Utilizing Creative and Critical Thinking to Build Knowledge and Comprehension through Inquiry-Based and Art-Based Learning: A Practical Tool for Teaching Local History in Pre-Primary and Primary Education

Abstract

Studying local history can be approached in a modern way that encourages young students to utilize the methods and skills of a historian. This includes collecting, recording, comparing, and interpreting data from primary and secondary resources. Inquiry-based and art-based learning are effective frameworks for exploring local history. Students can gain a deeper understanding of the subject by focusing on inquiry, fieldwork, thorough recording, and constructing historical narratives based on critical interpretation of all information, including opposing and alternative views. Art-based learning allows students to analyze the forms and social aspects of artifacts, constructions, events, and phenomena and then express their knowledge and understanding in various multimodal and symbolic ways. It’s essential for children to take the initiative, and be involved in the learning process, and work in collaborative environments that support their free thinking and exploration. This approach is conducive to critical thinking and encourages creativity in learning history. This chapter outlines the conditions that define inquiry and art-based learning environments and offers a tool with practical suggestions for pre-primary and primary teachers to develop their local history lessons. The tool covers four major dimensions: learning interactions, understanding historical times, art-based learning, and practical strategies specific to local history.

1. Introduction

Local history is localized history. The study of local history is focused on a specific geographical area and the societies that existed there in the past, viewed through the lens of individuals who lived in these societies. This area could be a small community, a town, or even a wider geographical area [1]. Often, local citizens who are not professional historians take on the task of writing about their community’s history, driven by a desire to preserve and share what they believe is important. By delving into local history, one can gain a deeper understanding of the broader national narrative, as the two are closely intertwined [2].

Stefaniak et al. [3] argue that influencing memories through teaching local history could become a powerful strategy for enhancing place connection and, by extension, fostering more community participation. History classes do not have to be boring if teachers plan activities that encourage students to use primary sources to learn interesting, relevant, and applicable information about the past. The study of local history is one of the best ways to gain insight into the relevance of the past. Public historical materials and re-creating individual histories could be the subject of such research [4, 5]. Stories about real-life local heroes or landmarks in a children’s community capture their attention and captivate their minds. Also, a great technique to get children interested in history is to find interesting links to their own family and community’s past. The Bradley Commission on History in Schools [6] argues that teaching children about their local history might serve as a “robust bridge” to teaching them about larger historical periods.

The “new history” concept moved away from the traditional emphasis on chronology and historical facts. Instead, it highlighted the importance of history as a unique field of knowledge that required specific skills and conceptual understandings to fully comprehend. It has been argued that students can achieve a higher level of understanding of history if it is perceived as a unique form of knowledge and a means of reasoning through the use of second-order concepts such as change and continuity, causation, significance, accounts, and evidence [7, 8]. Research came to a consistent conclusion that children can possess remarkably advanced ideas at a young age. This presents an opportunity for educators to develop a structured curriculum that builds on their existing knowledge, allowing for a more comprehensive understanding of history. One of the key concepts presented in this work is that students should have a solid grasp of the foundational principles of their subject. This includes understanding how historical knowledge is created, evaluated, and debated. Therefore, history education’s main focus is to examine students’ ideas and beliefs about the past. To acquire or develop their knowledge, they must be able to comprehend and apply key concepts. As a result, history educators and scholars must be attentive to students’ conceptions and perceptions of history as both a subject and a discipline [9, 10].

Academics have suggested the need for “big picture” frameworks to help students understand their place in time [11]. They also propose a “conceptual framework of human history” that would allow students to connect different elements of the past and present in a meaningful way ([12], p. 93). Lee ([11], p. 68) emphasizes the importance of developing a comprehensive historical literacy that promotes an “active historical consciousness,” enabling students to navigate the constantly evolving past and present. Historical consciousness relies on historical competence that involves a multifaceted approach. It requires the ability to ask meaningful questions, analyze sources, and evaluate historical accounts. It also involves connecting the past to our own lives and society and developing a deep understanding of historical concepts. By honing these skills, we can better appreciate the richness and complexity of our shared history [9, 13].

2. The creative perspectives of learning local history

Historians become creative when they use their imagination to make sense of the past, which often involves striving to understand unfamiliar practices, frameworks, and worldviews. Good historians can put themselves back in time and visualize the world as it was. Historical imagination is crucial for learning about other cultures, times, and worlds. Thinking creatively and imaginatively is the key to the capacity to see situations under different parameters and frameworks [14]. This is the capacity we call historical empathy [10].

The following are also signs of creative thinking in history [14, 15] in addition to the capacity to place oneself in an alternative time and space framework:

• Inquiry approaches such as, tackling historical problems; collecting and analyzing data; evaluating and verifying previously established accounts and pieces of evidence; interpretations, revisions, readings, and understandings; discovering new sources; applying new modes of communication; and altogether new historical narratives. Understanding the past in new ways sheds light on how it influences the present.

• The capacity of the historian to make connections, discriminate between, and draw similarities between different, intriguing, and valuable aspects of history, situating the information within a broader context.

• Borrowing ideas, concepts, theories, and methods from other frameworks or disciplines (e.g. philosophy, anthropology, cultural studies, literature, the arts, etc.) in order to examine a problem from a fresh angle.

• Alternative history is also a good way to be creative, as long as the goal is to get people to think.

• Historians face the challenge of interpreting and making sense of the past’s intricate social structures by using a big-picture approach, all the while working with limited data. Making meaning of contradictory and partial evidence requires imagination too.

• Being a part of a bigger team that carries out in-depth investigations can also require the use of creativity.

In the present chapter, we are focusing on two learning strategies that can promote creative and critical thinking in studying local history: the strategy of inquiry-based and the strategy of art-based learning [16, 17, 18].

