Perspective Chapter: Recent Advancements in the Management of Construction Risks

Abstract

The UK zero-harm agenda’s catchphrase, “One Death is Too Many,” demonstrates that no accident on construction sites is acceptable. Risks associated with construction can be reduced by combining cultural, social, and technological factors. While much work has been done from social and cultural perspectives, the technological aspect, particularly the use of digital technologies, has been minimal. To address this, it is necessary to investigate how social-technical systems interact and their effects on risks on construction sites. Although evidence indicates that effective digitization is required to achieve the zero-harm target and best practices on construction sites, current approaches focus on the socio-cultural aspect of risk management. In order to enforce risk management on construction sites, this paper addresses the digital visualisation of risk management by identifying risks and unsafe site practices. It suggests new approaches for utilising contemporary technologies to reduce risks on construction sites.

1. Introduction

Every construction project, regardless of its size, complexity, nature, or location, has inherent risks that persist throughout its life cycle. All projects are susceptible to some form of risk, and failure to manage such risks effectively could be detrimental to the project’s goals [1]. Risks are events that are uncertain and could potentially lead to negative consequences that may affect the project’s success [2]. Although they can be minimised, managed, or eliminated, they cannot be disregarded/ignored. Risks are typically categorised as either generic or project based [3, 4], but their nature, form, or impact on a specific project may not be apparent until later during the project’s execution. While a project progresses through its various stages, new risks may emerge, change, or even reduce existing ones. Regardless of the cause, it is important to take a proactive approach to mitigate these risks to prevent resource wastage, increased project costs, reduced productivity, and longer project completion times. The construction industry places a significant emphasis on identifying and managing risks throughout the construction process [5] because the process is susceptible to numerous risks due to various factors. These factors may include industry fragmentation, varying conditions of construction sites, intricate procedures, lengthy project timelines, and relationships among project participants [6, 7].

These factors are further compounded by the untimely identification of project risks which makes the sector keen on recent developments in risk management. Literature indicates that the management of risks in construction projects has not been properly handled, leading to suboptimal results [1]. Recent studies have however identified several trends and innovations in risk management, such as joint risk management [8], the use of Building Information Modelling (BIM) [9, 10], sustainable risks management [11], and cyber security policies [12]. The focus on assessing and managing risks has also led to the development of new techniques and protocols to prevent and mitigate risks on construction sites. Research has shown that effective risk management is crucial for project performance. As such, there is a growing awareness of the need for proper risk management procedures. To minimise errors, disruptions, and other undesirable events on-site, constant efforts are being made to improve risk management methods and procedures on construction sites [13]. Managing risks involves planning, monitoring, and controlling measures to prevent and mitigate potential harm to projects. The first and most critical step in risk management process is identifying potential risks. Without this identification, it is impossible to proceed with the subsequent stages of risk management [5].

Despite many efforts to identify risks and unsafe practices in the literature, current reviews on the topic are limited. Additionally, the existing analyses do not investigate unsafe site practices on construction sites, socio-technical interactions, and their effects on construction risks to address the digital visualisation of risk management. Only a few studies have reviewed construction risks from cultural and social perspectives, while technical perspectives, especially the use of contemporary technologies, have been minimal. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate how social-technical systems interact and how this affects risk on construction sites. The study aims to address the digital visualisation of risk management by identifying risks and unsafe site practices to enforce effective risk management on construction sites. The study adopts review of existing literature on the topic to identify the sources of risks to enable effective planning, monitoring, controlling, and management of projects. This aim would be achieved through the following objectives: identify risks and unsafe site practices on construction sites, investigate how socio-technical system interact and its effect on construction risks and address the digital visualisation of risks management on construction sites.

Section 2 of this study provides an in-depth review of literature on construction risk management, covering such topics as identifying potential risks and unsafe practices on construction sites. Section 3 outlines the methodology used in the study. Section 4 discusses socio-cultural and socio-technical considerations of risk management, including how they interact and their effect on construction risk. Furthermore, the section examines the use of digital technologies visualisation in risk management. The results and discussion are presented in Section 5, and the final section concludes the study.

2. Construction risks management: literature search

In the construction industry, risk management involves identifying and assessing unforeseen occurrences that may arise during project construction. The aim is to use tactics and procedures to minimise the identified risks to a manageable level to ensure project success. Risk management takes different forms depending on the situation, and it is a detailed and rational approach to defining, evaluating, and addressing risks in construction projects to achieve the project objectives [14]. Risk management is a methodical process that focuses on recognising, evaluating, and responding to the identified. The management of construction risks has traditionally centred on financial, project performance, productivity, and time aspects [15, 16, 17, 18]. However, managing construction risks is a critical issue that requires attention as it relates to all events that can potentially impact the outcome and success of projects [19]. Thus, it should not be limited to financial or project performance, productivity, and time aspects. A well-planned project ensures an effective risk management [19]. This ensures that the project runs smoothly from the initial stages throughout its execution stage.

Furthermore, construction sites are prone to development and instability, resulting in hazardous environments and complex projects, which can lead to complications in projects operations. Therefore, it is necessary to identify all possible risks to minimise damage. While each project is unique, effective risk management during the conceptualization, execution, and evaluation phases is crucial. This highlights the importance of risk management throughout the entire project process. To ensure project success, measures must be taken to identify risks and implement effective risk management strategies [15]. Monitoring and adapting to changing circumstances is also crucial. Only then can strategies be developed to minimise risks and achieve project success.

The following sections discuss some of the techniques adopted in the reviewed literature to identify construction risks, including additional approaches identified from the results of the review, and then discussions on unsafe site practices on construction sites.

