Open access peer-reviewed chapter
Technological trends of active film packaging containing EO.
Abstract
Millions tons of food waste are annually generated, causing serious environmental problems. Indeed, the degradation of food quality occurs naturally due to its vulnerability to biochemical reactions such as protein degradation, lipid oxidation, and microbiogical attacks. This huge waste mass can be minimized throughout the food supply chain by many methods including increasing the shelf life of products. Therefore, active food packaging, which not only contains and protects food but also interacts with packaged products, is used. Nevertheless, the migration process, which is defined by the transfer of chemical compounds from the food packaging to the food, may cause changes in the food product quality and safety. Active packaging can contain several additives, allowing them to have antibacterial, antioxidant activities, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethylene scavengers, carbon dioxide emitters, odor emitters and absorbers, relative humidity regulators antibacterial antioxidants. Essential oils (EOs) are popular for their natural antimicrobial and antioxidant properties that are increasing consumer demand due to the perception of their ‘safer’ natural origin. The purpose of this chapter is to study the incorporation of EOs in the active packaging formulation.
Keywords
- food waste
- active packaging
- essential oils
- incorporation
- antibacterial activity
- antioxidant activity
1. Introduction
According to FAO (2019), approximately 14% of the world’s food production is lost, resulting in a contribution of 8–10% to global greenhouse gas emissions [1]. Thus, food waste is a significant economic, environmental, and social issue. Consequently, ensuring sustainable consumption and production patterns by reducing food losses along production and supply chains is one of the United Nations’ 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development targets [2]. Food lost waste (FLW) can be defined as the mass of food wasted during food chains. FLW can occur during production, postharvest, and processing stages.
One of the solutions to reduce FLW is the extension of food shelf life by innovative packaging technologies. Food packaging has a critical role in the food supply chain. Its basic function is containing food, facilitating its transport, and preventing any physical damage. Moreover, food packaging should preserve food safety and quality from the production stage until consumption [3]. Hence, the packaging acts as a barrier to protect the food from many environmental factors including oxygen, light, moisture, dust, pests, volatiles, and both microbiological and chemical contamination. Furthermore, packaging contributes to establishing convenient storage conditions for the consumer, which reduces food degradation [4].
Food packaging’s role is continuously being ameliorated in response to consumer needs. Who are always willing for healthier, safer, and higher quality foods with long shelf life. In this optic active packaging (AP) was developed as a novel method of food preservatives [5]. Taking into account that AP is defined by the European regulation (EC) No 450/2009, as systems designed to
The presence of oxygen in packaging can lead to product oxidation and the development of several aerobic microorganisms, resulting in the loss of some nutritional elements and the modification of color and taste. That is why using oxygen scavenging (OS) agents is a useful solution. Oxygen-scavenging gents can essentially include metallic, organic, polymer-based, or enzyme-based [8].
Metallic OS such as iron powder, activated iron, ferrous oxide, Co (II), iron salt, and Zn are oxidized in the presence of moisture. Iron-based OS are the most used agents for the conservation of packaged food, due to their low price and efficiency. However, using iron-based scavenging films have some drawbacks such as metal contamination of food and the reduction of its efficiency in high temperature [8]. Hence, researchers are substituting iron-based OS by organic agents (OA) such as tocopherol, ascorbic acid, ascorbic acid salts, isoascorbic acid, catechol, hydroquinone, sorbose, lignin, polyunsaturated fatty acids gallic acid, characterized by their low-molecular-weight oligomers. These agents have the possibility to be added to oxygen-scavenging polymers or polymer films. Indeed, side chains react with oxygen, or the backbone is broken apart when the polymer reacts with oxygen. Despite the advantages of organic-based scavenging films, it presents several drawbacks such as its relatively high cost and lower scavenging activity [9]. Polymer-based oxygen scavengers presents a new side of OS agents such as polymer-metal complexes, polyolefin, and oxidation-reduction resins. The main drawback of polymer-based oxygen scavengers is the possibility of by-product generation, such as organic acids, ketones, or aldehydes, during the reaction between oxygen and polyunsaturated molecules such as fatty acids affecting the color and the flavor of food products [10]. Another approach is, also used for oxygen scavenging in food packaging is the use of enzyme such as the mixture glucose oxidase and catalase. United enzyme oxygen scavenging systems are sensitive to variations in water activity, pH, salt content, and temperature.