3. Inquiry-based learning

Inquiry-based learning is an approach that prioritizes the learner by encouraging questioning and discovery. Students are given the opportunity to explore their interests to find answers to their inquiries. Students collect, record, and organize relevant data and information and prepare summaries, reports, and/or presentations of the culminated knowledge at the end of the process [19]. Personal assessment and reflection are important components too [20]. The core of inquiry-based learning is discovery, which is achieved through research using primary and secondary resources. Fieldwork is also an important component, which includes not only site visits but also measurements, experimentation, object examination, and oral source investigation. This approach requires active learning, both individually and in groups, necessitating a supportive learning environment that caters to the material, emotional/psychological, and social needs of the learners [21, 22, 23]. In a spiral mode, the components could evolve in any sequence and traverse through phases. An inquiry may take the shape of cycles, with each cycle including querying, investigating, and concluding, or formulating new, more specific questions and returning to the research cycle.

When the aforementioned procedures are not confined to strict guidelines, they have the potential to encourage creativity. This is primarily because handling, utilizing, and examining information, materials, and ideas is a key aspect of creative endeavors for individuals of all ages. The cultivation of critical thinking skills (which are imperative for comprehending information) is equally vital. Moreover, knowledge and creativity are interconnected. Creativity can be a product of engaging with the regulations and principles of particular domains. The aforementioned necessitates excellent investigative abilities, which will empower learners to discern, obtain, and assess intricate structures and data to fuel their own creative pursuits [24, 25].

4. Art-based learning

Encouraging children to present what they have learned in various ways that incorporate multiple modes of expression can transform inquiry-based learning into a powerful, constructive, and expressive process, as stated by Wallace [26]. Art offers numerous avenues for expression and can serve as an additional means of discovery. Exposure to diverse cultural artifacts allows children to investigate different perspectives, ideas, and cultures, particularly when introduced in a social studies context, such as geography, history, citizenship, etc. One effective method to fight against prejudice is to educate oneself about various cultures and ethnicities. By assimilating new knowledge into their pre-existing frameworks, children can develop a deeper appreciation for the differences and similarities among individuals, rather than relying on broad racial or ethnic stereotypes [26, 27, 28].

In addition, artmaking provides a platform for exploring various means of expression and symbolically conveying personal experiences. Through visual, verbal, musical, and physical semiotics, art serves as a medium of communication and a way of constructing meaning [29]. According to Atkinson ([30], p. 77) children “use drawing and other practices such as painting or constructing, for a rich variety of expressive and representational purposes. Children use such art activities to construct narratives, to depict time sequences, to play games, to represent actions, to describe objects, to describe object and spatial relations, and much more. In these activities, children are developing semiotic strategies as well as conceptual understanding” (see also [22, 31]). In essence, artmaking is a valuable tool for exploring and constructing concepts, ideas, and perspectives.

5. The benefits of inquiry-based and art-based learning for creative and critical thinking

Both the inquiry-based and the art-based learning approaches, promote and strengthen children’s social-emotional and creative development and the development of their critical thinking skills in several ways:

• Inquiry-based and art-based learning foster the holistic growth of students as they engage their cognitive, social, and psychological aspects [32, 33, 34].

• When students participate in inquiry-based learning, they are able to acquire genuine, practical knowledge that is relevant to their personal lives as it occurs in a particular social and individual setting, which encourages students to form connections and engage actively in the learning process [32, 35]. Experiential learning is beneficial for the development of practical life skills with emotional and social dimensions that are closely linked to personal and social values [21]. This benefits creativity which is primarily driven by personal relevance and meaningfulness [36, 37, 38].

• When students have control over the timing, materials, and participation in the process of inquiry or artistic creation, they tend to develop a sense of personal ownership and self-worth. This, in turn, helps them regulate themselves better and increases their self-efficacy [35, 39, 40]. Considering the student’s desires, thoughts, and perspectives during discussions can also enhance their self-assurance, self-respect, sense of belonging, and self-worth [35, 41]. The development of well-being matters for creativity. Self-identity, self-awareness, self-confidence, and a sense of belonging enable individuals to unfold their creativity with confidence [42]. Moreover, the development of well-being is also a product of creativity [43].

• Students experience cognitive, social, and emotional growth when they take charge of their own learning [32]. Additionally, engaging in creative pursuits fosters a sense of independence and agency, enabling individuals to better understand themselves [42].

• Collaborative learning allows learners to pool their unique knowledge, skills, and attitudes toward a shared goal. This approach, as noted by Chu et al. [44], fosters co-construction of learning outcomes. Similarly, creativity in the humanities and creativity, in general, celebrates diversity and inclusivity [42, 45].

• Explorations such as those carried out in inquiries into history and the artistic and cultural creation of different societies promote children’s social development and comprehension. This also helps them develop historical empathy and empathy in general, which involves understanding the emotions, viewpoints, and motives of others [16, 35].

• Working together in inquiries and artistic creation fosters a space for learning and growth, where effective communication skills are developed and refined, ultimately enhancing creativity [35, 42, 44].

• Inquiry-based and art-based learning allow students to enhance their analytical abilities, which can lead to sharp and perceptive interpretations of real-world situations [44, 46]. This skillset can greatly improve their quality of life. Additionally, since inquiries often stem from the world around us, this type of learning promotes “social knowing” ([47], p. vii; [35]). Developing analytical skills and insightful interpretations is a hallmark of creative thinking [38, 48, 49].

• Interactions are important to inquiry-based, art-based learning and creativity since they enable children to develop a healthy reliance on each other, vivid social interactions, good relationships, and “positive feelings towards peers” ([40], p. 10; [46]). According to Zhou [50], an effective method of recognizing creative learning and its qualities is through social interaction with others. Engaging in positive peer-to-peer interaction can enhance learners’ motivation to build interpersonal connections through collaborative efforts. Such efforts may foster creative thinking, generate innovative ideas, and lead to practical solutions.

• Inquiries cater meaningful engagement to learning, which means that children are emotionally involved in learning activities. This affects dispositions as it breeds children’s natural curiosity, eagerness, and motivation to learn [28, 40]. Moreover, art allows for the expression of emotions, thereby promoting emotional intelligence [35]. Helm and Katz report that “research suggests that there is a relationship between the role that children have in determining their own learning experiences and the development of social skills” ([22], p. 5). They also argue that “when students are energized by their own work, their disposition to solve problems and to seek deeper understanding can be developed and strengthened” (p. 5; see also [51]). According to a study by Nakamura and Csikszentmihalyi [52], persistence is a key trait for creativity in the later stages of life.