2.1 Identification of construction risks

Identifying the sources of risk is a crucial step and is considered the first and most important in risk management process [19], but this process can only be performed on identified [5]. This allows all project parties to pinpoint specific instances of risks, assess their potential impact, and analyse them to develop appropriate measures for mitigating their effects. An unidentified risk cannot be managed. A comprehensive risk identification process ensures an effective risk management process [20]. Equally, the identification of risks can reveal possible opportunities from the identified risks. However, project executors often concentrate more on the identification and management of the negative risks and overlook the positive aspect/opportunities that could be derived from the identified risks [21]. Identification of risks is a continuous process, that often require rigorous tasks and constant monitoring throughout the project life cycle because existing risks may cease to exist, and new risks emerged [2].

Many sources suggest that trying to identify every possible risk in a construction project is a difficult task and can have negative effects [22, 23]. Instead, it is recommended to focus on the most common and impactful risks. Identifying risks is an ongoing process throughout the project’s lifespan, and it requires input from all stakeholders, including external risk management experts [2]. Researchers believe that involving stakeholders can instil a sense of responsibility for the risks identified in the project, encouraging them to take ownership and develop effective strategies for eliminating or mitigating the identified risks. Furthermore, external stakeholders and experts can offer valuable information, such as standard risk checklists, risks identified from previous project, risk structures and registers. This information can aid in identifying risks and contribute to the success of the project.

The literature highlights different methods for identifying risks, such as the SWOT analysis approach (strengths, opportunity, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) [24, 25, 26], information-gathering [20, 27, 28], document reviews [20, 27, 29, 30], risk workshops (Top-Down method) [31, 32], interviewing (Top-Down method) [20, 33, 34], identification based on possible risks scenarios (Top-Down or Bottom-Up) [35, 36], identification based on the root cause of the risk [37, 38], and surveys or questionnaire (Bottom-Up) [28, 39]. Table 1 below provides additional information about the different approaches for identifying risks and Figure 1 depicts the visual representations of the procedures for identifying construction risks.

• Checklists for assessing risks

• Portfolio of previous projects

• Deficiency in construction project performance

• Identifying risks with PESTLE analysis

Methods	Benefits	Challenges
SWOT (strengths, opportunity, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) analysis approach [24, 25, 26]	This method facilitates convenient access to information for planning, decision-making, and risk management by continuously updating the SWOT analysis grid template to assist the project team in identifying project risks. The tool aids in determining which risks should be given priority to achieve the expected project objectives. Additionally, it provides a backup plan to ensure that the project stays on track within the minimum cost limitations	Constant review, analysis, and updating of information are a challenging procedure in this method
Information-gathering [20, 27, 28]	Collecting data is a vital step in identifying potential risks and implementing effective administration strategies while ensuring the protection of valuable assets. It is crucial in revealing other potential risks that may exist	This method often fails to give a holistic overview of risk in the identification process due to different project structures
Document reviews [20, 27, 29, 30]	This technique is the most cost and time-effective approach due to its independent nature and simple process. The review method helps to identify the construction company’s strengths and weaknesses while also providing insight into the project’s history and philosophy	When using this method to identify risks, it’s important to assess its quality alongside the results of other methods like interviews and questionnaires
Risk workshops (Top-Down method) [31, 32]	Risks workshops can assist in identifying various types of risks such as new, evolving, or emerging risks. These workshops can also help in discovering connections between risks, identifying the appropriate project teams to take ownership of these risks, and establishing a culture of risk management within the industry. Typically, workshops focus on identifying top risks, but are suitable for small to medium-sized projects	This may not be appropriate for large-scale projects. It can be challenging to identify the participants for the workshop, as many teams tend to work independently and may not have a comprehensive understanding of the overall risks involved in the project. While they may be experts in their respective areas, their contributions may not extend to the entire project. Additionally, it can be difficult to establish clear goals for the workshop, and synthesising the comments and defining the risks in a common language can be a daunting task. Compiling a comprehensive list of high-level risks can also pose a challenge
Interviewing (Top-Down method) [20, 34]	The process involves individual meetings between project team leaders to share their opinions on major project risks. While additional individuals may be interviewed later, this method has proven to be effective in uncovering sensitive risk issues. Each participant can freely express their thoughts in a private setting, leading to more open and honest discussions. This one-on-one approach also helps gain crucial support for the risk management process from top-level managers, as it allows them to ask questions privately	The biggest challenges in using the interview method is interpreting the results, which involves concerns and classification based on the organization or project. However, this challenge can be solved through pre-planning and scheduling to ensure that both the interviewer and interviewee have a clear understanding, ambiguity is corrected, and any miscommunication is resolved
Identification based on possible risks scenarios (Top-Down or Bottom-Up) approach [35, 36]	This approach is most effective for identifying risks that have a low probability of occurring but could have a significant impact on the project if they do. It can be especially helpful for leaders who are looking to make strategic decisions and want a better understanding of potential risks. Scenario risk identification can help uncover new risks and improve existing mitigation measures. It can also help identify blind spots, biases, and interdependencies. This approach is particularly useful when there is a major change underway that could have a significant impact on the project	Identifying risks by this method can be challenging due to scheduling constraints and participants may take issue with the “what if” nature of the questions, as they are based on their responses. Remaining calm, flexible, and focusing on high-impact risks can help rectify the situation
Identification based on the root cause of the risks (Bottom-Up) [37, 38]	This method involves identifying the root cause of issues to discover project risks. It is distinguished from other methods by the fact that it begins with a known problem and then examines it closely to gain understanding, rather than simply asking about potential risks. Additionally, it can uncover opportunities to create additional value and identify new risks. Both employees and operational level managers are involved in this process, which can reveal emerging risks that may not be apparent to others involved in the project	This method delves into the processes in detail to ensure that the results of root cause analyses are thoroughly understood by various departments. This process takes longer than other methods as it is crucial for accurate identification
Surveys or questionnaire (Bottom-Up) [28, 39]	This “Bottom-Up” method encourages lower-level employees to speak up and share their opinions and concerns regarding potential risks without fear. This approach involves distributing surveys to multiple individuals working on the project to identify various risks throughout the project. It is particularly useful when traditional methods, such as interviews and workshops, are not feasible due to the geographical location of stakeholders. Typically, this method focuses on middle managers, teams, and other support staff involved in the project. The survey questions are open-ended, allowing employees to express their thoughts in their own words about the most significant risks they perceive. Moreover, participants sometimes rate how well management is addressing those risks. This approach provides a unique perspective on project risks from the employees’ viewpoint	This method requires handling a large volume of information which can be challenging, and without the proper procedures and tools to capture, analyse, and report responses, desired results may not be achieved

Table 1.

