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Cosmetics, a captivating category of over-the-counter products that enhance appearance and promote skin health, have become ubiquitous in modern society. Initially associated with altering one’s appearance, cosmetics have evolved beyond their traditional beauty role to encompass skincare and the treatment of various skin conditions. While numerous chemicals can be utilised in cosmetic formulations, key ingredients include water, emollients, humectants, surfactants, preservatives, antioxidants and ultraviolet (UV) filters. With the rise in consumer preferences for clean beauty, silicone- and paraben-free cosmetics and cruelty-free testing, safe and effective herbal and plant-based products have gained significance. Researchers are actively exploring the development of natural cosmetics, leveraging the synergistic properties of these substances. Nanoformulations such as liposomes, nanoparticles and emulsions have been investigated and proven safer and more efficient than conventional cosmetics. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the utilisation of these ingredients in cosmetics, their specific effects on product development and properties, emerging alternatives in the personal care market, the widespread adoption of nanotechnology in various scientific fields, and its impact on the advancement of personal care products.
Institute of Pharmacy, Shri Ramswaroop Memorial University, Barabanki, India
Usama Ahmad*
Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India
Juber Akhtar
Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India
Anas Islam
Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India
Mohd Muazzam Khan
Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India
Naureen Rizvi
Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow, India
*Address all correspondence to: usamaahmad.10@outlook.com
1. Introduction
Cosmetics today have become an essential, unavoidable necessity to an increasing number of individuals; they are now a part of the daily routine of every next individual, and huge amounts are being consumed every year [1]. Considering and examining the history of cosmetics, it is believed that cosmetics began in the Stone Age, mainly by Egyptians [2]. When considering the utilisation of cosmetics in the contemporary era, the primary and evident purpose is to safeguard the body against various natural elements, such as sunlight, rain, insects and more. One of the primary reasons for the widespread use of cosmetics in modern society is to ensure personal hygiene. Cosmetics serve the purpose of enhancing and promoting attractiveness through makeup, as well as providing skin and hair care. This is particularly important in protecting against various pollutants, sunlight and other environmental factors. These factors have the potential to cause damage or deterioration to the skin and hair [3].
Hence, cosmetology is intended to be applied to the human body or any parts for beautifying, cleansing, making it look attractive, promoting, or modifying its appearance [4]. Numerous self-care products are available in the market for different purposes, including lotion, creams, moisturisers, shampoos, soap, oils, etc. This chapter will cover the basics of cosmetics, how components impact the formulation of a cosmetic, the many ingredients that make up a cosmetic formulation, and the selection criteria used to make these choices. This chapter will provide comprehensive information about cosmetics, their ingredients and the part they play in creating an ideal cosmetic.
There are numerous approaches for discussing the substances used in cosmetics, but it makes the most sense to concentrate on their main function in the formulation. Any ingredient that is used to build a cosmetic product should be safe, non-irritant, non-toxic and effective [5]. Cosmetic products incorporate various types of polymers in their formulations in accordance with the tasks for which they are designed since polymers are essential to the creation of cosmetics [6, 7].
Numerous cosmetic chemicals have a skincare effect. These compounds have a variety of chemical attributes that function through their own unique principles to care for our skin, making it more moisturised, firm, smooth and radiant, among other things. Nowadays, there’s a noticeable trend of individuals transitioning to cosmetics incorporating plant-based ingredients. Moreover, people are increasingly seeking cruelty-free formulations devoid of harmful chemicals, silicones and parabens. The more greener and clean the cosmetic product is, the more it is accepted by the consumers like in place of surfactant. Biosurfactants can be used in the pharmaceutical business as a green substitute. They can make medications more soluble, especially ones that are not water-soluble [8]. A class of surface-active chemicals known as “biosurfactants” is generated from microorganisms like bacteria, fungi and yeast [9]. They have attracted a lot of interest since they are superior to synthetic surfactants in that they are made from renewable resources, have low or non-toxic side effects, are biodegradable, have good surface activity, are highly specific, and work well in circumstances of extreme heat and pH [10].
2.1 Types of ingredients in cosmetics
For formulating a cosmetic formulation, several ingredients are broadly divided into two categories: functional ingredients and performance ingredients.
2.1.1 Functional ingredients
These are the ingredients that are necessary for the product to function as intended, such as emulsifiers, thickeners and preservatives. One of the major responsibilities of the emulsifier is to assist in creating the interface between the continuous oil phase and water droplets. In a 2013 study, three water-in-oil body lotions were created using different emulsifier mixtures. Rheological investigations predict several sensory characteristics, including thickness and bottle-pouring behaviour [11]. A study in 2016 evaluated, after 4 weeks of use on mature human skin, the effects of cosmetic formulations, eye creams and facial creams containing palmitoyl peptides, Silybum marianum seed oil, vitamin E and other functional ingredients on improvements in facial wrinkles, elasticity, dermal density and skin tone. The outcomes demonstrated that the facial and eye cream’s constituents, including palmitoyl peptides, S. marianum seed oil, vitamin E and others, impact the reduction of face wrinkles, elasticity, dermal density and skin tone [12].