• Art can facilitate emotional regulation and positive emotional development in children [53]. Moreover, it enables children to express emotions and fears visually, providing control and reflection on their triggers, and contributes to the reduction of stress since pursuing art boosts serotonin levels, fighting depression, and promoting well-being [35].

• On the whole, inquiry-based and art-based learning can contribute to resilience, therapeutic healing [54], and a “stronger performance regardless of race, gender, or prior achievement” ([40], p. 4).

6. Conditions that embed and enhance creativity and critical thinking in inquiry-based and art-based learning

6.1 Conditions that empower the role of the teacher

Whether in history or art, conducting an inquiry or implementing inquiry-based lessons requires a teacher with advanced skills. In order to promote student involvement in personal inquiry or artistic exploration, it is essential that teachers first become proficient in inquiry and remain up-to-date with the latest advancements in art education. It is critical for teachers to possess a thorough understanding of the inquiry process and maintain a solid grasp on current developments in the field of art education [19, 20, 55, 56, 57, 58].

Moreover, for children’s investigations to be successful, teachers’ research on the area of interest is crucial. Thus, before or simultaneously with children’s investigations, teachers should take the following necessary steps:

• Seek out various sources of information, techniques, and ideas in order to gain knowledge on a particular topic. This can involve reading books, conducting interviews, visiting museums, and verifying through cross-checking [23, 59]. Especially in art, teachers can seek to explore diverse forms and genres, media, and techniques before introducing them into their class [59, 60].

• Explore other perspectives and opposing information related to the topic at hand [23].

• Explore the underlying concept behind a topic (the big idea) or important questions, or the message behind an example of artwork and conduct thorough research [59, 61].

• If fieldwork is planned, visit the location and take note of various details such as exciting features, potential discoveries for children both independently and with adult guidance, the presence of people in the area, any safety hazards, areas where children can make observations and recordings, places for rest, and areas requiring adult supervision [22].

A crucial aspect of inquiry-based teaching is for teachers to relinquish control [23]. According to Kidman and Casinader [19], this means teachers must be willing to shed their title and authority and instead take on the roles of coach, mentor, facilitator, and critical friend. However, it’s important for teachers to make this transition gradually. Students may not possess the necessary skills, maturity, or intellectual sophistication to take on full responsibility for their learning. Teachers can encourage students to lead the creative process and sometimes engage in playful interactions with them to create a more relaxed and enjoyable learning environment [46]. Therefore, teachers must teach students the necessary skills and gradually increase their independence and intellectual capacity over time [55].

Teachers can adopt several key roles during the transition process: “direct instruction provider,” “organizer,” “questioner,” “discussion facilitator,” “mentor,” and “facilitator of interpretation” ([19], p. 44; see also [56, 61, 62]). It’s important for teachers to switch between these roles depending on the needs of their students. For instance, with less experienced students, teachers should focus more on direct instruction, while with more independent and advanced students, they should take on a facilitator role. The balance between these roles may also vary depending on the topic being studied. For new and unfamiliar topics, students may require more guidance in the initial stages of exploration. Studies have shown that presenting challenges to children and empowering them to find solutions can enhance their creativity [59].

The teacher’s feedback plays a critical role in this process, as it guides the learners in making decisions and taking independent actions [63]. Collaboration and inquiry-based processes are fostered in both inquiry-based and art-based learning, leading to the development of trust among students, which allows them to take risks and learn from their failures without fear, creating a positive classroom climate overall [31, 64]. Furthermore, students are encouraged to be open and honest about any outside issues that may affect their work [23, 46, 65].

Teachers play a crucial role in helping children interpret data and information without bias. As a “facilitator of interpretation,” they can guide children to differentiate between theories, opinions, and evidence, while also encouraging them to generate and evaluate new interpretations and ideas. This support promotes children’s independence as inquirers and problem-solvers, as well as their conceptual knowledge, metacognitive strategies, and creativity. To ensure effective teaching, assessment should also be used to inform responsive teaching, with modes of assessment tailored to the varying capabilities of young children [63].

Another important condition in inquiry-based and art-based learning is exploring the materials, instruments, and tools involved. Skilled teachers select materials that aid their students’ learning and are appropriate for the key concepts being taught. The equipment provided should encourage experimentation and exploration, and risk-taking which are aspects of intellectual quality [20, 23, 31, 46].

6.2 Conditions that empower children’s learning processes

Studies have revealed that children possess the ability to plan various things, such as deciding what they want to learn or where they wish to go. To facilitate planning with children, teachers can adopt the K-W-L pattern, which involves identifying what they already Know about a subject, what they Want to learn about it, and what they have Learned after investigating it [66].

Research (see, for example, [40]) has shown that children often struggle to express their knowledge or learning interests about a subject. This can be attributed to various factors:

• Children may be unfamiliar with asking inquiries. In learning processes, it is necessary to cultivate a culture of inquiry and inquiry-based discovery [63]. In this case, teachers must place children in the proper mindset and engage them in activities that cultivate their question-asking and discussion skills [62, 67]. If teachers switch to a different mode of instruction or interaction, children who are accustomed to sitting and listening silently do not comprehend what is expected of them [55]. Children must also be taught to observe and respond to one another in brief conversations on a topic. They must comprehend and acknowledge the significance of waiting their turn and maintaining composure during a discussion. Finally, children must develop an understanding of what a query is and how it facilitates learning and information gathering. In other words, teachers must ensure that they address the aforementioned concerns and devote sufficient time to familiarizing students with the inquiry and discussion processes [16, 20, 23, 56].