Risks identification methods.

Figure 1.

Approaches for identifying risks on construction sites.

2.1.1 Checklists for assessing risks

It is important to have a risk assessment checklist to create an effective plan for identifying, estimating, assessing, prioritising, and managing risks. This checklist ensures that all aspects of the project are evaluated thoroughly, and all relevant information is incorporated into the risk management plan. This method is a critical step in identifying, managing, and accessing risks. Although the implementation may vary depending on the scope and type of project. However, a general checklist for assessing risks that can be applied to all projects is provided below.

1. Funding: When considering a project’s scope, it is important to analyse the different types of risks that could impact funding and consider the areas where funding risks could arise. Without sufficient cash flow or funding, progress in the project cannot be made [40]. Therefore, it is necessary to identify any factors that might affect cash flow. By identifying and mitigating potential funding risks, the project’s expenses can be better managed and kept within budget.

2. Project timeline: To determine if the estimated time for a project is correct, the schedule of work for the entire project should be carefully analysed. This includes a critical examination of daily operations and operational timelines. Additionally, external factors like weather, human error, incoming revenue, and involvement of external parties should be considered and included in the evaluation process.

3. Project resources: The project’s resources must include all necessary items and materials, including both internal and external resources like employees and suppliers [1]. All project employees should be trained to handle their tasks and responsibilities, and new responsibilities should also come with proper training. It is important to consider what materials or assets will be needed for each task in the project, and how they will be obtained and maintained sustainably. However, there may be instances where resources are unavailable or do not meet expectations. To prepare for such scenarios, a plan to mitigate the risk of resource shortage or delay should be included in the project checklist.

4. Project complexity: When evaluating the complexity of a project, it is important to consider the various stakeholders involved. More complex projects tend to involve a greater number of stakeholders, which means more consultation and management is required. To ensure the project runs smoothly, regardless of size/complexity, it is crucial to understand the full responsibilities of each stakeholder and how their involvement could potentially impact the project [41]. This includes identifying any potential risks and developing strategies to manage them effectively.

5. Project structure and goal: Finally, it is important to identify and address the potential risks of the project, as well as the objectives of the project which may include those related to the task, operational area, and overall goals [42]. By doing so, any potential obstacles that could impact the success of the project can be identified and evaluated before they become a problem. To accomplish this, it is essential to ensure that all team members are aligned with the project goals and that those goals are both realistic and meaningful.

2.1.2 Portfolio of previous projects

To effectively manage risks, it is crucial to first identify and discover them [43]. One way to accomplish this is by considering risks from previous projects. The impact of risks that have been identified but not addressed in previous projects normally have a lasting impact on project managers and influence their decisions in future projects [43]. However, this information may not be readily available to project managers, and their lack of knowledge may contribute to the issue of unmanaged risks. That is why having a portfolio of previous projects can be helpful. This is essentially a collection of past projects/programs designed to manage important information across project implementations, providing guidance and oversight for future projects [44]. Project portfolios are essential in achieving goals and implementing strategies. They provide guidance in making informed decisions regarding resource allocation, forecasting project performance, and identifying risks, ultimately leading to project alignment, progress, and increased productivity. Risk management greatly benefits from project portfolios as they ensure strategic alignment, reduce inefficiency, evaluate projects, and promote diversification.

When analysing data from past projects, it can be valuable to utilise corporate knowledge. However, this technique may not be feasible if the organisation has not previously undertaken a similar project or if data from a past project were not recorded. In these instances, database systems that track and report project progress can be helpful in identifying potential risks. Other useful tools include record of lessons learned from past projects and evaluations of previous projects. However, it is important to note that these method/systems may be limited by the quality and relevance of the available data.

2.1.3 Deficiency in construction project performance (DCPP)

Deficiency in construction project performance (DCPP) can either be minor or major and may cause damage to property or people. Regardless of the severity, it is often not discovered until after the project is completed, making it an expensive risk and hard to fix. Poor design, materials, workmanship, structural failure, and financial risks all contribute to DCPP. This can lead to serious structural defects that fall short of the owner’s expectations, but the severity of these defects can vary greatly. According to [45] these defects can be either Patent, meaning they are readily known, or Latent, meaning they are not easily observable. Latent risks are more problematic as they are not easily detected even with constant supervision. Patents, on the other hand, are visible and can be easily fixed. They are referred to as surface-level risks, while latent risks are known as below-surface risks due to their less visible/less obvious nature.

When a design professional fails to produce accurate and well-organised construction documents or creates out-of-scope designs, poor design may result. This can also happen due to errors or omissions. When errors occur, the professional must redesign and replace the erroneous design. Omissions, on the other hand, can be remedied by adding a “change order” to the contractor’s scope of work. A change of order is a document used to modify an already completed construction project [46]. It includes details about the changes in scope of work, cost, and schedule that were not initially included or corrected in the initial project. Completing a change of order correctly reduces risk, increases the chances of approval, and helps contractors fulfil their financial obligations faster [47]. However, if a change of order is not completed properly, it can affect the contractor’s liability and put their financial obligation at risk.

When construction materials are inadequate or damaged, it can lead to deficiencies in the final product. Often, the issue is not discovered until the material has already been incorporated into the project. This can result in costly risks, including damage to the structure and additional expenses for labour and materials. Workmanship, which refers to the quality of the human labour involved in the construction process, is another important factor. Workmanship issues can range from minor surface flaws to major structural problems, and it can be difficult to determine who/what failed to meet the property development standards [48].