Recently, natural products gained in popularity over synthetic products because of their ‘safe status’ and their lower perceived risk. Several studies have shown that natural product sources including flavonoids, polyphenols, tocopherols, and essential oils (EOs), extracted from plants may be valuable in food industry. These molecules are reported to be potential candidates for being included in AP [11, 12]. EOs are characterized by their complex and rich composition, conferring them a potential antioxidant and antimicrobial activity [12, 13]. The present study will focus on the possibilities of using EOs as effective alternatives or complements to synthetic chemical compounds in the AP system.
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2. Essential oils
Essential oils are defined by ISO as ‘
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3. Essential oil incorporation technology in active packaging
The EOs, which are known for their biological properties, are increasingly being employed as natural preservatives in food packaging. This approach tends to limit the usage of synthetic additives, increasing consumer acceptance of safe products [19]. Indeed, the EOs compounds can be progressively released at a suitable rate from the active packaging into the atmosphere surrounding the food product, exerting their positive antibacterial and antioxidant effects and, therefore, increasing the shelf life of the food product [20].
However, the EOs are challenging to efficiently include in active food packaging due to their volatilization, insolubilization in water, and chemical instability. As a result, these active agents must be integrated into matrices to sustain their biological characteristics during packaging manufacturing and then during various stages of food transportation and storage [18, 21]. Furthermore, to enhance the EOs biological effects in active packaging, optimal retention, and sustained, controlled release are required. This latter feature is particularly essential in extending the shelf life of the foods by prolonging the release period of EO compounds for keeping a continuous biological activity [22].
Several approaches have been taken to develop controlled-release active packaging. All of them are based on the use of biodegradable polymers or copolymers with filmogenic properties, such as polysaccharides (cellulose, starch, and chitin), proteins (gelatin, zein, gluten, and casein), and lipids [23]. To these promising vehicle polymers, plasticizers, crosslinking, and reinforcing agents can be added to enhance the mechanical properties of film packaging [24].
The EOs can be included in polymer matrices by simply blending film ingredients and casting methods to film formation or by employing several encapsulation technologies for EOs incorporation in active packaging film matrices. The casting method is widely used in the production of film packaging [25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30]. It simply entails spreading over a flat surface a prepared film-forming solution containing an active ingredient such as EOs and a filomgenic polymer, both dissolved in a solvent. The solvent is then removed by drying. A plasticizer that changes three-dimensional organization, lowers attractive intermolecular interactions, and increases free volume and chain mobility is typically added to the basic film recipe. Glycerol is the most common plasticizer used for its stability and compatibility with hydrophilic biopolymers. As a result, the film has greater extensibility and flexibility, both of which are important in film design [31]. However, the direct incorporation of EO in active films via the blending and casting methods has several limitations. It has been stated that microencapsulated oregano EO in soy protein concentrate films provides emulsion-based products with better mechanical properties as well as antibacterial action against food pathogens compared to films containing free EO [32]. Therefore, EOs encapsulation, applied to active films, constitutes an interesting alternative for preserving the active agents. It consists of forming a physical barrier between the active agent and the surrounding environment, providing the created capsules physical and chemical stability as well as enhanced biological (antibacterial and antioxidant) and functional qualities (better handling) [33].
Encapsulation is the process of entrapping active agents (core materials as EOs) by another substance that serves as the wall material, resulting in nanometer, micrometer, or millimiter capsules [18, 34]. Furthermore, encapsulating EOs before forming active films is more efficient because it increases EO stability and bioavailability and enables controlled release to the external medium around the encapsulated particles by the diffusion process. This is the primary role of active film packaging in preserving food products [35]. Zhang and his collaborators [22] emphasized the necessity of gradual release of EO components and a prolonged sustained release time of EO to ensure the efficiency of antibacterial activity throughout the shelf life of food goods.
Microcapsules or nanocapsules can be generated depending on the encapsulation technology specificity. Several investigations on active agent nanoencapsulation have recently been published [33, 36, 37]. Kapustova and his collaborators [38] stated that the nano-range (10−9) of nanocapsules, which are a thousand times smaller than microcapsules, increases the surface-to-volume area for better efficiency in the delivery of EOs to targeted locations with greater stability and dispersibility.