• Another factor that could prevent children from asking pertinent questions is a lack of information about the topic at hand. Children may know very little about certain subjects, while others may know only the bare minimum. If that’s the case, children might have trouble articulating what they find engaging. Here is a case in point: The town square features a memorial. Many children have seen it and walked by, but they have not been able to process it any further. They have no other information, and they are unable to formulate any questions. In this situation, educators are tasked with sparking students’ curiosity and pique. There are several ways to ignite curiosity, which can be used separately or in combination. These include going on a field trip to the place of interest, reading a book, story, or poem, or utilizing audio-visual resources such as TV shows, videos, websites, newspapers, magazines, and films. Teachers can also initiate classroom discussions, create incidental experiences, or establish ongoing projects that can lead to new areas of interest as experiencing a situation is necessary before questions develop [68, 69]. Additionally, arranging a learning environment that showcases related objects or creating interactive learning centers can pique children’s curiosity and stimulate conversations about the materials and where they can take us [23, 66, 70].

Intellectual quality in children’s learning is an indication of their empowered voice in both inquiry-based and art-based activities. This is demonstrated by certain features in children’s work:

• Extensive knowledge and profound understanding of objects, images, phenomena, or events, which is elaborated with clarity and repleted in detail in their artwork or other types of work [23, 31, 46, 58, 71, 72, 73].

• Complex problem-solving skills, and advanced thinking abilities which allow children to combine semiotic elements, and form messages and ideas in new creations [23, 31, 46, 58, 71, 73].

• Use of technical terms and/or art language with mastery and understanding, for effective communication by students in their work (although with young children, teachers might downplay the vocabulary to the benefit of concrete exploration and learning of the major concepts) [20, 31, 46, 58, 71].

• Originality which brings unusual or unexpected results. Rather than copying or emulating someone else’s work, students are encouraged to be innovative, explore new possibilities, and tap into their creativity to produce original and authentic pieces of work. In this effort, children are encouraged to use their own knowledge, thinking, expressive skills, and semiotic modes [23, 31, 42, 46, 72, 73, 74].

• Flexibility in thinking which allows children to move beyond the boundaries [31].

• Enjoying the process of inquiry and art and feeling positive about them is a crucial aspect of intellectual quality [23, 31, 46, 58, 71].

• Creating compositions that present “unity, balance and harmony” and the expression of emotions ([31], pp. 128–129).

Intellectual quality involves also understanding the technical and expressive aspects of art forms or other artifacts. This is achieved through analyzing carefully chosen works of art and artifacts [18, 46, 58].

Meaningful learning is closely the empowerment of children [75]. According to Gibson, Anderson, and Fleming [46], this is accomplished by tapping into prior knowledge and personal identities, as well as taking into account external contexts and diverse viewpoints beyond the classroom. With reference to young children, meaningful learning might as well occur when children are given the opportunity to satisfy their natural curiosity and when they are involved in the planning of learning activities [28, 76].

In addition, it is vital for students to collaborate with others to express their emotions, co-construct or share their knowledge and creations, consider diverse perspectives, offer constructive feedback, and critically evaluate both the learning processes and outcomes of inquiry-based and art-based learning. Classes are turned into a “community of learners” or a “community of practice.” Encouraging students to express themselves beyond verbal critique and feedback is important. There are various means of communication available to them ([46], p. 117; see also [64, 72, 74]).

The conditions mentioned above are prevalent in both learning approaches (inquiries and art-based approaches) and the contemporary interpretation of studying local history. Additionally, a high-quality learning environment is crucial for facilitating these intricate processes.

7. Creating conducive learning environments for creative and critical thinking in inquiry-based and art-based learning

A quality learning environment in inquiry-based and art-based learning is characterized by deep focus, sustained engagement, and a loss of sense of time, similar to Csikszentmihalyi’s concept of “flow” [46, 77].

The learning experience encompasses not only the curriculum but also the physical surroundings and the timeframe within which artistic expression takes place. The environment should be practical [46] and offer students the appropriate materials and technical guidance or demonstrations at key moments [31, 73]. In Reggio Emilia schools, space and environment are regarded as the “third teacher” [78], and it is critical to provide physical spaces that serve, showcase, and recognize the students’ own work, enhancing their confidence and sense of ownership [23, 31, 46, 73].

According to Kidman and Casinader’s proposal ([19], p. 39), there are two distinct types of learning environments: the classroom learning environment (CLE) and the field learning environment (FLE). It would be beneficial to explore the characteristics of these environments further.

7.1 Classroom Learning Environments (CLEs)

CLEs could feature resource displays and interactive learning centers. Teachers must select and evaluate these materials with great care. Books and audiovisual or multimedia content must be chosen based on their compatibility, with large pictures and photographs and appropriate content being two major considerations. Teachers can mediate if there are challenging terms used, either by explaining them to students or by including additional narration into a multimedia piece (such as a video, PowerPoint, or movie segment) created with modern technology [23].

Choosing appropriate resources can be challenging, particularly in the early years, when children may not have the skills to conduct independent research on primary and secondary sources [19]. In order to optimize the use of resources by young children, it’s important for teachers or designers to carefully choose resources that align with the learning objectives and assist children in making appropriate selections [20]. This approach not only enhances the effectiveness of resources for young children but also benefits older children who may struggle with processing information. Additionally, it promotes the perception of information resources as a means to an end, rather than the end itself [79]. If teachers read books to children, they may want to avoid reading complex sentences and focus instead on reading the most important parts. Children that are at a reading level are free to peruse the content and read as much or as little as they can manage [80]. Fiction and nonfiction books for children of all ages are accepted, if available [16].

As previously stated, resources on alternative perspectives, nontraditional or sidelined genres, and conflicting information (as long as they do not infringe on human rights) should be included [16, 17]. This has the potential to promote democratic values and foster children’s attitudes of tolerance and acceptance toward diversity, while also enhancing their ability to analyze and interpret multiple viewpoints (see, for example, a discussion by Jones [81]).