If the project participants fail to meet their contractual obligations according to the required standards for developing a structure, it may lead to a failure in the structure’s overall structure (structural failure). This happens when the approved design and contract documents are not followed. For instance, not familiarising oneself with the site’s local conditions as per the contract or regular visitation, not coordinating onsite activities by reviewing the contract documents constantly, and not ensuring that the work performed follows the acceptable standards of workmanship [49]. These are considered the general conditions that every contractor should adhere to while developing any structure. They form the backbone of the entire contract and govern the project’s rights, responsibilities, duties, privileges, and rules.

One unique aspect of construction projects is that financial risks are the first contributor to the delays, changes, and quality problems. With so many businesses involved and a lack of visibility into who is responsible for each task, financial issues can become more complicated. Construction projects carry significant financial risk, including budget and cash flow concerns, which can contribute to DCPP. Additionally, the construction industry is credit-heavy, with all materials and labour furnished before payment is received. This means that participating teams often face challenges in getting paid, waiting longer than in other industries to complete time- and information-intensive payment applications. While waiting for payment, they must find ways to keep cash flowing and cover upfront expenses. Sometimes, even when payment is received, it may not cover all expenses, leading to inefficiencies in project performance, budget, cost overrun, and other associated financial risks. Contributing factors to these payment challenges include complicated payment structures, high failure rates, hidden parties, confusion or complex contractual issues, and other factors that can result in financial damages/risks [50].

2.1.4 Identifying risks with PESTLE analysis

PESTLE analysis is a useful tool for examining and identifying risks in projects. By looking at risks from six different perspectives—Political, Economic, Sociocultural, Technological, Legal, and Environmental—it provides a comprehensive understanding of potential threats and opportunities. This analytical tool is commonly used in Strategic and Operations Management (SOM) to aid in the process of risk management in businesses. When used in conjunction with SWOT analysis, PESTLE helps to identify both internal and external risks [51]. Internal risks are easier to identify as past data from similar projects or portfolios of previous projects are available, while external risks are not easily known and are beyond the control of the company. Thus, employee lacking and leaving the construction projects vulnerable to major failure [51].

2.1.4.1 Political risks

The construction industry, like any other organisation, operates within a political environment that presents certain risks. Political risks refer to situations that are dependent on political and regulatory factors, as well as the overall stability of the country where construction is taking place [52]. It is important not to ignore political risks in construction because they can lead to uncertainty in the political landscape of construction projects [53]. These risks can include breaches of contracts, terrorist attacks, and wars that may impact projects [54]. Political risks can manifest in a variety of ways, such as changes in government laws, regulations, and policies that affect the project, political instability within the government, delays or refusals of project approval and permits by government departments, and the outbreak of hostilities such as wars, revolutions, riots, and terrorism [53]. Unlike other types of risks, political risks are more complex, unpredictable, and devastating because they fall outside the scope of normal project activities [55].

Political risks are a crucial part of risk management in construction projects. However, it is essential to recognise that project-level political risks can also impact overall business objectives like development and strategic decision-making [56]. While managing political risks, it is important to avoid overemphasising short-term project goals and neglecting corporate strategic objectives. Inappropriate resource allocation among projects, constraints of project resources, and a lack of risk management experience are some of the drawbacks that need to be addressed [53]. Therefore, it is crucial to consider political risks and link risk management strategies to the project’s objectives based on sufficient resources and information. This is an important component of the decision-making process for the continuous improvement of the project.

2.1.4.2 Economic risks

Economic risks related to projects were discussed by various researchers including [57, 58]. These risks include inflation, fluctuating exchange rates, sudden changes in prices, tax rates and economic policies, as well as difficulties in financing the project. Liu et al. [59] also identified other economic risks such as unclear tax payment responsibilities, lack of partial payment provisions, and improper withholding of guarantees on advance payment. According to [51], inflation and sudden price changes are the most common economic risks in construction projects. El-Sayegh [60] emphasised the importance of accurately predicting inflation to determine future project costs. However, it is difficult to accurately forecast interest rates since they depend on the global economic climate, which may not always align with assumptions [61]. Therefore, it is recommended to consider adjusting project plans based on variable interest rates, even though they may not be accurate [60].

2.1.4.3 Socio-cultural risks

There are various social-cultural risks associated with construction projects, such as cultural and religious differences, lack of security on project sites, and social and cultural impacts on the community [51, 60]. Public objections to projects are also a concern. These risks are related to different aspects of people’s lifestyles, demographics, educational levels, values, and ways of thinking [62]. They can affect any industry, but they play a crucial role in construction projects due to the diverse nationalities involved. For instance, Europeans tend to be confrontational and less respectful of hierarchy, while Asians tend to avoid conflict and prioritise seniority and hierarchy [63].

The way a project team cooperates, collaborates, and coordinates can be affected by socio-cultural factors. This, in turn, can impact the management style, speed, and processes of the project itself. This can help keep the project on budget and schedule, as noted by [64, 65]. Through these qualities’ interaction with the project team’s cooperation, collaboration and coordination, the socio-culture affects the management style, speed, and processes of the undertaken projects [65]. These qualities and differences thus need to be managed effectively especially where the project leaders/managers are foreigners to finish the projects within budget and time [64].

2.1.4.4 Technological risks

Project technical risks are associated with the technical aspects of a project, including design errors or changes, poor engineering, insufficient details in design specifications, and technology issues [51]. Additionally, research and development approaches, the impact of internet usage on project work, untested engineering techniques, delays due to lengthy design processes, complex design, poor buildability and constructability, and technology changes were identified by [1, 50] as forms of technological risks encountered in construction projects. Due to the dynamic nature of construction sites, technological risks can change frequently, leading to inadequate identification of risks, application, and mitigation measures on site.

2.1.4.5 Legal risks

Legal risks can arise due to various factors such as delays in resolving contractual disputes, poorly developed or unclear contract documents, changes in codes and regulations, conflicts in contract documents, and inappropriate distribution of responsibilities [52, 57]. Inadequate claim administration, rigorous competition at the tender stage, excessive contract variation, third-party liabilities, immature laws, and complexity in the legal environment can also contribute to legal risks. It is important to note that legal risks may vary depending on the project and country. For instance, negotiations and strategic decisions may be made to address risky site conditions in some countries, where risk allocation is done through contract clauses [66, 67].