Encapsulating technologies were classified into two categories: those that use chemical processes such as complex coacervation, liposomes, solid nanoparticles, and ionic gelation and those that rely on physical processes such as spray drying, extrusion, and solvent removal [39]. In general, more than one of the above technologies is often used to produce the desired microcapsules [40].
Furthermore, emulsifying the EOs compounds is usually required prior to encapsulation; it is considered as a preencapsulation step [41]. To stabilize the emulsion, high shear [42], or high pressure [43] or ultrasonication [44] must be used to homogenize the wall-core material. Nevertheless, droplets (oil in water) have such a loose structure they cannot effectively protect active substances; therefore, they must be immobilized in a solid matrix [45].
3.1 Encapsulation methods based on physical processes
Spray drying is commonly used to encapsulate EOs compounds [43, 46, 47]. It is primarily based on a three-step process: (1) wall-core material dispersion preparation, (2) wall-core material dispersion homogenization, and (3) dispersion atomization and drying [18]. The wall material must be carefully selected to improve EO component retention while also preventing oxidative alterations and volatilization [18]. Whey protein is commonly used as a wall material to facilitate emulsion formation and interfacial stabilization. Other additives, such as maltodextrins, can be employed to aid the encapsulation process, resulting in a bigger crust surrounding the drops and adequate oxidation protection [48].
Talon and his collaborators [43] examined whey protein and lecithin as wall materials for spray drying encapsulation of eugenol (7%). Both have been found to be effective against antioxidant and antibacterial properties when tested on
Extrusion is often used to encapsulate active agents [34]. It works by forcing a substance through an orifice of varying width and shape according on the desired capsules [49]. Five extrusion technologies are used based on extruder specificity and other parameters: (1) hot-melt extrusion, (2) melt injection, (3) centrifugal/co-extrusion, (4) electrostatic/electrospinning, and (5) particle from gas-saturated solution. In hot-melt extrusion, the wall material is first introduced to the extruder, after plasticized, the active agent is applied to promote the interaction of the wall and core materials. In melt-injection, the active agent is directly dispersed in the heated wall material (80–140°C), then pressed through orifices into a bath of cold solvent to allow capsule solidification. Both extrusion processes required polymers with high flow characteristics and active agents that could endure high temperatures.
In co-extrusion technology, the wall and core materials are introduced separately through several nozzles located on the extruder’s exterior surface. The wall material and active agent come into contact at the interface due to centrifugal forces, resulting in a polymerization reaction and the formation of microcapsules [34]. Because it requires less energy for encapsulation, this co-extrusion method is particularly suited for EOs compounds and probiotic bacteria as active agents.
Electrostatic extrusion, known as electrospinning, is a one-step process for producing micro and nanocapsules [50]. The introduction of an electric field between a charged needle (containing the microcapsules) and the collecting solution causes the microcapsules to be unable to stand at the mouth of the needle, resulting in the formation of a charge stream of small drop [34]. Since, electrospinning operates at ambient temperature and atmospheric strain, it is particularly suited to the encapsulation of EOs compounds [51].
3.2 Encapsulation methods based on chemical processes
Complex coacervation is largely employed for active agent encapsulation such as EOs [44, 52, 53]. It is mostly achieved by electrostatic forces of attraction between at least two polymers with opposite charges in aqueous fluids, with small contributions from hydrogen bonding, van der Waals forces, and hydrophobic interactions. As a result, the colloidal system separates into two liquid phases: one polymer-enriched precipitate phase and one polymer-depleted precipitate phase [54].
Polymers involved in coacervation are proteins and polysaccharides as wall material for the encapsulation of the active agent. This one is incorporated through emulsification in wall material to provide stability and protection. Finally, the capsules are separated using a physicochemical environment destabilization (pH and temperature) [18].
Ban and his collaborators [44] used coacervation to encapsulate ginger EOs in a mixture of chitosan (CH) and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC). The microcapsules with the same CH/CMC ratio have a crosslinking structure that may bind EOs, resulting in a high encapsulation efficiency (88.5%) and retention rate of volatile EO release to extend jujube shelf life.