2.1.2 Performance ingredients
These ingredients provide specific benefits to the skin or hair, such as moisturising, anti-ageing or UV protection. Performance ingredients such as moisturisers include humectants, occlusive and emollients. These agents are responsible for the main properties of any given cosmetics. Occlusive and humectant are combined in moisturisers to increase the skin’s ability to retain moisture. In a study conducted in 2020 titled “A Nature-Based Bakuchiol Anti-Ageing Moisturiser for Sensitive Skin, “a monoterpene from the seeds of Psoraleacorylifolia called bakuchiol functions like retinol in the regulation of gene expression. The outcome demonstrated that people with sensitive skin may tolerate and benefit from bakuchiol, a natural anti-ageing moisturiser [13]. Similarly, UV protection ingredients like titanium oxide and avobenzone are added to cosmetic formulations like sunscreen to shield the skin from damaging UV rays. An in vitro evaluation of sunscreen’s broad-spectrum UV protection was conducted in a study in 2000; the method eliminates the need to expose volunteers to acute exposures of high-dose, non-terrestrial UV, the risks of which to human health are still poorly understood. It also provides a routine yet sensitive method of differentiating and classifying sunscreen products [14].
2.1.3 Natural ingredients
These are ingredients derived from natural sources, such as plants, minerals or animals. They are often perceived as safer and more environmentally friendly than synthetic ingredients. However, they can also be less stable and have a higher risk of contamination or allergic reactions. There are equal studies proving these natural ingredients’ efficacy, safety and risk. A study was conducted in 2020 in which lignins from hazelnut and walnut shells were assessed as prospective bioactive components for cosmetic products. These lignins were investigated as potential natural active ingredients for healthcare products. The study yielded mixed results, with isolated lignins exhibiting UV-absorbing properties but the sun protection factor provided by lignin incorporation in pure cream falling short of the current standards established for the prevention of skin damage caused by sun exposure. The findings indicated the need for a strategy to improve the lignin polymer’s UV performance [15]. A study done in 2017 investigated the amount of waste produced by food industrial operations have significantly increased, creating sustainability issues. This is due to the potential uses of bioactive compounds from grape processing byproducts as active ingredients for skin care products. These environment-friendly raw ingredients could help the so-called “eco cosmetic.” The evaluation found that for a winery to be involved in the cosmetic sector, a reliable supply of materials must be provided, keeping in mind that the equipment and sustainable practices required for cosmetic incorporation should not be overlooked [16].
2.1.4 Synthetic ingredients
These are chemically synthesised ingredients in a laboratory. They are often more stable, consistent and cost-effective than natural ingredients. However, they can also be perceived as less safe and less environmentally friendly than natural ingredients. Trans Epidermal Water Loss (TEWL) was examined before, during, and after 15 and 30 days of application in a study in 2011 that evaluated the skin moisturising effectiveness of formulations containing various concentrations of panthenol. It was determined that the formulation’s improved protective effect of 1.0% panthenol added to the formulation maintains skin integrity. The main reasons synthetic compounds are used in formulations are their quick action, economical nature, and easy accessibility [17].
Countless cosmetic products are available, each with a unique combination of components. A typical product will contain anything from 15 to 50 ingredients as shown inFigure 1.
Figure 1.
Common ingredients used in cosmetics.
3.1 Water
Since water is a universal solvent, it can be combined with emulsifiers and “thicker” components like butter and oils to create emulsions that are used to make creams and lotions. A study in 2018 created a cosmetic formulation of acai berries using an oil-in-water emulsion using ultrapure water [18]. Similarly, a study in 2018 employed rice water as the primary ingredient to construct a semisolid dosage form with cosmetic qualities for topical application and found it beneficial against skin ageing. Recently, the search for new bioactive substances to prevent skin ageing has grown [19].
3.2 Emollients
Emollients are a class of ingredients used in cosmetics formulations to soften, moisturise and condition the skin or hair. They work by forming a protective barrier on the skin or hair, reducing moisture loss and preventing dryness and cracking. Emollients can be derived from natural or synthetic sources and come in various forms, such as oils, butter and waxes.