2.1.4.6 Environmental risks

The construction industry faces a range of risks due to its dynamic and complex nature [68]. These risks include inadequate information about the site, inappropriate construction scheduling, client demands for changes, excessive noise pollution, and a lack of skilled staff to handle unexpected environmental conditions [69]. El-Sayegh and Mansour [52] identified additional environmental risks, such as uncertainty about underground conditions, the presence of archaeological artefacts, site accessibility, the unavailability of necessary infrastructure, security, and traffic conditions. Environmental issues such as failure to comply with environmental regulations and impact assessments can also lead to project suspensions and disruption of project goals [70]. Managing environmental risks is crucial for maintaining productivity and achieving project objectives in construction projects.

2.2 Unsafe site practices on construction sites

Construction projects are exposed to various risks that can both be anticipated and unexpected. These risks arise may be due to unsafe practices on construction sites. Such practices include unfavourable social and environmental conditions, physical hazards, congested workspaces, improper workstation layout, and movement of heavy equipment. Workers may also fail to take necessary precautions, such as wearing safety helmets and personal protective equipment (PPE) or maintaining proper working positions and conditions. Othman et al. [71] found that accidents on construction sites are often caused by a combination of the above issues. Meanwhile, Hon et al. [72] argue that accidents are not always due to construction operations failure, but to human error and unsafe site practices. Unsafe site practices refer to actions, intentional or unintentional, that may lead to accidents, injuries, or even fatalities among workers or materials [73]. Despite the existence of laws and regulations to ensure site safety, employers and employees do not always comply with them rigorously [43]. The consequences of these behaviours can be dire, and the lack of learning opportunities means that these practices tend to be repeated, unchecked.

Unsafe practices is consider a physical conditions or circumstances that could potentially cause accidents [73]. These practices are prevalent in construction sites and are responsible for many accidents. Researchers in various countries have studied the factors and causes of unsafe site practices. In Kuwait, inadequate safety procedures, improper materials, low maintenance, supervisory faults, and misplaced equipment were identified as key factors [74]. In the USA, Abdelhamid [75] classified unsafe site practices into human and physical factors. Human factors include incorrect working posture, failure to wear protective equipment, unauthorised use of equipment, unsafe operating speeds, poor mental health, removal of safety devices, and unsafe positions when operating equipment. Physical factors include the unsafe acts of others, disregard for prescribed procedures, accidents due to defects, unsuitable attire, unsafe environmental conditions, fire hazards, poor housekeeping, inadequate personnel assignment, and poorly guarded machinery. Toole [76] found that lack of training, inadequate enforcement of safety regulations, lack of safety equipment, unsafe construction methods, unsafe site conditions, failure to use provided safety equipment, poor safety attitudes, forgetfulness, and deviation from prescribed behaviours were responsible for unsafe site practices in the USA.

Additionally, construction site accidents have been attributed to unsafe practices in various studies conducted in China, Hong Kong, Australia, Turkey, Korea, and Greece [77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82]. These practices include inadequate training, inappropriate worker behaviour, poor safety awareness, reluctance to invest in safety measures, loss of control of tools or equipment, physical strain, reckless machine operation, lack of safety regulation enforcement, insufficient personal protective equipment, lack of innovative technology, collisions with objects, and poor information flow. Unsafe work processes, environmental conditions, and machinery/crane positioning and movement have also been identified as causes of accidents by some researchers [73, 80]. Thus, accidents on construction sites are largely caused by unsafe site practices. The construction project is a complicated and time-consuming process that involves many different specialised tasks typically carried out by humans. Studies have shown that construction risks and unsafe practices are caused by various factors, with human behaviours being the most significant contributing factor. However, four categories of unsafe practices are identified in this study: human factors, non-human factors, unsafe worker acts and actions, and unsafe environmental and site conditions.

3. Methodological approach to the study

Even though many studies have been conducted on risk identification and management on construction sites, none have examined how socio-technical systems of risk management affect construction projects. The study identifies risks and unsafe site practices through literature review, so that effective risk management can be enforced on construction sites through digital visualisation. Through the review, risk identification methods and unsafe site practices were examined qualitatively, and the results analysed. The identification techniques were discussed based on the views of various authors in the reviewed literature.

The process of reviewing started with gathering relevant information from books, articles, and websites about risks and unsafe practices on construction sites. Through this search, the first objective was achieved, and the results of the literature review helped identify other methods addressing risks and unsafe site practices. From the identified methods, the fourth technique, PESTLE analysis, identified risks based on political, economic, socio-cultural, technological, legal, and environmental factors. The PESTLE analysis provided a powerful insight into risks from various angles and how some systems interact with risk management. Thus, achieving the second objective. The study also discussed the socio-cultural aspect of risk management based on PESTLE analysis classification including their interaction with socio-technical systems. This helps to achieve the third objective of addressing digital visualisation for risk management from socio-technical perspectives. Figure 2 depicts the study’s methodology approach.

Figure 2.

The study’s methodological approach.

4. Socio-cultural considerations of risk management

Evidence from studies indicate that socio-cultural considerations of construction risk management exist in different literature, as noted above in Section 2.1.4. PESTLE analysis revealed that socio-cultural factors related to risk management could affect construction projects in the society/organisation where they are carried out [83, 84]. From the review conducted, some studies identified socio-cultural related factors to risk management as depicted in Table 2.

Socio-cultural considerations of construction risk management	Evidence from the literature
Problems with land acquisition and compensation	[85, 86, 87, 88, 89]
Public resistance to the project (Public concerns and social complaints)	[1, 90, 91, 92]
Diversities in social, cultural, and religious backgrounds	[93, 94, 95]
Crime and civic unrest	[96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101]
Conflicts at work and protests	[1, 62, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106]
Unfavourable public relationships	[107, 108, 109, 110]
Degraded social environmental conditions	[111, 112, 113, 114]
Social instability and/or societal conflict	[115, 116, 117, 118]
Ineffective governance structure	[1, 119, 120, 121, 122]
Disruptions to structure	[1, 123, 124, 125, 126]

Table 2.