Cyclodextrins (CDs) have been regarded as one of the preferred encapsulating polymers in the pharmaceutical industry and, recently, in the food industry [55]. CDs are a distinct family of molecules that are produced naturally through the degradation of starchy compounds. They are classified into three types: α-, β-, and γ-cyclodextrins and made up of D-glucose units linked together by glycocidic bonds between α-(1,4) carbon atoms. The toroidal structure of these compounds provides a hydrophobic interior cylindrical cavity and hydrophilic sides. As a result, the central cavity can form a stable combination with a guest molecule [37, 56]. EOs are well suited to being encapsulated in cyclodextrins, and so remaining protected while being released from the inclusion complex at a controlled rate, which is ideal for active packaging applications.
Silva and his collaborators [55] recently developed CD polymers such as CD nanosponges (CD-NS). These nanosponges are innovative crosslinked cyclodextrin polymers nanostructured within a three-dimensional network. They provide better stability and formulation flexibility with sustained release.
The technology of ionic gelation encapsulation has received a lot of attention in recent years because of its high adaptability to many types of active agents and low-cost approach [32]. This technology is particularly useful for encapsulating EO compounds to protect them from environmental deterioration [57, 58]. It is based on the ionic crosslinking of a polymer solution containing the active substance to encapsulate in the presence of multivalent cations [59]. As a result, complexation between oppositely charged species occurs under continual agitation [39]. Alginate and chitosan are the two most common coating materials. Both are nontoxic, highly biocompatible polymers with good mechanical resistance, making them appropriate for active food packaging applications [23].
Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) are gaining popularity as attractive carriers for bioactive agents, particularly those with a lipophilic character such as EOs. SLNs are nanometer-sized colloidal particles formed from oil-in-water emulsions containing lipids that are solidified at room temperature and stabilized by the addition of a surfactant. The advantages of SLNs over other encapsulation methods include their biodegradability, gradual degradation, sustained release of active agent, and greater encapsulation effectiveness for lipophilic substances [60]. Table 1 reports technological trends of active films packaging containing EO in the last 6 years (ScienceDirect—Elsevier).
| EO incorporation technology in AP | Essential oil | Active packaging matrices | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Blending Casting method | Torch ginger ( | Torch ginger EO (0.1–0.8%) was incorporated into starch solution at 3% (w/v) and 0.3% of glycerol (w/v) as plasticizer The active film was tested on chicken meat | [29] |
Encapsulation
| Apricot ( | Apricot kernet EO was incorporated to chitosane with acetic acid as a solvent and Tween 80 The film was tested for bread slices | [26] |
| Lemongrass ( | Lemongrass EO was incorporated into two different formulations of biopolymer emulsions chitosan-gelatin and pectin-gelatin. Glycerol and Tween 80 were added as a plasticizer and an emulsifier, respectively, to the biopolymer solution The film was tested on storage of raspberries | [61] | |
Encapsulation
| Lemon | Emulsion was produced with Chitosan, Tween, and lemon. Then, tripolyphosphate solution was added to form nanocapsules The freeze-dried nanocapsules were added to Grass carp collagen to prepare edible films The film was tested on storage of chilled pork | [24] |
| Encapsulation: Spray drying | Mixture of three EOs:Cinnamon ( | A mixture of three EOs cinnamon, peppermint, and lemon ( | [47] |
Encapsulation:
|
| Low-density polyethylene (LDPE) pellets and active agents were mixed and melted together, then cooled and cut into granules. The extruded granules were fed to a blown film extrusion machine The film was tested on fresh meat | [62] |
Encapsulation
| Ginger | Ginger EO was incorporated in polysaccharides, a mixture of chitosan and sodium carboxylmethyl cellulose The microcapsules were tested on postharvest jujube fruit | [44] |
Encapsulation
| Cinnamon | Cinnamon EO (0.5–3 g) was encapsulated in polyvinyl alcohol and β-cyclodextrin polymers, producing nanofibrous films The nanofibrous film was tested on the preservation of fresh strawberries at 4°C for 18 days | [50] |
Encapsulation:
| [63] |
Table 1.
