Vocational Training in German-Speaking Countries

Abstract

Many countries in Europe and in the whole world, are trying to find ways to improve their vocational training systems. Many of them are looking up to German-speaking countries, such as Germany, Switzerland, and Austria. Vocational training systems in these countries have been an example of good practice for many years now. With its roots in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, vocational training in these countries still keeps the economy stable and unemployment rates low. However, every system has its flaws and these systems have often been criticized. The aim of this article is to give an overview of vocational training systems in the three biggest German-speaking countries in the world, all the way from its historical roots, up to modern days, including its strengths and weaknesses. It will also be highlighted how important these systems for the countries are and how they should be improved, in order to keep the quality and to adapt to new challenges.

1. Introduction

Right now, there is an ongoing trend in many countries in Europe that brings vocational and educational training (further: VET) into the spotlight. More and more countries are realizing that a successfully implemented VET can be a very stable pillar of the economy of a country, which is also helpful in lowering unemployment rates in young population. Exactly for this reason, many countries are looking for examples of good practices when it comes to VET, since many of them have never tried implementing such a system and blindly trying it out would cost them a lot of money and time, which might end up being wasted. Luckily, German-speaking countries have been established for a very long time as an example of a successful VET system that has been keeping the countries stable since the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth century.

Germany, Switzerland, and Austria are the three European countries that are most famous for the success and stability of their vocational training systems. Even though the world has changed since the first historical appearance of VET in German-speaking countries and university enrollment rates have significantly grown in these countries, VET keeps being one of the most common ways of attaining a vocation and enrolling into the market. Many other European countries are looking up to the VET systems of these countries and are trying to either implement the whole system or some elements of it in their educational systems [1].

In fact, there is even an ongoing project, called “The apprenticeship toolbox” that has been providing information to the countries that are interested into implementing the whole VET systems or their elements into their educational systems. This project has been providing information to countries such as Greece, Portugal, Italy, Slovakia, and Latvia, helping the decision-makers in these countries to successfully implement key features, materials, and programs into the social and economic systems of their countries.

One of the main characteristics of VET in German-speaking countries is the so-called “dual system.” The idea behind this system is to provide the people who are participating in VET the possibility to learn simultaneously: theoretical knowledge is provided at vocational schools, and practical knowledge is provided directly through work in a company of a certain field. Vocational schools are usually public schools, and companies that take part in VET can vary from small or medium-sized, up to large-sized, even international companies [2].

Most common way of implementing this idea is providing students with one to two school days in a week, and three to four days in a company. However, it can also be implemented in such a way, that students spend every day of every other week in the school, and every day of every other week in a company. It is important to highlight, that governments in these three countries set aside a certain amount of money every year for funding the work of vocational schools, which provides a stable and ongoing resource for successful implementation of VET [3].

In German-speaking countries, skills are being certified and standardized, which brings stability and easier control over possible problems, especially when it comes to working in private sector. Through certification, clear expectations are being determined, so it is clear what is expected from both companies and students. Standardization, however, provides clear regulations of trainings, tests, and certificates that are valid in all parts of the country. That provides a low level of manipulation and leads to a fairer training system. This way, the responsibility for successful implementation of VET system is being shared between companies, governments, and trade unions, which provides broader control level over every part of the system.

Many different projects have also been developed, that are being financed from different sources and government offices, such as Employment Agency or Job Center, with a purpose of providing additional help to people in vocational training when it comes to learning needs, additional support, integration for immigrants or even additional money.

During discussions about vocational trainings in Europe, one can often hear many arguments that either strongly support or strongly deny the system of vocational training in Germany, Switzerland, and Austria. In fact, the German VET system has not once been criticized by many international representatives and organs, such as European Union and OECD. How come, then, that VET systems in these countries are still successfully functioning, and even in such a way that many other countries are trying to implement them or their elements? In this chapter, we will try to review the systems of VET in German-speaking countries and give an answer to this question through reviewing the possibilities and limits of vocational training systems implemented in these countries. We will also show the historical development of vocational training in all of these three countries, as well as their characteristics, giving a brief description of social events that have influenced the idea of VTE systems, making them the way they are now [4].

