
19.Russo EB. The case for the entourage effect and conventional breeding of clinical cannabis: No “strain,” no gain. Frontiers in Plant Science. 1969;2019:9
20.Herz RS. Aromatherapy facts and fictions: A scientific analysis of olfactory effects on mood, physiology and behavior. International Journal of Neuroscience. 2009;119(2):263-290
21.Lehrner J, Marwinski G, Lehr S, Johren P, Deecke L. Ambient odors of orange and lavender reduce anxiety and improve mood in a dental office. Physiology & Behavior. 2005;86(1-2):92-95
22.Koulivand PH, Khaleghi Ghadiri M, Gorji A. Lavender and the nervous system. Evidence-based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2013;2013:1-10
23.Komori T, Fujiwara R, Tanida M, Nomura J, Yokoyama MM. Effects of citrus fragrance on immune function and depressive states. Neuroimmunomodulation. 1995;2(3):174-180
24.Kim JT, Ren CJ, Fielding GA, Pitti A, Kasumi T, Wajda M, et al. Treatment with lavender aromatherapy in the post-anesthesia care unit reduces opioid requirements of morbidly obese patients undergoing laparoscopic adjustable gastric banding. Obesity Surgery. 2017;27(2):501-507
25.Perry NS, Perry EK. Aromatherapy in the management of psychiatric disorders: Clinical and neuropharmacological perspectives. CNS Drugs. 2006;20(4):257-280
26.Lee SH, Do HS, Min K J. Effects of essential oil from Hinoki cypress, Chamaecyparis obtusa, on physiology and behavior of flies. PloS One. 2015;10(12):e0143450
28.Isman MB. Plant essential oils for pest and disease management. Crop Protection. 2000;19(8-10):603-608
29.Regnolt Roger C, Vincent C, Arnacon JT. Essential oils in insect control: Low-risk products in a high-stakes world. Annual Review of Entomology. 2012;57(1):405-424
30.Isman MB. Pesticides based on plant essential oils: from traditional practice to commercialization. In: Carpinella A, editor. Crop Protection Agents from Nature. Cham: Springer; 2006. pp. 29-44
31.Bakkali F, Averbeck S, Averbeck D, Idaomar M. Biological effects of essential oils–a review. Food and Chemical Toxicology. 2008;46(2):446-475
32.Sakhanokho HF, Rajasekaran K. Hedychium essential oils: Composition and uses. Essential Oil Research: Trends in Biosynthesis, Analytics, Industrial Applications and Biotechnological Production. 2019. pp. 49-60
33.Guzmán E, Lucia A. Essential oils and their individual components in cosmetic products. Cosmetics. 2021;8:114. DOI: 10.3390/cosmetics8040114
34.Dawidowicz AL, Olszowy M, Mardarowicz M. Essential oils as extraction solvents for isolation of antioxidants from plants. Trends in Analytical Chemistry. 2013;43:6-25
35.Mohanty M, Saini P, Singh SP. Microwave-assisted extraction of essential oils from plant materials: A review. Food Research International. 2021;144:110369
36.Giske T, Vollestad NK, Mengshoel AM. Attitudes to and use of complementary and alternative medicine among physicians and physiotherapists in Norway. Complementary Therapies in Medicine. 2009;17(4):260-265
37.Carson CF, Hammer KA, Riley TV. Melaleuca alternifolia (tea tree) oil: A review of antimicrobial and other medicinal properties. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 2006;19(1):50-62
38.Force M, Sparks WS, Ronzio RA. Inhibition of enteric parasites by emulsified oil of oregano in vivo. Phytotherapy Research. 2000;14(3):213-214
39.Göbel H, Schmidt G, Soyka D, Kaiser A. Effect of peppermint and eucalyptus oil preparations on neurophysiological and experimental algesimetric headache parameters. Cephalalgia. 1994;14(3):228-234
40.Hur MH, Lee MS, Seong KY, Lee MK. Aromatherapy on sleep disturbance and sleep quality in patients undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention. Journal of Clinical Nursing. 2016;26(23-24):5086-5095
41.Wang J, Zhang C, Chou S, Gobbo M, Goecke T, Ho L, et al. Aromatherapy and aromatic plants for supporting treatment of people with chronic pain and other symptoms in palliative care: A systematic review. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2019;8(10):1645
42.Muzzolon F, Del Paso GA, Hidalgo-Maestre M, López-Millán JM. Aromatherapy massage with lavender essential oil and the prevention of sleep disturbances in the elderly: A randomized clinical trial. Complementary Therapies in Medicine. 2020;48:102271
43.Kaur G, Raza SK, Dhiman N. Exploring green and sustainable cleaning solutions in hotels using essential oils: A case study. Journal of Cleaner Production. 2020;244:118645
44.Tanner GJ, Van Klink JW, Schmitt BM, Wood LA. Natural skin care: A case study of four Australian skincare brands. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services. 2018;44:334-344