Socio-cultural considerations of construction risks management.

Problems with land acquisition and compensation: According to [123], rapid urbanisation has created issues with land acquisition. He stated that the eight categories of risks associated with urbanisation are: infrastructure risk, population-structure risk, public-health risk, risk of conflicts of interest, risk associated with energy resources, risk associated with environmental pollution, risk associated with conflicting conceptions of value, and risk associated with the differentiation of rural and urban areas along with the covert threat of social conflicts. In project development, land acquisition and compensation procedures are extremely challenging, and it has been attributed to rapid urbanisation in China by various researchers. These researchers noted that 65% of public disturbances in rural areas in China occurred because of land acquisition and compensation conflicts between 2004 and 2009 [123]. As a result, the current system for evaluating the risk of land acquisition is implemented by the Department of Land Management. This way, clarifying land risk evaluation targets and orientations improves the land acquisition risks assessment system and optimises land evaluation by making the assessment process more transparent and reasonable [123].

Public resistance to the project (public concerns and social complaints): [124] identified five factors responsible for Korean megaproject delays, time overruns, and cost overruns. These factors include poor project management and monitoring systems, conflicts between organisations, and strong public resistance. In addition to the causes common to Korean mega projects, they can also occur in other types of construction projects, but they tend to produce poorer results in mega projects compared to smaller ones [124]. Therefore, project size and complexity have an impact on public resistance.

Diversities in social, cultural, and religious backgrounds: Diversity comprises behaviours that consider our shared similarities and distinctions. As a result, every employee at a company has a distinct background that sets them apart from one another by virtue of their cultural, social, and beliefs. Diversity entails understanding of the people which involves human characteristics and knowledge; acknowledging each individual ethics, and enshrining relationships across all boundaries for people to work in tandem to eliminate all kinds of prejudice and bias [125]. Academically, diversity incorporates multiple aspects of humans such as their heritage, socioeconomic standing, ethnicity, speech, complexion, mindset, morals, convictions, and belief [126]. In addition, diversity is related to minorities comprising female gender, the disabled, and the elderly. Unmanaged diversity, however, may be a barrier to attaining organisational and project goals as it could decrease productivity and provide competitive advantages [127]. Thus, to effectively manage employees, project tasks, risks, and assets to increase productivity, diversity must be managed and valued.

Crime and civic unrest: In times of civil unrest, construction sites are susceptible to loss. A construction site can be a target for disruption for stored materials or partially constructed structures. This unrest increases the likelihood of property damage, crime, theft, fraud, vandalism, dishonest behaviour, and related incidents. These times can result in severe losses. For instance, police, firefighters, or emergency response may take longer to respond in theft, vandalism, and fire cases. Among the ways to handle this is to create a suitable plan through risk analysis and identification. Additionally, to ensure people’s safety on and off the construction sites, identify known and anticipated risks, and develop safety protocols. This procedure identifies the parties responsible for implementing control measures to ensure the plan’s effectiveness and the safety and well-being of those involved.

Conflicts and protests at work: Conflicts are inevitable in any construction setting. Conflict issues caused delays, interruptions, suspensions, or abandonments of projects [128]. In other words, identifying the conflicts helps to manage or eliminate the risks resulting from conflict and protests at construction work. Knowing the conflicting factors in advance makes it easier to deal with them.

Unfavourable public relations: An organisation’s public relations is an analysis of trends, a prediction of their consequences, and a plan for implementing an action program that will benefit both the organisation and the public. When the intended goal of the planned program of actions is not accomplished, and the organisations and the public interest are not served, poor and unfavourable public relations result. Failure to define a good communication approach and stakeholders’ information needs is a major cause of unfavourable public relations. Therefore, early identification of risks associated with lack of communication within project parties is necessary.

Degraded social environmental conditions: These include issues like land clearance, people’s relocation, and health concerns from waste releases from construction projects. In view of this, it is standard practice to carry out an environmental impact assessment (EIA) in the project decision phase to consider social environmental issues for the end-users and the local community [129]. EIA evaluate the environmental effects of a planned operation [130]. It considers things like alternatives for the project and mitigation strategies if the construction were to proceed. An Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) or Environmental Statement (ES) summarises the findings of the activity. A successful EIA comprises individual and public assessments, and considers environmental factors like population, landscape, heritage, air, climate, soil, water, floral and other living creatures [131].

Social instability and/or societal conflict: Population growth and modern civilization result in social instability/societal conflicts [132]. It typically resulted from conflicts of interest between different project participants or stakeholders and is linked to societal disputes, violent opposition, and mass occurrences of public unrest [133]. Social instability cannot be completely eradicated, and poor management of it might jeopardise social harmony. However, it can be controlled to reduce the impact before it becomes a full-fledged unmanageable risk [134].

Ineffective governance structure: Governance structure is one of the main reasons for the challenges facing construction projects [135]. The governance structure technically enables independent individuals with different long-term interests and strategic objectives to cooperate towards achieving a common goal [136]. When this is unsuccessful, it develops into a problem and poses threats to the projects. Governance structure serves as a key instrument for managing risk in projects and sheds light on the interactions between various construction project participants [137].

Structural disruptions: Structural disruptions are one of the risks associated with normal construction activities. They can be caused by terrorism, political instability, economic disruptions, intentional agent actions, and human-centred problems like strikes [138]. Some instances of structural disruptions include the September 11, 2001, terrorist attack on the World Trade Centre and the August 14, 2003, blackout in the Northeastern United States. [138] identified four methods of managing disruptions to structure. They include defining the nature of the underlying hazard giving rise to the risk, quantifying the risk through an established risk assessment process (by defining the pathways through which such risks might occurred), effective risk management which requires that the approach utilised fit the features and needs of the decision environment, and appropriate management rules and actions to be integrated with ongoing risk assessment and project partner coordination.