7.2 Field Learning Environments (FLEs)

The Field Learning Environment (FLE) [19], commonly known as Fieldwork, is highly valued by educators due to the significant role sensory learning plays in education. Field trips offer a complete sensory experience of the environment, making them an essential teaching tool. Classroom learning cannot offer the same level of firsthand and sensory experience as other forms of education. Children can explore and become acquainted with their surroundings through movement. This also helps them to orient themselves and navigate their way [66, 82]. Excursions also offer chances to practice map-reading, introducing children to decoding and understanding spatial diagrams and representations [15, 66, 83]. This could also be achieved with support from ICT [84].

Moreover, children have the opportunity to interact with a variety of workers or experts (art and history experts included) and observe how they each play a role in daily life [22, 23]. For example, they may encounter the bus driver, the shop owner, a housewife shopping, a museum guard, or individuals working at a ticket desk.

One of the primary benefits of fieldwork is that it allows children to utilize inquiry skills and tools, such as observing and recording information about their surroundings [16, 22]. In addition, it offers chances for children to engage in shared experiences and participate in group activities [66]. Visits can be accompanied by parents, providing ample opportunities for parental involvement [22, 23, 66]. And as previously mentioned, it has been argued that this approach stimulates fresh ideas and promotes learning by piquing children’s curiosity and presenting new inquiries that require solutions [22, 66].

Seefeldt, Castle, and Falconer ([66], pp. 66–68) identified various types of fieldwork including “walking” trips around the school or neighborhood, “small-group trips,” “specific purpose field trips” that focus on a particular issue, “virtual field trips” to distant places, and “WOW” trips that offer an element of surprise without being tied to any particular project or topic. Our focus is on “repeated fieldwork” trips, which can enhance in-depth investigations. The excitement of the first visit may cause children to miss details and opportunities for exploration. Experience shows that returning to the same place allows for a re-examination of the subject, uncovering new issues for observation and recording. This may prompt new questions and perspectives, leading to further visits that build on the findings of the initial trip [22, 23, 66, 85]. From a social-emotional perspective, returning to a familiar location can provide children with a sense of mastery and security to take risks in new learning opportunities. Continuity in field trips can also enhance learning, connecting the intentions of repeated trips or complementing different trips. For example, a visit to a monument could be followed by a trip to a museum or library to gather additional information about the topic. Lastly, an initial visit to a place of interest can serve as a starting point for children’s investigations, inspiring good questions and guiding their inquiry toward deeper levels of learning [23].

7.2.1 Preparing fieldwork

As previously stated, adequate preparation is crucial for a successful trip. Teachers should involve the children in the planning process, encouraging them to consider transportation options, map usage, and necessary equipment [16, 23].

Explicitly discussing and laying out standards of behavior and safety rules is also important. Seefeldt, Castle, and Falconer [66] suggest reviewing these standards with both children and adults attending the trip. When everyone is clear on what is expected of them, the trip becomes safer. It can be helpful to chart certain rules for quick and easy reference. As part of an emergency plan, parents and children need to be aware of what steps to take in case of an accident, such as identifying an emergency meeting point, understanding who is responsible for calling emergency services, and knowing who is certified to administer first aid.

According to the literature on inquiry-based learning, it is recommended that children have a background experience and some questions prepared before going on a trip to aid in their investigations. However, this may not always be possible or necessary, especially if the children lack prior knowledge on the topic. Teachers may choose to wait until visiting the place to encourage the children to ask questions and support them in expressing their curiosity about the situation, object, or phenomenon. Sometimes, direct experience is needed to truly observe and appreciate something, which can lead to a desire to learn more [23].

When visiting a new place, there is an important issue to consider: When it comes to children and travel, simply visiting a site and listening to a tour guide is not enough for an enriching experience. Teachers should avoid acting solely as guides and instead focus on creating opportunities for inquiry-based learning. While adult involvement is still important, it should be thoughtfully planned out [22, 23].

Here are some suggested activities for children to engage in during fieldwork:

• Observing, listening, or experimenting and then attempting to answer questions that were previously recorded in the classroom before heading out. Move around in an organized manner, and use their senses to smell, touch, hear, look, and feel everything around them. They can also discuss their thoughts and feelings with each other and with adults [22, 23].

• Completing assignments such as collecting leaves, stones, or bugs, recording details in journals, or checking off items on a list. Children can also take pictures themselves or use a audio recorder and camera to collect evidence that is going to be used in the classroom afterward to recall important information and discuss their findings [22].

Organizing a treasure hunt where children can search for clues and answer questions that guide them through historical sites or museums. This encourages children to collect information in a playful way and allows them to work in groups or individually with appropriate adult supervision. Still, it is best for children to work in groups with minimal adult guidance.

The aforementioned conditions allow for the creation of CLEs and FLEs that aid and encourage the exploration of local history through creative and critical thinking processes.

8. Focusing on local history: the importance of space and time concepts

As children interact with their daily and local surroundings, they naturally begin to take notice of places, monuments, objects, and ceremonies. This familiarity allows their surroundings to gain meaning and significance [16]. Through hands-on exploration and observation of historical objects, children can actively develop their historical thinking and learn the so-called “procedural concepts of history” which are “cause and effect” “continuity and change,” “similarity and difference” ([16], pp. 27, 43). They can also develop historical empathy, that is a greater understanding of how past individuals may have thought, felt, and acted differently due to knowledge, societal, economic, and political differences [16].

Children’s innate curiosity about history aids in developing their personal identity in relation to others and time. Studying local history increases children’s awareness of how society’s members are interconnected and helps them embrace differences by recognizing that a community can consist of individuals with diverse cultural backgrounds [16, 22].

Exploring historical sites, monuments, and museums, or conducting research using primary and secondary resources can foster inquiry skills and be a focal point in history studies [18]. Such experiences help children appreciate the connection between the past and present, the importance of cultural heritage, and the necessity of preserving it. Additionally, they develop a love for the environment, which enhances their sense of responsibility and care.