45.James C, Singh G, Agarwal A. Effect of peppermint aroma on employees' work performance and fatigue. International Journal of Environmental Health Research. 2017;27(4):277-281
46.Isman MB, Miresmailli S, Machial C. Commercial opportunities for pesticides based on plant essential oils in agriculture, industry and consumer products. Phytochemistry Reviews. 2011;10:197-204
47.Tisserand R, Young R. Essential oil safety: A guide for health care professionals. Elsevier Health Sciences. 2013
48.Buckle J. Clinical Aromatherapy: Essential Oils in Practice. 3rd ed. Churchill Livingstone; 2015. 432 p. ISBN-10, 9780702054402; ISBN-13, 978-0702054402
49.Hyldgaard M, Mygind T, Meyer RL. Essential oils in food preservation: Mode of action, synergies, and interactions with food matrix components. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2012;3:12
50.Richa R, Kumar R, Shukla RM, Khan K. Ultrasound assisted essential oil extraction technology: New boon in food industry. SKUAST Journal of Research. 2020;22(2):78-85
51.Aliaño-González MJ, Barea- Sepúlveda M, Espada-Bellido E, Ferreiro-González M, López-Castillo JG, Palma M, et al. Ultrasound-assisted extraction of Total phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity in mushrooms. Agronomy. 1812;2022:12
52.Fokou JBH, Dongmo PMJ, Boyom FF. Essential oil’s chemical composition and pharmacological properties. In: Essential Oils-Oils of Nature. IntechOpen; 2020
53.Radwan H, Cheikh Ismail L, Hasan H, Hashim M, Obaid RS, Osaili TM, et al. Status review on health-promoting properties and global regulation of essential oils. Molecules. 2023;1809:28
54.Kohlert C, van Rensen I, März R, Schindler G, Graefe EU, Veit M. Bioavailability and pharmacokinetics of natural volatile terpenes in animals and humans. Planta Medica. 2000;66:495-505
55.Bhavaniramya S, Vishnupriya S, Al-Aboody MS, Vijayakumar R, Baskaran D. Role of essential oils in food safety: Antimicrobial and antioxidant applications. Grain & Oil Science and Technology. 2019;2:49-55
56.Hemangkorn N, Phummai P, Punyacharoen P. Effects of essential oils and aromatic plants on Alzheimer’s disease and dementia. International Journal of Science and Healthcare Research. 2021;6(3):350-358. DOI: 10.52403/ijshr.20210760
57.Tripathi AK, Upadhyay S, Bhuiyan M, Bhattacharya PR. A review on prospects of essential oils as biopesticide in insect-pest management. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy. 2009;1(5)
58.Marsin AM, Muhamad II, Anis S, Md Lazim NA. Essential oils as insect repellent agents in food packaging: A review European Food Research and Technology. 2020, 246(4).
59.Hyldgaard M, Mygind T, Meyer RL. Essential oils in food preservation: Mode of action, synergies, and interactions with food matrix components. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2012;2012:3. DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2012.00012
60.Serag MS, Elfayoumy RA, Mohesien MT. Essential oils as antimicrobial and food preservatives. Essential Oils: Advances in Extractions and Biological Applications. 2022. p. 75. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.103000
61.Kim K, Kwon Park S, Cho I. Exploring synergistic effect among essential oils in antibacterial action. Journal of Digital Convergence2016, 14(8):547 553DOI:10.14400/JDC.2016.14.8.547.
62.Harris R. Synergism in the essential oil world. International Journal of Aromatherapy. 2002;12(4):179-186. DOI: 10.1016/S0962-4562(02)00083-8
63.Kachkoul R, Touimi GB, Bennani B, El Habbani R, El Mouhri G, Mohim M, et al. The synergistic effect of three essential oils against bacteria responsible for the development of Lithiasis infection: An optimization by the mixture design. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2021;2021:1-17
64.São Pedro A, Santo I, Silva C, Detoni C, Albuquerque E. The use of nanotechnology as an approach for essential oil-based formulations with antimicrobial activity. Microbial Pathogens and Strategies for Combating them. 2013;2:1364-1374
65.Ali B, Al-Wabel NA, Shams S, Ahamad A, Alam Khan S, Anwar F. Essential oils used in aromatherapy: A systemic review. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine. 2015;5(8):601-611
66.Dagli N, Dagli R, Mahmoud RS, Baroudi K. Essential oils, their therapeutic properties, and implication in dentistry: A review. Journal of International Society of Preventive & Community Dentistry. 2015;5(5):335
Written By
Guedri Mkaddem Mounira
Submitted: 27 September 2023Reviewed: 10 October 2023Published: 14 February 2024
Open access peer-reviewed chapter