2. Vocational training in Germany: history and characteristics

2.1 Historical development of vocational training in Germany

2.1.1 Vocational training in Germany form fourteenth until nineteenth century

As it has been mentioned earlier, VET in Germany is very much known for its “dual system.” The practice of apprentice training began during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, when the guilds of craftsmen and merchants developed such a system. However, it is important to highlight that legally, these schools started working during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Thanks to industrialization, chambers and guilds have been founded, and they have played (as they still do) an essential role in apprentice and vocational trainings. Even though their role was big, the governments of different Germans states from 1811 up to 1870 paid little to no attention to guilds, merchants, and chambers. Instead, they have been focusing their money, time, and resources on founding higher education institutions, such as universities or schools, for finances and architecture. A small number of schools, such as middle management schools for industry and business, have been founded by private persons. These schools were usually open on Sundays and during the evenings and taught reading, mathematics, and writing, along with subjects that were work-oriented. They were predecessors of modern vocational schools that are to be found all over Germany.

2.1.2 Vocational training in Germany during nineteenth century

During the 1860s, the political climate in the country turned liberal, which led to liberalizing apprentice training and removing all restrictions regarding setting up shops and taking apprentices. After that, in 1870, which is considered a milestone in German apprentice training, when The Craft Trade Workers’ Protection Act was established [5]. This Act has given the guilds a bigger role in creating and regulating apprenticeships and the conflicts that might occur between masters and trainees. Centuries after that, in 1897 to be precise, the Handcraft Protection Law organized an artisanal sector into networked chambers, making the membership compulsory and has given them authority to regulate the content and the quality of apprenticeship trainings, such as setting limitations on the numbers of apprentices in one firm or defining the length of apprentice training. In that way, the apprentices have been protected and the firms whose trainings were not up to standards have been losing their privileges. The only way to get a certification of some sort was through the artisanal chambers. Besides that, this Law has also introduced compulsory school attendance for apprentices. Schools have finally begun to teach more profession-related subjects rather than repeating subjects that have been taught in the earlier stages of education. Occupational training and civic rights were now more in focus.

2.1.3 Vocational training in Germany during world war one and world war two

With the growth of industrialization years before World War One (before 1914), the employers in the metal, electronic, and historical industries had a problem with meeting the demand by training their own staff, which occurred because of the political monopoly of the craft trades. Because of that, a form of industrial workplace training has been created, shaping skilled workers who were taught in groups instead of teaching them individually. Training period of usually 3 years was to be completed, accompanied by attending the vocational school. However, they were not able to provide any kind of certification since Artisan chambers were the only authorized bodies, which is why more and more apprentices began to choose standardized trainings, after which they were able to get certified. This has kept causing conflicts between industrial companies that were offering high-quality trainings and better working conditions to their apprentices and the Artisan chambers that were the only ones authorized to give out a certification. As a result, large industrial companies have developed their own parallel systems of certifying industrial training, under the control of the Industry and Trade Chamber. Through the years of Weimar Republic, there have been several proposals and tries to get admission to certify industrial trainings. Even though some changes have been applied, these proposals have never fully succeeded [6].

During the years of the Nazi regime and World War Two (1939–1945), which demanded a high number of industrial-trained apprentices solely for military production, the same rights were granted to the Industrial chamber as they were to the Artisan chamber. The exams of the Industrial chamber were certified and equally recognized as the ones of the Artisan chamber, which caused a great increase in number of exams that were taken during these years. The regime demanded a huge number of skilled workers and has designed a model of “apprentice contract” that has been regulating the relationship between the firm and the apprentice. Because of a high demand, the skills required from a worker were standardized, which meant that, no matter in which firm the apprentice would gain skill, they would all in the end get the same amount and level of knowledge as every other apprentice in the branch. Also, a national register has been introduced and it has been made obligatory for every firm to register at the local chamber. Industrial exams have been made compulsory at the end of the apprentice training. During the late years of World War Two, the apprentice training was decreased and degenerated into production work for the army. When given an overall look, the Nazi regime has had precedence on the apprentice training, making it more lucrative to industrial firms and more attractive to firms that have not been considering it [7].