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4. Incorporation of EOs in active packaging system as antimicrobial agent
Several microorganisms are a threat for food sustainability and human health. They are implicated in quantitative and qualitative food loss [64]. Indeed, in 2011, it was estimated by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) that 1.3 billion tons of food are annually discarded owing to their contamination by microbial spoilage, contributing to food insecurity and financial losses. Despite the evolution of production and packaging techniques, food contamination by pathogenic microorganisms has remained a persistent global challenge. Currently, there is a growing interest in integrating EOs as antimicrobial agents in food and food packaging [18]. Many previous studies have found that several EOs are efficient against diverse microbes including yeast, bacteria, fungi, and viruses [16, 18, 65].
Some EOs compounds such as aldehydes, phenols and oxygen-containing terpenes especially compound-containing phenol groups are characterized by their potential antibacterial activity [66, 67]. Indeed, phenolic compounds are implicated in the destruction of the bacterial cell membrane and permeability. The hydroxyl groups carried by the phenolic compound are implicated in the inhibition of microorganism enzyme activity. Eugenol and carvacrol are also reported to be potential antimicrobial agents [20].
Previous works showed that antibacterial activity of EOs depends on many factors including the bacterial cell wall composition [68] and cellular shape [65]. Indeed, it was shown that Gram-negative bacteria are more resistant than Gram-positive bacteria to EOs [68]; moreover, rod-shaped bacteria are more susceptible to EOs than cocci [69]. The antibacterial activity of EOs is associated with their lipophilic nature, enabling their accumulation in membranes, and making the membrane their main target [68].
To avoid food deterioration by microbial contamination, antimicrobial agent can be mixed into the initial food formulations, which may affect the taste of the food [70]. Antimicrobial agents, including EOs can be also applied directly by brushing, dipping or spraying on the food surface. Nevertheless, active agent of antimicrobial substances may be evaporated, inactivated or can migrate into the bulk of the foods [71]. Thus, the incorporation of t EO on the packaging film, where they are gradually released to the food surface reducing the contamination and the development of microbial agent, provide better efficiency for foodstuffs preservation. Table 2 illustrates many recent works published in the last ten years using EOs as antimicrobial agents in active packaging.
| Essential oil | Microorganisms | References |
|---|---|---|
| Cinnamon and clove EOs | [72] | |
| Clove buds | [73] | |
| Oregano and garlic EOs | [74] | |
| [75] | ||
| Cinnamon, melaleuca and citronella EOs | [76] | |
| Cinnamon EO | [77] | |
| Thyme EO | [47] | |
| Torch ginger ( | [29] | |
| [78] | ||
| Anise ( | [79] | |
| Mixture of three EOs: Cinnamon ( | [21] |
Table 2.
Incorporation of EOs in active packaging system as antimicrobial agent.
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5. Incorporation of EOs in active packaging system as antioxidant agent
Food oxidative damage is initiated by the interactions of reactive oxygen species (ROS) including superoxide radicals (O22−), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and hydroxyl radicals (OH−) with oxidizable compounds. Food oxidative damages usually are implicated in shortening food shelf life, loss of color, odor, and flavor and lowering nutritional value [80].
Amorati and his collaborators [81] have defined an antioxidant compound by its ability to slow or retarding the oxidation of another material allowing protection from oxidative stress. Antioxidants can be classified into two main groups (preventive antioxidants and chain-breaking antioxidants) depending on their mechanism of action. Preventive antioxidants inhibit the initiation of radical species formation processes such as enzymes (catalase and superoxide dismutase) and metal chelators (phytic acid) [81]. Chain-breaking antioxidants inhibit or block autoxidation by reacting speeder than oxidizable substrate, forming neutral chemical species that cannot propagate the oxidation chain [81].
Thermoplastic films are used in packaging to exclude oxygen, avoiding the interaction between ROS and foods [82]. Nevertheless, using Thermoplastic films generates nondegradable packaging waste, and many new laws were proposed to reduce or ban single-use plastics [83].
Many previous studies have reported that EOs have a potential antioxidant activity contributing in the attenuation of free-radical oxidative reactions [13, 84]. EOs can prevent lipid oxidation in food through the inhibition of the food oxidative initiation, terminating peroxides, blocking the formation of singlet oxygen [85, 86].