3.2.1 Classification of emollients
Emollients can be classified based on their source of origin, chemical structure and physical properties. Here are some common classifications of emollients:
3.2.1.1 Natural emollients
Emollients in nature come from either plant or animal sources. They are good for nourishing and moisturising the skin or hair because they are frequently packed with vitamins, antioxidants and fatty acids. Some examples of natural emollients include Shea butter, coconut oil, jojoba oil, etc. In a study published in 2017, authors prepared poly herbal creams using almond oil and olive oil for their moisturising properties [20]. In another study in 2020, they prepared herbal cosmetic cream of Urticadioica, Amaranthus viridis and Aloe vera using shea butter, coconut oil, germanium oil, jasmine oil, tea tree oil and honey as emollients, and they found the formulation was potent as an antibacterial agent, safe for application on the skin and cosmetically appealing to enhance patient/customer compliance [21]. Another research done in 2020 formulated lip balm using these natural emollients: almond oil, virgin coconut oil and honey and the lip balms produced based on the natural ingredients were found to be safe to use [22].
3.2.1.2 Synthetic emollients
Synthetic emollients are created in a laboratory and are often used in cosmetics formulations because they are cost-effective and have specific properties. Some examples of synthetic emollients include Dimethicone, Isopropyl myristate and Glyceryl stearate. In a study in 2014, they formulated oil-in-water emulsions with cosmetic properties using glyceryl stearate. The results showed Glyceryl stearate to be the dominant co-emulsifier affecting emulsion properties [23]. In a study in 2015, researchers formulated cosmetic multiple emulsion (W/0/W) using cetyldimethiconecopolyol; the result indicated that 2.4% cetyldimethiconecopolypol stabilises the emulsion [24]. A study in 2021 designed a squalane and dimethicone-based formula for treating head lice. The results indicated that the formula was safe for children with good skin compatibility and acceptability [25].
3.2.1.3 Hydrocarbon emollients
Hydrocarbon emollients are derived from petroleum and are commonly used in cosmetics formulations because of their low cost and excellent skin-softening properties. Some examples of hydrocarbon emollients include mineral oil and petrolatum. Both of these has been used in the development of various cosmetic formulation; in a study in 1996, white mineral oil was shown to be a highly effective material for adding moisturisation and other beneficial characteristics to the skin when used [26]. Similarly, in 2001, a research work investigated how well a petrolatum-based o/w emulsion penetrated the skin, and the results revealed that the level of penetration of the sunscreen ingredients by the epidermis depends on the type of vehicle the sunscreen agents are contained in [27].
Emollients can be classified based on their chemical structure into the following categories.
3.2.1.4 Fatty acids and derivatives
This category includes emollients such as stearic acid, palmitic acid and their derivatives, such as stearates and palmitates. These emollients are derived from natural sources such as animal and vegetable fats and oils. In some studies, like one in 2010, they formulated a mild cleanser using stearic acid, which showed excellent deep cleansing properties [28].
3.2.1.5 Fatty alcohols
Examples of this category include cetyl alcohol, stearyl alcohol and behenyl alcohol. These emollients are also derived from natural sources and are typically used to thicken and stabilise formulations. Cetyl alcohol was utilised in a study in 2008 to formulate sunscreen, and the findings of this study demonstrated that sunscreen in vitro skin penetration was significantly influenced by the type of emulsifying system employed to create O/W emulsions [29].
3.2.1.6 Esters
This category includes a wide range of emollients, including isopropyl myristate, isopropyl palmitate and octylpalmitate. Esters are synthetic compounds derived from the reaction between an acid and an alcohol. They are known for their light, non-greasy texture and their ability to penetrate the skin easily. In a study in 2006, they formulated a gel-cream containing retinyl palmitate and tocopheryl acetate and found that using these two increased the retention time and stability of the formulation [30].
3.2.1.7 Silicones
Examples of this category include dimethicone, cyclomethicone and phenyl trimethicone. These emollients are synthetic compounds that have a unique, non-greasy texture and offer a high degree of skin smoothing and softening. Silicones are widely used nowadays in every cosmetic formulation. Research is also being carried out to improve the use of silicones like a research work conducted in 2018 developed a hair care formulation containing silicones and vegetable oil, and the results showed that silicones helped in the treatment of hair fibres and made hair softer [31].
3.3 Humectants
These are ingredients that attract and retain moisture in the skin, such as glycerin, hyaluronic acid and urea. These ingredients attract water to the skin and help to keep it there. They work by drawing moisture from the environment and retaining it in the skin. Some common examples of humectants include hyaluronic acid, glycerine and urea. In a research work carried out in 2004, the investigation found that the newest hyaluronic acids were more long-lasting and more suitable for cosmetic treatments [32]. Similar to this, many other researches were carried out. According to a study in 2018, the preparation of nanoparticles quaternised cyclodextrin-grafted chitosan associated with hyaluronic acid for cosmetic use, the effectiveness of the chosen nanoparticles at moisturising was enhanced as a result of the formation of cross-linked networks in the nanoparticles [33]. For use in hair care cosmetics, investigators developed films based on a combination of collagen, chitosan and hyaluronic acids for use in hair care cosmetics. Combining chitosan, collagen, and hyaluronic acid forms a three-component mixture aimed at providing hair nourishment, potentially leading to increased hair thickness and improved mechanical properties [34]. Similarly, a study published in 2012 used glycerine to formulate an aloe vera gel cosmetic hydrogel; it was observed that glycerine improved the viscosity, and the gel was found to be commercially used for cleaning, softening and improving the texture of the skin [35].