Children, like adult historians, learn about the past by tracing the causes and effects of changes over time or continuity, understanding that there can be multiple accounts of the past and making deductions and guesses about remaining artifacts. Thus, working with time concepts is essential because if children become aware of the skills and concepts involved in learning about the past, they can become independent learners [16, 83]. To become increasingly aware of historical changes, children need to build and apply knowledge of cause and effect, motivation, and consequence; to become able to draw parallels and dissimilarities (what shared features existed between the ‘before’ and the ‘now,’ and what new features emerged, and why); to gradually determine how much time has passed (hours, days, weeks, months, and years); and learn to organize the order of events (from personal experience, recent memory, and future projections) [83].

Studying space concepts is also vital for understanding history. Children can better comprehend time and change by identifying and describing features of places, observing and recording patterns and processes related to space and the environment, reading spatial representations, and recording places and routes themselves using all senses [83]. Therefore, it is highly beneficial to work systematically on understanding concepts and language related to direction, measurement, positions, perspective, spatial patterns, feature names, and spatial representation skills such as maps, maquettes, floor plans, and birds-eye views [83, 86, 87].

9. A four-dimensional tool with practical suggestions for developing creative and critical thinking in learning local history

I would like to share a helpful tool for teachers who want to develop local history lessons using inquiry-based and art-based learning methods. The tool is comprised of four lists of practical strategies, covering important aspects such as learning interactions, understanding historical times, art-based learning, and specific strategies for local history (see Tables 1–4). Each strategy is backed by reasoning to justify its effectiveness. In general, this tool ensures that the conditions discussed earlier are met, and it allows teachers to establish a setting that promotes creative, critical, and analytical thinking while exploring local history.

Practical strategies teachers may consider and apply	The reasoning behind the strategies
Instead of relying heavily on whole-group instruction or carpet time, teachers focus on group work. Group work involves 2–4 children at their desks or moving around the classroom.	This approach can help promote collaboration and active participation among students. It can nurture children’s ability to engage in meaningful conversations, take the lead in various situations, and work collaboratively with others to overcome challenges.
It is best to use open-ended questions. For example, instead of asking, “Did you understand” it’s preferable to ask, “What did you understand”?	This promotes children’s verbal contributions and allows them to share their ideas, insights, and interpretations, including those related to history, using their own vocabulary.
It is important that teachers refrain from offering explanations to children. Instead, they could focus on understanding their thoughts, perceptions, and interpretations of their findings.	For adults, the goal is to avoid imposing their own interpretation on children. Instead, we encourage them to develop their own understanding of events, people, and objects.
Instead of simply answering children’s questions, teachers suggest that they become co-researchers with the children to better understand and explore the topic together.	Teachers can be positive role models by promoting inquiry-based learning and openly expressing research-related emotions like curiosity, determination, and persistence, even in the face of failure. By demonstrating processes such as conducting library searches, seeking information from specialists, and closely examining relevant artifacts, teachers can help students learn important skills. It’s also important to teach students that it is acceptable not to know everything and that knowledge gaps can provide valuable opportunities for learning.
To avoid the effect of continuous questioning the children, teachers should consider increasing group discussions. This can be achieved when a central question is provided, and students are encouraged to discuss it among themselves (in small groups) before presenting their answers and share their conclusions with the rest of the class. This offers the class the opportunity to expand upon the conversation.	It’s important to foster questioning and answering skills among students. To achieve this, teachers should relinquish some control during discussions and allow students greater freedom and initiative. By implementing this method, teachers can facilitate a more engaging and interactive learning experience for their students.
Teachers could prompt young students to articulate their reasoning, requesting that they clarify the basis for their assertions and the evidence that supports their conclusions. This may involve explaining the reasoning behind their perspectives or outlining the thought process that led them to a particular viewpoint.	As part of their history education, children must learn to formulate and express explanations and interpretations, particularly in a historical context. They need to learn to utilize their research to back up their arguments and viewpoints. Additionally, they are trained to identify and articulate cause-and-effect relationships that are observable in events or phenomena.
Teachers aim to provide their students with diverse resources on a given topic, rather than relying on a singular resource such as a book, picture, or computer. In situations where a unique resource is available, rotating groups can take turns utilizing it. It is important to avoid limiting children’s interaction with a unique resource through teacher-directed teaching and provide opportunities for students to explore resources in a more open manner.	Children should have ample time to interact with various objects such as books, computers, and other resources to enhance their personal perceptions and gather information from the environment using their senses. This helps them develop their independence and self-confidence in handling situations like turn-taking and waiting patiently. The aim is to reduce teacher control and provide more freedom to children in using available resources.
Teachers motivate children to document their discoveries as much as possible. Whenever something piques their interest, they urge them to find a method to “preserve” what they observed. If they need to recall research findings, a captivating story, or something that left a deep impression on them, they must figure out a way to document the specific details they wish to remember. This can be achieved through manual means, such as writing or drawing, or via electronic devices like an audio recorder, a camera and more.	Children will learn that taking notes and making recordings is essential to the research process. By doing so, they can store information for future reference and easily compare it with other pieces of data. It is also important to understand that recordings showcase not only their knowledge but also their personal perspectives.
Children are encouraged to learn how to make recordings using different methods such as drawing, note-taking, sound recording, and video recording. It is important for children to review their recordings and compare them later to enhance their learning experience. Additionally, older children can create engaging multimedia presentations such as PowerPoints, animated films, or movies that combine visual, sound, and kinetic elements.	The aim is to encourage children to explore and utilize various semiotic modes and modes of communication and technology to express their knowledge, ideas, thoughts, findings, analyses, conclusions, and messages.

Table 1.

Dimension 1—Practical strategies for learning interactions.