2.1.4 Vocational training in Germany after world war two

After World War Two, in West Germany, the school part of apprentice training has been getting more and more attention. The aim was to bring the young people the idea of democracy and social responsibility closer. The practical part was, in essence, left to the firms and apprentices to figure out. Since the country was devastated through the war years, having lost a lot of labor-capable young people and the infrastructure, the biggest part of industrial and artisanal parts of apprentice trainings were focused on repairing it as soon as possible, but have also kept the focus on enabling young people to get included into the market as soon as possible. Up until 1969, vocational training has, for the most part, stayed the same.

The Vocational Education and Training Act in 1969 led to the final legal regulation of apprentice training in the country. It meant that the government had finally recognized artisanal and Industrial trainings as equals and given their Chambers rights to certify apprentices. The unions have been granted equal executive powers in any matter involving VET and the workers. This has given rights to unions and responsible authorities to decide on creating new or changing the existing occupations. Due to the structural organization of Germany, these decisions are not made at a governmental level but rather on a level of every constitutional land [7].

Thanks to that, in the 1970s, the amount of people doing apprentice trainings rose by +20% in comparison to 1969. After that, it has been only rising, and for decades now, roughly 60% of the German population has taken part in apprentice dual training. The number of people rolling into school-based apprentice training has also remained stable, even though there is a big demand for medical personnel. This lack has been filled by people who immigrated, mostly from Eastern Europe. In the last couple of decades, Germany’s labor market has been facing a great lack of qualified personnel in many fields, caused mostly by population aging but also because the educational system cannot provide enough skilled workers to satisfy the market’s needs. This can also be justified by financial shortages provided by state government and the growing popularity of university attendance. Many students are now more attracted to going to university than to doing apprentice training. Also, training opportunities and possibilities highly vary from state to state, which means that one’s training and employment opportunities are highly related to the economic situation of a certain state or region [8].

2.2 Institutional configuration of VET system in Germany

Dual VET system in Germany is contemporarily regulated by the Vocational Training Act (Berufsbildungsgesetz) and regulations of the constitutional state. In order to better understand the German school system, we will have to introduce its socio-demographic aspects. Germany is a parliament republic, consisting of 16 federal states whose respective governments play a big role when it comes to laws and regulations, especially ones in education. Besides them, trade unions and VET researches also play a big role in regulating and coordinating vocational trainings. In coordination with experts from the Federal Government, experts in every constitutional state develop a core learning VET program for schools. The Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung-BIBB) is recognized as a center of excellence for vocational research [9].

German educational system is also a part of the European Qualifications Network, making it more transparent and providing easier access to it, for people wanting to work or find education in Germany. There is also a National Qualifications Network, aligned with the European one [10].

When it comes to costs of trainings, it highly varies from state to state. Normally, the companies cover the expenses of training in the company and the government of the constitutional state funds the schools. There are also exceptions, so in some states there are also funds that the government pays to companies, in order to cover the training expenses. The Employment Agencies of constitutional states are also providing the resources for covering additional costs.

German VET system is organized into three different sectors. The first sector is the one that is most famous for dual, firm-based apprentice training, which includes parallel working and attending schools. The second one is a school-based sector, for occupations only being taught at school, without attending firm-based training. However, they also include practical work or internships, that are usually integrated into the school curriculum. The third sector is prevocational training measures, which usually last one year. Doing the apprentice in one of the first two sectors always brings certified, country-wise recognized vocation. It is important to clarify, that firm-based and school-based trainings teach entirely different vocations, so it is not possible to take a firm-based training and expect to get certified for a vocation that is being taught as school-based. On the other hand, if one decides to take prevocational training measures, one cannot expect to get any kind of certification. Mostly people who left school, are the ones attending prevocational trainings [3].