3.4 Surfactants
Surfactants, also known as surface-active agents, are compounds that lower the surface tension between two immiscible substances, such as water and oil. They have a hydrophilic (water-loving) and a lipophilic (oil-loving) end, which allows them to interact with both polar and non-polar substances [36].
3.4.1 Types of surfactants
3.4.1.1 Anionic surfactants
Anionic surfactants are the most common type of surfactant and have a negatively charged head group. Anionic surfactants are widely used in cleansing products, such as shampoos, body washes and facial cleansers. They are effective at removing dirt, oil and other impurities from the skin and hair.
Examples of anionic surfactants in cosmetics include sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) and sodium laureth sulfate (SLES) in shampoos and body washes, sodium dodecylbenzene sulfonate (SDBS) in facial cleansers and sodium lauryl sarcosinate (SLS) in toothpaste and mouthwash. Numerous studies are still being conducted to examine the effects of these anionic surfactants. For example, a study published in 2021 examined the effects of sodium lauryl sulfate applied as a patch to human skin to examine its physiology and discovered that using mild surfactants with little impact on the physiology, skin integrity, and bacterial community microbiome could be useful for preserving skin integrity and microbial balance for a beneficial outcome [37]. Another study published in 2019 compared the effect of anionic surfactant sodium lauryl sulfate vs. Sodium Coco Sulfate with respect to their Interaction with the skin and the result showed both the surfactant affected the metabolism of human keratinocytes [38].
3.4.1.2 Cationic surfactants
Positively charged cationic surfactants are frequently found in hair care and fabric softener products. They are frequently found in shampoos, conditioners and hair styling treatments for use on the hair. They work well to condition hair and get rid of frizz.
Examples of cationic surfactants in cosmetics include cetrimonium chloride in hair conditioners and detanglers, cocamidopropylbetaine (CAPB) in shampoos and body washes and behentrimoniummethosulfate (BTMS) in hair conditioners and leave-in treatments. The cosmetic ingredient review (CIR) expert panel carried out a study on the Safety Assessment of cocamidopropylbetaine (CAPB) and found it to be safe in cosmetics as long as they are formulated to be non-sensitising [39]. The results of a study conducted in 2008 on the sensitisation rate of cocamidopropylbetaine by patch testing in patients at a university hospital in Beijing revealed that the substance caused aesthetic dermatitis [40]. In a study in 2008, improved sustainability and highly concentrated cocamidopropylbetaine for Enhanced Skin Care discovered that more quality advancements and even extra skin care results, such as improved skin moisturisation, could be made [41]. A study published in 1998 conducted safety research on cocamidopropylbetaine and discovered that although this mild surfactant can be utilised in cosmetic products, it is advised that cocamidopropylbetaine with low levels of contamination be used when creating personal care products [42].
3.4.1.3 Nonionic surfactants
Detergents, shampoos and lotions all use nonionic surfactants, which have no charge on their head group and are frequently found in a variety of goods. They are adaptable and work well in both alkaline and acidic settings. They are effective at solubilising oils and other hydrophobic ingredients.
Examples of nonionic surfactants in cosmetics include Polysorbate 20 and Polysorbate 80 in facial cleansers and makeup removers, Decyl glucoside in baby washes and shampoos and polyethylene glycol (PEG) in moisturisers and sunscreens. Studies regarding the safety of various nonionic surfactants were carried out like in a study in 2015, which found that the polyethylene glycol, their ethers, and their fatty acid esters produce little to no ocular or dermal irritation and have extremely low acute and chronic toxicities [43]. A study in 2019 did a patch test study of Decyl glucoside and found they came up with the result that includes alkyl glucoside in all cosmetic series [44].
3.4.1.4 Amphoteric surfactants
Amphoteric surfactants have both positive and negative charges on their head group and are frequently included in gentle personal care products including body washes, face cleansers and infant shampoos. They are less likely to irritate the skin or eyes than other types of surfactants.