Practical strategies for fundamental work on concepts of time	The reasoning behind the strategies
As an educational tool, teachers can introduce lessons centered around time concepts like yesterday, today, tomorrow, before, after, and now. For older students, exploring concepts like prior to, simultaneously, in the past, period, century, millennium, and between events can deepen their understanding of time and history.	The goal is to enhance children’s grasp of time and improve accuracy in using the relevant vocabulary.
Children are encouraged to organize their thoughts and memories by creating timelines. Younger children can start this process by keeping daily diaries and constructing a routine timeline each day. Gradually, they can create monthly and yearly timelines to record important events and moments of the school year. At a later stage, children can also make timelines for significant events they learn about in their history lessons. It’s essential to incorporate digital resources such as word processors, online tools, and visual graphics programs, in addition to traditional paper and pencil methods.	It’s important for children to comprehend the reasoning behind using a number line or following a storyline. They should also be taught how to interpret and decipher the information presented on a timeline.
Children can create a timeline that outlines important events and pivotal moments in their personal narratives.	By examining the events that have occurred throughout their lives, children can better understand the developmental process. Creating personal timelines can help students find significance in this process and increase their motivation. Additionally, children can learn that certain things or circumstances may change over time, while others remain consistent.
Teachers prompt students to share their news with a small group of 2–4 peers, followed by the option to share with the entire class.	One can enhance children’s storytelling abilities and practice the utilization of past tenses to describe events that commenced and concluded in the past, or those that began in the past and are still ongoing in the present.
The teachers intend to teach their students about time sequence, change, continuity, cause, and consequence by encouraging them to create short stories in small groups. This exercise is also suitable for older students who can analyze the structure of a narrative, a report of connected events, or a longer story, whether it is fiction or non-fiction. Following this, they can examine other events, whether they are contemporary or historical, and apply the same analytical approach.	The aim is to comprehend the concepts that are crucial for understanding and learning about historical events or sequences of events, such as the progression of an experiment.
Teachers aim to improve children’s observational skills through systematic observations that involve recognizing changes in life, nature, school history, and society. Children are encouraged to record their observations and changes using various tools, materials, and methods.	One way to enhance children’s observational skills is by encouraging them to pay attention to changes and specific events.
In a classroom setting, teachers can present various versions and adaptations of a story, such as the classic tale of the big bad wolf. They encourage students to analyze and compare these versions to develop diverse interpretations.	It is important for children to learn that events can be viewed and interpreted from various perspectives.
Practical strategies for fundamental work on spatial concepts	The reasoning behind the strategies
Teachers devise activities that aid children in comprehending and utilizing spatial concepts, such as forward, backward, in front of, behind, left, right, next to, near, far, and so on.	It is important for children to gain a confident and accurate understanding of concepts such as space, direction, and movement.
Teachers create engaging activities to help children comprehend the concepts of size, scale, and perspective.	It is important for children to develop skills in reading, drawing, and using maps.
Teachers organize activities that focus on spatial representation, such as constructing maquettes, and creating maps of the classroom and the neighborhood, among others.	It is important for children to develop their skills in spatial representation.

Table 2.

Dimension 2—Concept work to understand historical times.

Practical strategies teachers may consider and apply	The reasoning behind the strategies
After completing a phase of inquiry, we encourage the children to showcase their knowledge and understanding through artistic expression. They can work individually or in groups and are encouraged to use various materials, including recycled items like plastic water bottles, newspapers, and cartons, as well as wire and plaster.	The main objective is to teach children how to communicate effectively using various forms of expression and semiotics. It is essential to provide children with a wide selection of materials in order to unleash their expression ways.
Children are encouraged to develop a message related to the “big idea” and use art to convey it in a way that reflects what they have learned and how it connects to real life.	Multiple semiotic modes enable the conveying of ideas that may be difficult to articulate through words, as well as linking acquired knowledge with personal experiences, thoughts, and perspectives.
To inspire the children, we showcase representative artworks that demonstrate different techniques for handling materials, combining materials and elements, discussing the artwork’s size, scale, and perspective, and the message conveyed through the artwork.	It is anticipated that increasing the children’s exposure to a variety of mediums, processes, and styles of artwork will boost their expressive capacity.
Exploring works of art in their natural surroundings is recommended for optimal results. Whether it’s the original or a copy, the experience can be enriching. Alternatively, virtual tours offer exciting opportunities to visit places with works of art. If there are copies of artifacts in the classroom, it’s best to have multiple copies or organize group rotations to ensure every child has a chance to appreciate them up close. Ultimately, combining these methods can create a comprehensive learning experience.	It’s imperative for children to spend ample time observing works of art and artifacts from various distances and angles to fully grasp their significance.
The analysis of a piece of artwork includes three levels:
Practical strategies on the descriptive level	The reasoning behind the strategies
The artwork on display features various elements such as people, animals, and plants which children are encouraged to describe. Its purpose is to enhance children’s observational skills and ability to derive information from artifacts by studying these elements. This includes the behavior and attitude of the subjects depicted, as well as their clothing and facial features. Indicative questions that can be asked about the artwork include its medium (such as sculpture, painting, engraving, or woven/ceramic), and what it represents.	One way to enhance children’s skills in observation and information gathering is by encouraging them to study artifacts and derive insights from them.
Example questions to consider: Could you please specify the type of artwork you are referring to? Is it a sculpture, painting, engraving, woven piece, or ceramic? Also, what is the intended meaning or representation of the artwork? Could you kindly give me a detailed description of the artwork, including any movements or multimedia used?
Practical strategies on the interpretive level	The reasoning behind the strategies
Considerations include the mental state and emotions of those involved, the impact of the artwork on children, and the relationships between the elements within the piece. Additionally, one can generate questions or hypotheses to explore the immediate past and develop historical interpretations.	One can use the process of formulating questions or hypotheses to find answers about events that have occurred in the recent past. Additionally, it is important to be able to develop and express historical interpretations.
Example questions to consider: What emotions does this artwork evoke in you? Can you describe your feelings about it? What words come to mind? What do you think causes these emotions? Do you think you can guess what the artist was feeling when creating this piece? Would you say this artwork is quiet or noisy, happy, or sad, calming or disturbing? Can you create a story based on it? Can you provide different interpretations of the elements in the artwork?
Practical strategies on the technical level	The reasoning behind the strategies
Children focus on the colors, the materials, the techniques, and other forms of expression used.	Encourage children to explore and engage with various semiotic modes and forms of communication.
Example questions to consider: Can you speculate about the techniques employed by the artist in creating this artwork/artifact? Additionally, what materials and tools were utilized? Are there any notable colors or any one color that stands out in particular? Does the artist incorporate any shapes or symbols, and if so, what types?