4.1 Socio-technical considerations of risks management

The common practice of managing risks on construction sites suggests that the workers and construction personnel are not well-informed of potential risks, unsafe site practices and other safety-related issues. This limits the ability to actively make informed decisions about construction projects and managing the risks therein. Also, because information related to risk monitoring and control, such as risk identification, risk assessment, and other information on risks, is not publicly available to the concerned industry, various challenge occurs in the risk management process. In fact, many construction firms do not share risks information on project with their employees. This practice restricts important opportunities for learning about risks in the construction sector. Risks relating to employee and organisation are crucial in implementing risks management. The socio-technical aspect of risks management is required to address the dimensions of human, organisation, and technology and to take their interaction with one another into account [139]. Given this a priority can improve easy identification of potential risks and unsafe site practices on construction sites. Thus, ensuring that risks-related information is effectively and accurately delivered, understood, and well distributed among project participating teams.

Traditionally, the science of information delivery is traced back to humans which forms a significant part of the concept of the socio-technical aspect of construction risk management. Projects using digital technologies must be designed and optimised in a way that considers organisational structures, technology and humans to achieve risk-free outcomes [139] because a task is always implemented by the interaction of a human, technology, and organisation [140]. Additionally, [141] agrees to the understanding of a socio-technical perspective which involve human (collaboration, qualifications, work assignment, and structures), organisational (knowledge, organisation & processes, culture, and ethics), and technological innovations (IT systems, automation, data science and management). Hence, implementing socio-technical interactions demonstrates a degree of technology, of changes in organisational structure, and of changes in employee independence.

4.2 Digital visualisation of risks management on construction sites

The idea of digitalisation makes it possible to incorporate digital technologies into risk management. It provides a new level of organisation and management for the entire risk management process. Hirsch-Kreinsen et al. [142] defined digitalisation as the incorporation of digital technologies, the use of applications built upon these technologies, and their networking systems into the process of socio-economic change. This definition demonstrates that digitalisation encompasses significant economic, social, and technical changes. The term Volatility, Uncertainty, Complexity, and Ambiguity (VUCA), which describes the concept of digitalisation and societal change explains the dynamic nature and distinctive complexity of the construction industry/businesses. Consequently, the sector must become more responsive and adaptive to meet challenges that are increasingly difficult to anticipate in a rapidly evolving world of technology [139]. These changes are significant enough to justify construction companies developing visualised technological strategies to manage risks. For example, with computer vision, Internet of Things (IoT), wearable technologies, Augmented Reality (AR)/Virtual Reality (VR) & Mixed Reality (MR), BIM technologies, conversational-AI, and Robotics, visual data is interpreted and understood, and decisions in identifying and managing risks are made based on the visualised object [143, 144].

4.2.1 3D/4D visualised technologies

During the design phase, 3D and 4D visualisation technologies are used to assist the teams in identifying risks regarding preliminary construction activities. Building Information Modelling (BIM) is a 3D/4D modelling technology that is used prior to the construction planning process to create, assess, and manage design and construction information, including planning for risk management. [145, 146] in their investigations shows that projects using 3D and 4D visualisation technology enabled the designing and developing team to detect potential risks in the early stages of construction. Early risk detection leads to cost savings and minimum design errors. Consequently, the likelihood of experiencing risk-related problems during all phases of the project’s life cycle is decreased. Utilising 4D visualisation technologies aids in detecting improper construction processes and procedures, establishing patterns regarding risks, and distinguishing the risk status of each aspect of construction activities. Example of such activities include potential risks during excavation [147] and risks related to onsite workspace/site set-up [148]. The ability to visualise potential risks using 3D/4D visualisation technology is an excellent real-time information and communication tool to support interaction between people and the organisation. Additionally, it contributes to knowledge acquisition and training for construction risks. As BIM improves communication and understanding across cultures, socioeconomic classes, and language barriers, workers receive useful risk information in workshops and training. In addition, BIM has the capability of evaluating and updating employees’ levels of comprehension in various areas of construction operations and identifying risks.

Furthermore, effective training and communication among foreign construction employees have been discovered to be a developing challenge due to the dispersed locations of most construction sites. According to [149], using 3D visualisation can assist various site workers in overcoming the difficulties presented by language and cultural barriers. Several 3D visualisation applications, like interactive and nonverbal simulation, aid in improving learning among foreign employees and facilitate efficient risk training. By employing visualisation technology, risk, and safety information, along with lessons from previous projects, may be communicated and provided to the workers regardless of site location. The components of 3D visualisation, such as general visual representation, animation, and a 3D interactive viewing environment, reduce the amount of spoken description needed to generate appropriate understanding among foreign construction workers. Additionally, the techniques of training used for foreign workers are insufficient, monotonous, and not considered helpful by them. So the adoption of visualised technologies can be helpful to minimise this issue.

4.2.2 Web-based technologies

Another method for managing and disseminating accurate information on risks is the web-based communication platform. It allows project stakeholders to upload and download data about various aspects of the construction process including the risks involved [150]. A study by [151] focused on wireless telecommunications, infrared sensors, and ultrasonics to reduce the number of fatal accident on construction sites. According to him, the system functions as a preventive measure, that works by double-checking with other preventive measures already in place to reduce risk zones. Wireless internet and video technology/camera have also proven effective in identifying risks on construction sites. It works by capturing the photographs of the work site and spot any potential risks. The cameras are mounted on the roofs of nearby structures where the contractor can use the images that were taken to document the area, identify risks, and work to mitigate those risks. In the case that an accident did occur due to an unknown cause, the contractor can quickly determine what went wrong to avoid a similar occurrence through the captured images.