Here are some examples of amphoteric surfactants commonly used in cosmetics: Cocamidopropylhydroxysultaine (CHSB) is found in baby shampoos and body washes, Disodium cocoamphodiacetate (DSCA) is used in facial cleansers and body washes, Betaine is present in hair care products and facial cleansers, and Amphosol CA is utilised in body washes and facial cleansers. In a study published in 2020, investigators developed a foaming shampoo base for the treatment of seborrheic dermatitis and found that disodium cocoamphodiacetate was a good foaming surfactant in the amphoteric category [45].
3.5 Preservatives
Preservatives are substances added to cosmetics to prevent the growth of harmful microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and viruses.
3.5.1 Importance of preservatives in cosmetics
Prevent microbial growth: Preservatives prevent the growth of harmful microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi and viruses, which can cause spoilage, discoloration and odour in cosmetic products.
Extend shelf life: Preservatives help extend the shelf life of cosmetic products, ensuring that they remain stable and safe for use over an extended period.
Maintain product quality: Preservatives help maintain the quality of cosmetic products, preventing changes in texture, colour and scent due to microbial growth or other factors.
Ensure regulatory compliance: Preservatives enable cosmetic manufacturers to produce high-quality, consistent products that meet regulatory requirements for microbiological safety and stability.
Prevent product recalls: The use of preservatives in cosmetic products reduces the risk of microbial contamination, which can lead to product recalls and damage to a company’s reputation [46].
3.5.2 Types of preservatives
3.5.2.1 Natural preservatives
Plant-based Preservatives: Plant-based preservatives are derived from natural sources such as plants, fruits and vegetables. These preservatives are effective against a broad spectrum of microorganisms and are generally considered safe and non-toxic. Plant-based preservatives, such as rosemary extract, tea tree oil, and grapefruit seed extract, are commonly used in formulations. A study highlighted the diverse applications of grape extract and suggested it as an efficient, profitable, and eco-friendly alternative to other preservatives, with a focus on plant-based derivatives [47]. When combined with lavender and tea tree oils at a concentration of 0.5% each, a study in 2009 discovered that the antibacterial activity of tea tree oil and lavender oil may be increased while maintaining the same efficacy by reducing the preservative concentration by 0.1% [48].
Essential Oils: Essential oils are volatile compounds extracted from plants that have a characteristic aroma and are used in cosmetics for their fragrance and antimicrobial properties. Examples of essential oils used as preservatives in cosmetics include Lavender oil, clove oil, etc. A study published in 2013 found that essential oil has been found to show activity against a wide range of gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria [49].
3.5.2.2 Synthetic preservatives
Synthetic preservatives are chemical compounds synthesised in a laboratory and used in cosmetics to prevent the growth of microorganisms. Synthetic preservatives are generally more stable and have broader antimicrobial activity than natural preservatives. However, concerns have been raised about the safety of some synthetic preservatives, and some have been banned or restricted in cosmetic products. Here are some examples of commonly used synthetic preservatives in cosmetics.
Parabens: The most often used preservatives in cosmetics are parabens, which are p-hydroxybenzoic acid esters. They are frequently found in personal care products including shampoos, lotions and creams because they work well against a variety of pathogens. Methylparaben, propylparaben and butylparaben are a few types of parabens that are utilised in cosmetics. In vitro skin permeation and retention of parabens from cosmetic formulations were studied in a study published in 2007. They discovered that only the type of paraben, specifically its water solubility, affects skin penetration. The results also demonstrated that parabens can penetrate and accumulate in the skin [50].
Formaldehyde-releasing agents: Formaldehyde-releasing agents are preservatives that release small amounts of formaldehyde over time, which is effective against a broad range of microorganisms. Formaldehyde-releasing agents are commonly used in personal care products such as shampoos, conditioners and body washes. Examples of formaldehyde-releasing agents used in cosmetics include diazolidinyl urea, imidazolidinyl urea and quaternium-15. Many studies are carried out to check the safety of these formaldehyde-releasing agents; the risk of cosmetic formulations with formaldehyde above 0.2% is not negligible, according to a study in 2013 that used 1H NMR spectroscopy to measure the formaldehyde concentration in hair straightening products. These products may facilitate significant exposure to formaldehyde for consumers, especially for salon workers [51]. According to a study conducted in 2015 on the investigation into formaldehyde preservative release in cosmetic formulation, all preservatives in cosmetic matrices released significantly less formaldehyde than they did in pure aqueous or organic matrices. The formaldehyde-releasing amounts were also cosmetic-specific [52].
While formaldehyde-releasing agents are effective preservatives, they are also known as skin sensitisers and can cause allergic reactions in some people. As a result, some regulatory agencies have restricted the use of formaldehyde-releasing agents in cosmetic products.