Table 3.

Dimension 3—Art-based learning.

Practical strategies teachers may consider and apply	The reasoning behind the strategies
Children acquire the skills to analyze and gather information from relevant local sources, irrespective of their significance. Furthermore, children are provided with access to a diverse selection of historical sources. Teachers aim to help children identify the connection between events and aspects of national or general history and their reflections on local history.	It’s important for children to recognize that we can gain knowledge about the national or general history through various local sources such as oral stories, pictures, artifacts, literature, artwork, museums, stamps, games, and digital media. They should also realize that the significance of these sources may have differed in other historical periods.
Practical strategies teachers may consider and apply when introducing children to artifacts and furnishings	The reasoning behind the strategies
Children carefully observe and then document their discoveries about the artifact or furnishing (hereafter object) through various methods.	Teachers can enhance children’s understanding by utilizing various semiotic techniques and technologies to acquire knowledge, generate ideas, communicate messages, conduct research, draw conclusions, and more.
Children develop hypotheses about the construction, time period, and purpose of the object. To ensure accuracy, they scour various information sources to cross-check their findings.	The objective is to formulate questions and hypotheses about events, behaviors, and usage and attempt to answer them. Children are encouraged to discover connections among events, individuals, and objects. This will aid in cultivating a chronological understanding, particularly for younger children.
Example questions to guide observation and observation recordings: Can you help me identify this object? What are your thoughts on what it could be? How would you describe its appearance and functionality? Do we have any information on its age and origin, and if not, where could we research it? Additionally, what other relevant details should we gather? Who used or wore it, in what context, and from what materials was it made? Is it still in existence, and if not, what could be the reason behind its disappearance? If it still exists, has it undergone any changes over time, and for what reasons?	It is important for children to recognize that people, especially children, lived differently and engaged in different activities in the past. They should also understand that while some things and situations change over time, others remain the same. Additionally, children should be encouraged to consider and understand the cause-and-effect relationship between events and their consequences.
Practical strategies teachers may consider and apply when introducing children to monuments, historical buildings, and other large constructions	The reasoning behind the strategies
Example questions to consider – Descriptive questions: Can you identify the building materials used for the walls, such as bricks, stones, wood, or cement? Please describe the various shapes present in the structure and indicate their number. Are there any doors and windows? What is the roof like? Does it have any specific shape, such as hollow or flat, quadruple, or with pediments? Could you provide an interpretation of the patterns and symbols?	The goal for children is to understand that people, especially children, lived differently and had different lifestyles in the past. They should also comprehend that some things or situations change over time, while others remain the same. Additionally, children should be encouraged to think critically, develop and articulate historical interpretations.
Questions to develop hypotheses: Why did they build it like this? What was it used for? Can you guess who lived in it and why?	Children must formulate hypotheses about the immediate past and try to answer them. They attempt to develop and articulate historical interpretations.
Concluding questions: Can you determine if it’s an old or new item? What characteristics suggest that it is “old”? When you describe something as “old,” what do you mean? Any idea about the time period it was constructed and the builder’s identity?	One way to enhance children’s skills and ability to observe and gather information from artifacts is by providing opportunities for practice and refinement. Thinking critically over cause-and-effect relationships or conclusions is also important.
Classification questions: Does it resemble the buildings, fountains, or doors of today? What do you think?	One of the goals is to teach children about the differences in how people, especially children, lived and acted in the past. Additionally, it is important to help them comprehend that while some things and circumstances change over time, others may remain constant.
Practical strategies teachers may consider and apply when visiting museums	The reasoning behind the strategies
When organizing museum visits and programs, it is important to handle each stage with care, including preparation, fieldwork, reflection, feedback, presentation of results, and final product.	Museum visits pertain to fieldwork. The circumstances necessary for successful fieldwork are those that have been addressed previously.
To ensure a successful visit, it is recommended to focus on a specific area or artifact rather than attempting a comprehensive tour of the entire museum.	The sheer volume of information and artifacts housed in museums can make for daunting environments. Children can better sustain their attention and depict info pertinent to their inquiry when the subject of the visit is narrowed down.
It may be beneficial to visit the museum multiple times to fully explore and understand its offerings.	Children’s inquiries can benefit from revisits because they allow for reprocessing as well as the addition of details and depth.
General questions that enhance the understanding of History
Has anything changed since then? (What we spent our time learning about).	Question that helps children comprehend the concept of change.
How does it function in the modern world? Do we still make use of it, or is it more of an artifact from the past that we consult for information? In what ways does it still impact us today?	These questions help children grasp the concept of continuity, which is a crucial concept for understanding history.
What does this have to do with the era that we are currently studying?	A question that assists children in comprehending and drawing connections with the historical period or periods that are the subject of the discussion.

Table 4.

Dimension 4—Approaching local history.

When approaching local history several sources can be utilized: artifacts and furnishings; monuments; buildings, entrances, and fountains; artworks; museums; places of worship such as monasteries, churches, mosques, and temples; photographs, books, albums, and sound recordings; letters and stamps. Different sources call for unique approaches and provide distinct opportunities. In Table 4, we focus on strategies for work with artifacts and furnishings, monuments, buildings, and other large constructions, and museums.

10. Conclusions

Learning about local history can help children develop a historical perspective and better understand the connections between different groups, cultures, and civilizations. This can also help children become more self-aware and learn about the challenges of their time. Inquiry-based and art-based learning methods can create a learning environment where children act as investigators, gathering and analyzing information from primary and secondary sources, and expressing their conclusions creatively. I hope that the learning principles, practical strategies, and conditions outlined above, will give teachers the confidence to develop their own creative approaches to teaching local history in pre-primary and primary students.

Acknowledgments

Classroom implementations were conducted to test the effectiveness of the practical tool mentioned earlier in the “Early Childhood Education – building sustainable motivation and value paradigm for life (MOV UP)” project, funded by Erasmus+ (580339-EPP-1-2016-1-BG-EPPKA3-IPI-SOC-IN).