4.2.3 IoT technologies

The Integration of BIM with IoT is another application for onsite monitoring and risk management. According to [152, 153]. BIM and sensor-like Ultra-Wide Band (UWB) technologies are used to track the positions of site employees, materials, equipment, and the progression of activities. Sensor data and BIM models are used to analyse risk and safety by providing real-time and post-event visualisation [153]. Structure monitoring sensors, RFID tags, and BIM models enabled the visualisation of non-functioned components for structure risk monitoring [154, 155, 156]. GPS and GIS could provide location-specific services for real-time tracking systems for materials, equipment installed on the site and personnel [157] to identify potential risks.

4.2.4 Wearable technologies

Wearable technology offers the potential to provide real-time data on the construction project and potential risk areas through a results-oriented data gathering and analysis methodology. The collection of real-time data that can be tracked especially in deliveries and movement of materials, tracking of processes to keep workers safe and alert them of imminent danger, optimise working patterns and identify higher-risk movement on site. Wearables such as smart glasses and virtual reality headsets can provide all-around viewing of the construction process, job site plan accuracy, and real-time communication during construction. An example is alert systems which include mobile alert systems for group SMS function [158], sensor alert systems for onsite equipment in equipment malfunctioning [159], equipment operator proximity risks alert system [160], equipment-worker proximity alerts [161], and audio, visual or vibration alerts at entry or exit locations to work using mobile passive radio frequency identification (RFID) [162].

4.2.5 Immersive technologies

Immersive technologies and BIM enable the provision of 3D digital content and animations as real-world projections for improved contextualisation [163, 164] significant to envisioning the construction process. They help to provide an excellent platform for immersive technologies (virtual reality and augmented reality) by data-rich 3D models for intuitive visualisation of the process [165] to easily identify potential risks as the construction process progresses.

4.2.6 Al technologies

Advancements in AI, such as conversational AI have led to the creation of virtual assistants such as Microsoft Cortana, Apple Siri, Chatbots etc., which use Automatic Speech Recognition (ASP) and Text-to-Speech (TTS) to communicate construction operations and risks information to construction personnel working on site. Evidence shows that these virtual assistants and other speech-processing applications have tremendous potential when applied to the construction industry. Natural Language Processing (NLP) which is a vital area of conversational AI also contribute to risk management by extracting up-to-date information and reporting outcomes during construction through a chatbot.

However, for effective collaboration, qualification and implementation identified by [141] as the socio-technical human dimensions in risk management, all stakeholders must decide on suitable interoperable software tools [166, 167] to collaborate and share up-to-date information about the construction procedures and risks management planning on site.

5. Results and discussion

Effective risk management is vital for project success. Project participants recognise this fact and employ several risk management methods to identify and manage risks. These methods were identified in this study through extant review of the literature. The study examines risks and unsafe site practices to address the digital visualisation of risk management on construction sites. Although, construction businesses implement risk management procedures as noted in the reviewed literature; however, some procedures need to be improved and used more frequently to uncover potential opportunities and negative risks. The entire structure of managing risks revolve around risk identification. Failure to identify risks can lead to inadequacies throughout the management process, which can negatively impact the project resources and success. Evidence shows that organisations that have risk management implemented acknowledge that failure is more likely if adequate procedures are not used when identifying potential risks. The accuracy of the outcomes of the risk management process is determined by a successful risk identification procedure.

The identification methods including their benefits and challenges were examined to arrive at corresponding methods of identifying risks on construction site. Some of the identified methods in the literature are adopted singly (information gathering, risk workshop, interviewing, possible risks scenario and root cause of risks) while some require the combination of more than one method for the identification process (SWOT analysis and document review). Likewise, some of the methods are useful at managerial level while some at employee level. The corresponding methods identified were based on the result and analysis of the reviewed literature. This includes checklists for assessing risks, portfolio of previous projects, DCPP, and identifying risks with PESTLE analysis. Sub-areas of these methods were also identified to achieve the objectives of the study. For example, identification by PESTLE analysis examines risks from six different perspectives: political, economic, sociocultural, technological, legal, and environmental. The analysis in this study examines the threat and opportunities of risks management. However, evidence shows that PESTLE analysis works well with SWOT analysis to identify internal and external risks in project management.

On the other hand, unsafe site practices were identified from four different perspectives: human factors, non-human factors, unsafe workers’ acts and actions, and unsafe environmental and site conditions. Figure 3 shows the review’s findings and the resulting classification of unsafe site practices on construction sites.

Figure 3.

Classification of unsafe site practices on construction sites [88, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182].

The research also demonstrates the existence of numerous causes for construction risks and unsafe site practices, with human factor being the primary cause of most construction accidents. Various socio-cultural factors associated with risks management were also identified (Table 2). PESTLE analysis showed that risk management-related socio-cultural factors could have an impact on construction projects in the society/organisation in which they are developed. The socio-technical component of risk management on the other hand relates to people, organisations, and technology as well as their interactions to risks management. Digital technologies are designed and optimised in consideration of social, organisational structures and humans to fulfil risk-free tasks.

6. Conclusion and recommendations

The detection of potential risks and unsafe site practises on construction sites can be improved by various measures through the implementation of various visualisation technologies. It ensures that risk information is accurately and effectively provided, understood, and evenly disseminated among project managers and construction employees. Additionally, to adequately plan risk management activities and identify errors throughout the project life phases, the project manager and all participating teams must spend more time in risks management planning and identification during the planning phase. Furthermore, top management must continuously support the project’s implementation, ensure appropriate site procedures, and provide training for managers and other important project players. However, it should be noted that risk management is a technique that helps to raise the likelihood of success rather than a tool that guarantees success. Risk management is, therefore, a proactive strategy rather than a reactive one.

This study provided contributions to the practical knowledge about risks identification and unsafe site practices on construction sites. It also provided valuable insight into the socio-cultural and socio-technical considerations of risk management, and their effect on construction risks. However, the major limitation of this study is that the entirety of the study was based on literature review. Alongside the review, future studies could elaborate more on the subject and develop a better risk management approach based on risks identification and unsafe site practices on construction site by employing a more comprehensive methods of data collection and analysis.

Conflict of interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.