Quaternary ammonium compounds: Quaternary ammonium compounds are cationic surfactants that have antimicrobial properties and are effective against a wide range of microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi and viruses. They are commonly used in personal care products such as shampoos, conditioners and body washes. Examples of quaternary ammonium compounds used in cosmetics include benzalkonium chloride, cetrimonium chloride and cetylpyridinium chloride. A study in 2020 evaluated benzalkonium chloride antimicrobial activity in a hand sanitiser, and the result showed that benzalkonium chloride reduced Staphylococcus aureus contamination [53]. While quaternary ammonium compounds are effective preservatives, they can also be skin irritants and can cause contact dermatitis in some people. As a result, some regulatory agencies have restricted the use of certain quaternary ammonium compounds in cosmetic products.
Organic Acids: Organic acids are weak acids frequently used in cosmetics as preservatives. They work well against a variety of microbes, including fungi and bacteria. Benzoic acid, sorbic acid and salicylic acid are a few examples of organic acids found in cosmetics. Organic acids are used in numerous cosmetic and hair care products like a study in 1998 created a salicylic acid-based peel for the treatment of photoaging; most patients notice smoother skin, less hyperpigmentation, and a reduction in fine wrinkles after the peel [54]. In a similar manner, investigators developed a salicylic acid peel and discovered for a variety of dermatological and aesthetic issues, such as acne vulgaris, melasma, photodamage, freckles and lentigines, salicylic acid is a safe and effective peeling agent. Dark skin types can utilise it without any problems [55]. While organic acids are generally considered safe for use in cosmetics, some may be skin irritants and can cause allergic reactions in some people.
Other synthetic preservatives used in cosmetics include phenoxyethanol, triclosan and chlorhexidine. These preservatives are effective against a broad range of microorganisms and are commonly used in personal care products.
Phenoxyethanol is glycol ether that is commonly used as a preservative in cosmetics. It is effective against bacteria and fungi and has low toxicity. However, concerns have been raised about its potential to cause skin irritation and contact dermatitis in some people.
Triclosan is a chlorinated aromatic compound that is effective against a wide range of microorganisms. It is commonly used in personal care products such as soaps, toothpaste and deodorants. However, concerns have been raised about its potential link to the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and its potential to disrupt endocrine function.
Chlorhexidine is a cationic bisbiguanide that is effective against a broad range of microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi. It is commonly used in oral care products such as mouthwash, toothpaste and some skin care products. However, concerns have been raised about its potential to cause skin irritation and allergic reactions in some people. In a study published in 2018, authors developed a new formulation of either chlorhexidine-containing toothpaste or mouthwashes for periodontal disease in order to study its clinical impact and cosmetic acceptability. The results revealed that subjects with periodontal disease who received oral care with a new formulation of either chlorhexidine-containing toothpaste or mouthwashes for 21 days reported a significant improvement in their symptoms and resolution of the gingivitis with no associated tooth discoloration [56].
3.6 Antioxidants
Vitamin E, vitamin C, and green tea extract are some examples of substances that shield the skin from oxidative damage produced by free radicals. The capacity of vitamin A and its derivatives to normalise keratinisation has been the main advantage of these ingredients in cosmetic goods. Vitamin A alcohol (retinol), vitamin A esters (retinyl palmitate, retinyl acetate), vitamin A aldehyde (retinal), and tretinoin (retinoic acid) are some of the common vitamin A compounds that can be found in cosmetics. These are present in cosmetic compositions in a variety of concentrations [57]. The water-soluble vitamin C, ascorbate, which is found in citrus fruits and vegetables, is significant for its antioxidant properties as well as its role as a cofactor in the hydroxylation processes that result in the formation of collagen. The capacity of vitamin C to directly squelch UV-induced free radicals and replenish vitamin E, another effective antioxidant, is one factor driving interest in vitamin C as a cosmetic element [58, 59]. Investigators formulated cosmetic multiple emulsion containing vitamin C and wheat extract and found that both of the creams behaved similarly from the dermatological point of view except for skin hydration as both the creams increased the hydration in the skin, the skin was shinier, and no sebum production occurred [60]. Solid lipid nanoparticles were created in a study published in 1999 as a cosmetic carrier for the use of vitamin E in cutaneous applications. The findings indicated that solid lipid nanoparticles are appropriate for integration in cutaneous formulations due to their great physical stability [61].
3.7 UV filters
These are ingredients that protect the skin from the harmful effects of UV radiation, such as zinc oxide, titanium dioxide and avobenzone. A sunscreen cosmetic could be defined as “any cosmetic product containing UV filters in its formulation in order to protect the skin from the solar deleterious UV light, avoiding or minimizing the damage that this radiation might cause on human health.”