Even though the large chemical diversity of EOs composition, the main components of common EOs can be classified into two structural families: terpenoids (monoterpene, sesquiterpene, diterpene) and phenylpropanoid [81]. Both terpenoid and phenylpropanoid contain phenolic compounds, which are antioxidants owing to their high reactivity with peroxyl radicals [87]. Moreover, phenolic compounds, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, and certain alcohols can enhance the antioxidant properties of the EOs [88]. Eugenol and carvacrol are also reported to be potential antioxidant agents [20].
EOs are mixtures of many compounds including different types of antioxidants or oxidizable components such as terpenoids and phenylpropanoid often coexist. Many previous works tried to study if the overall antioxidant activity of a natural EO can be attributed to the most effective antioxidant component. This hypothesis is true in some cases. However, many exceptions were found, reporting that EOs antioxidant activity is the result of the complex interaction among the oxidizable material to be protected and components. Generally, synergistic or antagonistic behavior is expected, depending on the composition of EOs and experimental conditions [89]. To prolong shelf life and prevent autoxidation of edible product, EOs characterized by their potential antioxidant activity can be used as a food ingredient, either as a part of active packaging. According to (EC) No 1333/2008 [90, 91]. EOs are considered as food additives when they represent a “substance not normally consumed as a food in itself and not normally used as a characteristic ingredient of food, whether or not it has nutritive value, the intentional addition of which to food for a technological purpose in the manufacture, processing, preparation, treatment, packaging, transport or storage of such food results, or may be reasonably expected to result, in it or its by-products becoming directly or indirectly a component of such foods”. Moreover, EOs can also be considered as flavoring substances, according to (EC) No 1334/2008 [92] when they are ‘products not intended to be consumed as such, which are added to food in order to impart or modify odor and/or taste; or products made or consisting of the following categories: flavoring substances, flavoring preparations, thermal process flavorings, smoke flavorings, flavor precursors or other flavorings or mixtures there of’. Many recent researches reported the efficiency of EOs used in active packaging as an antioxidant are reported in Table 3.
| Essential oil | Antioxidant effect of EO | References |
|---|---|---|
| Shelf life extension of Pink shrimp ( | [92] | |
| Peppermint EO | Up to the 45th day of storage at 40°C, Peppermint EO decreased considerably the formation of hydroperoxides in soybean oil at 40°C | [93] |
| Thyme EO | Amelioration of antioxidant activity and extension of the shelf life of chilled meat | [75] |
| Thyme EO | Increased antioxidant activity of strawberry fruits during the first 6 days of storage | [63] |
| Lemongrass EO | Active packaging film developed by the combination of lemongrass EO and chitosan protected the chicken patties packed from lipid peroxidation | [94] |
| Rosemary EO | Chitosan/sodium caseinate blend with 1% and 2% of rosemary EO reduced by 50% the malondialdehyde concentration of chicken meat | [42] |
| Ginger and grape seed EOs |
| [62] |
| Ginger EO | The antioxidant activities of the films significantly increased with the addition of ginger EO | [29] |
| Pepper-rosmarin | The addition of Pepper-rosmarin EO and poly (butylene adipate co-terephthalate) to active packaging film inhibited the oxidation of olive oil | [95] |
| Cinnamon EO | Increased antioxidant activity of silicon dioxide nanoparticles used in the active packaging | [96] |
Table 3.
Incorporation of EOs in active packaging system as antioxidant agent.
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6. Conclusion
Food packaging protects food from environmental effect, contributing to the establishment of convenient storage conditions and reducing food degradation. In response to consumer demand for healthier and higher quality foods with long shelf life, food packaging is continuously being ameliorated. For this purpose, AP was developed. AP can be essentially classified into two categories: active releasing systems (emitters) and active scavenging systems (absorbers). In this study, we were interested in active releasing systems—specially EOs. Many approaches were used to develop controlled-release active packaging. Most of them are based on the use of biodegradable polymers or copolymers with filmogenic properties. EOs, can be incorporated into polymer matrices by blending, method, micro-nano encapsulation, or adsorption technologies. Several recent studies evaluated the effect of EO incorporation in AP as antibacterial or antioxidant agent, and it was found that most of the tested EO are implicated in extending food shelf life.
According to the most recent literature EOs incorporation in AP could be considered as an optimal alternative option in the food packaging industry to obtain healthier food with longer shelf life. However, additional studies for biological and organoleptic proprieties are required.
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