Since the finished product’s UV filter concentration is connected to its sun protection effectiveness, which is often represented by the labelled sun protection factor (SPF), analytical monitoring of sunscreen cosmetics is required. In order to assure safety, it is also vital to ensure that the concentration levels are lower than those authorised by law, as applying sunscreen has a number of recognised unfavourable dermatological side effects [62, 63]. A study on the safety and effectiveness of titanium and zinc oxide nanoparticles suggested that the replacement of microsized TiO2 and ZnO particles by nanoparticles offers the aesthetically desired sunscreen transparency but at the sacrifice of wide ultraviolet A rays protection. Common cosmetic ingredients and their use are summarized in Table 1 [64].
Millions of consumers use PCPs (personal care products) and the chemicals they contain daily. Personal care products provide local (skin and eye) exposure and are utilised in the oral cavity, on the face, lips, eyes and mucosa, even though human external contact with a drug seldom causes its penetration through the skin and considerable systemic exposure [65]. The safety of personal care products and their constituents has received more attention in recent years; as a result, the toxicological safety evaluation of these products is a relatively new field that developed in the second half of the 20th century [66]. In addition to the effectiveness of the active ingredient(s), the success of a cosmetic formulation also depends on customer acceptability, which is greatly influenced by the product’s sensory qualities. As a result, several research have concentrated on sensory assessments of cosmetics in order to formulate solutions that offer sufficient effectiveness and appealing aesthetic qualities, thereby satisfying customers’ demands [67]. In most countries, when a cosmetic ingredient is proven to be hazardous, the regulatory agency prohibits its use. The proof of a cosmetic hazardous effect requires robust scientific evidence from several studies performed in vitro, in animals as well in humans. Moreover, toxicity tests should be performed using the ingredient in the concentration used in cosmetics and in the condition of use (e.g., route of administration, acute or chronic exposure) [68].
All parties involved—consumers, regulatory bodies and producers—have the same goal: they want cosmetics/personal care products (PCP) and the components in them to be safe, meaning they should pose no or very little health risk to the user during regular usage. On the basis of in vitro skin penetration results, the size of possible human systemic exposure may be approximated; however, the test’s limitations should be considered [65].
Natural and safe products are more in demand from consumers, and as a result, there is a significant increase in the quantity of waste produced by industrial operations. Various tests, like the microbial limit guidelines, are carried out to specify the degree of microbiological contamination in non-sterile products like cosmetic formulations. By including an appropriate preservative in the goods that ensures the control of microbial growth even before they are sold, these values should be maintained in the products during their use despite the unavoidable contamination by users. Numerous industries produce different sorts of disposable byproducts with valuable chemicals. The prospective and existing uses of chemicals and extracts derived from agronomical disposable wastes in the beauty industry were the focus of a study published in 2015. There are numerous instances of active compounds in cosmetics that come from dairy, meat and fish. These goods offer a viable alternative to the ordinary plant-derived extracts that are more frequently used in cosmetic formulations because they are efficient, affordable and biodegradable. Byproduct extracts, or those derived from the processing of fruits and vegetables, are a viable “green” substitute for the conventional plant-derived extracts that are frequently used in cosmetics. The most processed tropical fruit, pineapple (Ananascomosus), produces a lot of byproducts [69]. According to research, the amount of l-ascorbic acid in the pineapple rind was higher than in the fruit as a whole, and it was demonstrated that UV-C radiation boosted the L-ascorbic acid concentration in the rind [70].
It is challenging to create cosmetics from entirely natural raw ingredients. The difficulty is in choosing components that may be justifiably described as “natural” and combining them to create cosmetics that operate similarly to those made of synthetic elements. In an effort to avoid health risks and lessen pollution, many people prefer “green cosmetics,” or ecologically friendly lotions, makeup and beauty items. Furthermore, the COVID-19 pandemic’s frequent mini-lockdowns have increased awareness of the connection between exterior and internal well-being and physical beauty. In turn, this has led to a reduction in makeup preferences and an increase in preferences for skincare products. The new market demands are being answered by nutricosmetics, which combines the advantages of cosmetic procedures with the advantages of dietary supplementation to enhance the beauty of our bodies [71].
According to a study by Macroalgae (seaweeds), which are divided into three families based on their predominant pigment: Rhodophyceae (red algae), Chlorophyceae (green algae), and Pheophyceae (brown algae), natural or nature-based ingredients are now frequently used to create new cosmetic products. Several macroalgal extracts and bioactive substances have shown promise in treating various skin diseases [72].
Nanocarrier technology has successfully overcome traditional methods’ limitations, enabling the development of advanced drug delivery systems [73]. Christian Dior originally introduced liposome-based cosmetics (Capture) in 1986; soon after that, functional cosmetics using nanocarrier technology were developed [74].
In cosmetics, nanoemulsion is frequently used topically, mostly for hydrating and moisturising skin. This method has gained popularity because of its simplicity in formulation, handling and manufacturing. In a study of the in vitro and in vivo safety evaluations of nanoemulsion as a skin moisturiser, a study published in 2022 found that the product had improved penetration and absorption [75].
The morphologies and chemical makeup of the nanoparticles vary. Nevertheless, they are utilised in physical UV filters and sunscreen preparations (such as TiO2-, ZnO-, CeO2- and ZrO2-nanoparticles) [76]. As thickeners, silica and clay nanoparticles are also included. In addition, silica and clay nanoparticles are added as thickeners [77]. In a study conducted in 2008, investigators created flexible liposomes for topical application in cosmetics. They discovered that due to their chemical nature, flexible liposomes are the only option for carrying active molecules into the deeper skin layers (biological syringe). They also act as pharmaceutical or cosmetic ingredients [78]. Non-phospholipidoligolamellar lipid vesicles with a diameter of 0.1 to 1.0 microns that are a variant of liposomes or modified niosomes are another innovative formulation of novasomes. They are created by mixing the monoester of polyoxyethylene fatty acids, cholesterol, and free fatty acids in a ratio of 74/22/4. By having the ability to adhere to skin or hair shafts, they provide even more excellence for use in cosmetic preparations. The effectiveness and texture of these cosmetics are improved, and sustained release is also made possible [79].
Consumers and experts are concerned about clean beauty, a trend in cosmetics that utilises less synthetic components and more plant-based and herbal compounds. The scientific community faces a significant dilemma as a result of PCPs’ ability to expose users to hazardous substances. Women use an average of eight items per day (some report using up to 30 products per day), giving their bodies a daily dose of a variety of substances that may interact harmoniously or antagonistically. Endocrine disruption, cancer, damage to the reproductive system, and delays in children’s neurodevelopment have all been associated with exposure to these substances [80]. In a recent development, investigators looked into the capacity of silk fibroin nanoparticles (SFNs) to transport, encapsulate and heat-protect the phenolic components of the ethanolic extract of guava leaves. The findings demonstrated that the guava extract nearly completely lost all of its antioxidant capacity after being exposed to a high temperature of 70°C for 24 hours, but the extract-loaded SFNs were able to retain the extract activity. The efficacy and safety of cosmetics have improved as a result of all these nanoformulations [81].
The dangers that hazardous substances to consumers are known to pose to manufacturers and merchants. This is true in part as a result of the rise in consumer advocacy and the clean beauty movement, which have brought attention to the need for PCPs made with safer, cleaner ingredients (excluding toxic chemicals that have a negative impact on human health) and transparent labelling (excluding the umbrella term “fragrance,” which can contain a variety of harmful, unregulated chemicals and misleading labels with words such as “natural,” “organic,” and “eco”). Some businesses, like Sephora and others, have started promoting and highlighting specific branded items as being clean, ecologically sustainable, or planet-positive in an effort to assist shoppers [82].
The market for cosmetic or personal care goods has recently grown significantly. Environmentally friendly and herbal products are being used increasingly frequently. Bacterial biosurfactants (BS), a biocompatible, low-toxic alternative surfactant, are becoming more and more common in the manufacturing of industrial products. Chemical surfactants should be replaced with less damaging chemicals for the health of your skin since they might cause allergic reactions and skin irritations. This chapter provides considerable insights about cosmetics and how the role of ingredients can change a cosmetic formulation entirely. It also addresses how a large population began using cosmetic products with synthetic ingredients for their quick effects, which had some benefits like being quicker to apply, easier to store and more attractive, as well as some drawbacks like sporadic deterioration, more unwanted side effects, skin allergies and cost-effectiveness. However, the majority of the population in recent eras has moved towards clean beauty alternatives, with the changing trends in cosmetics ingredients. Plant-based products are gaining much more importance than synthetic and conventional ingredients. Since India is the source of the updated systems of traditional medicine like Siddha, Ayurveda and Unani and is rich in flora, plants have been employed for simple cures since ancient times and have gained popularity. Several commercial skincare formulas are available for skin whitening, UV protection and anti-ageing. These readily available herbal preparations offer skin care advantages in addition to therapeutic ones. The administration of herbal cosmetically active components requires a new study direction since skin condition research has become highly fascinating and has achieved considerable advancements. In particular, nanoformulation is the field that, when investigated, will lead to much more breakthroughs in cosmetics and personal care goods. Cosmetic products will have a very bright future in the next years.
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Written By
Shivangi Sharma, Usama Ahmad, Juber Akhtar, Anas Islam, Mohd Muazzam Khan and Naureen Rizvi
Submitted: 23 May 2023Reviewed: 17 August 2023Published: 29 September 2023
Open access peer-reviewed chapter