In order to get to firm-based training, one does not have to hold any degree. However, that is rather an exception than a rule, since many people entering firm-based training usually hold an intermediate or upper-secondary school degree. The same can be applied to the people doing school-based training. That means at least 9–10 years of school attendance, depending on the regulations of a constitutional state. VET system and market is highly competitive, which usually means that companies are hiring only a certain profile and number of people. This means that often it is not easy to enter apprentice training and that high requirements need to be met. This also means that more apprentices are looking for a training place than the number of apprentice-level jobs that are open. The fact that there are not many jobs open and that companies require a certain profile in order to give an apprentice-level job, creates high competition among young people who are looking for apprentice training.

When it comes to school-based trainings, situation is a little different, meaning that there are regulations created by a school that need to be met. These regulations are usually very clear, so there is no competition in order to be better. School-based trainings usually require holding an upper-secondary degree or higher. The number of places available is not being adjusted to the number of youths seeking school-based training, but rather to the costs for the teachers, supply, and the number of internship places that will be available through the training.

The firm-based and school-based training usually last for 2–3.5 years. During this period, apprentices get paid for their work, that is usually lower than the regular wages. For small firms, paying an apprentice can be challenging, whereas bigger companies have the capital and human resources to bear such costs.

Both trainings are completed with a final exam. For skilled crafts, this exam is called Gesellenprüfung, which means journeyman’s examination and for industry workers, it is called Facharbeiterprüfung, which means skilled worker’s exam. Both of these exams are used as a tool in order to determine if the apprentice has acquired professional competences. There is also a mid-level examination organized in the middle of training, which serves to determine the level of training. Exams exist as written and practical part, which is approved by the highest Land authority and it is free of charge. They are organized by the Industry or Craftsman chambers who are also responsible for giving out the certificates [3].

Depending on the constitutional state, an apprentice who has completed a firm-based training and has work experience is able to enroll in a subject-specific program immediately. However, this is only theoretically possible, where in the praxis, there are very few people who manage that. A big part of the problem is the fact that many skills and knowledges that are gained through the VET are not recognized in higher educational institutions. Also, the focuses of VET and higher educational institutions are very different. VET is focused on giving practical knowledge and skills, highly focusing on the labor market, whereas higher education is more theory-oriented and not necessarily labor-market-oriented. These differences cause a very low percentage of mobility between these two systems. The only way to make this possible, is to obtain a higher, upper-level diploma. Obtaining one through VET is also a possibility, although this diploma is not as recognized as the one obtained through a higher upper-level school attendance, that usually takes place before enrolling to any kind of vocational training. There are also dual study programs, which allow students to obtain both a vocational and university diploma. However, they are still not resolving the problem of enrolling to university after VET, but rather deepening it. The sectors of VET and higher education are still remaining separate, and the examinations are organized separately. Also, the number of places opening dual study programs is very low. However, companies are profiting off of that, since it keeps VET interesting and attractive for young people and allows the companies to get to know the employees before they actually employ them [3].

When it comes to higher vocational qualifications, there are different possibilities open: master craftsman/master craftswoman or industrial foreman/forewoman, certified senior clerk, or clerk. Exams are organized throughout the country by industrial or craft chambers. In order to take the exam, one has to have a subject-specific qualification and sufficient professional practice. These exams usually qualify for the managerial positions in the respective field [9].

Quality assurance of the VET is organized cooperatively. That means that all parts of the VET system (government of the state, chambers, trade unions, employer associations and companies) are working together, in order to deliver the best quality of trainings [9].

VET trainings are highly standardized, which means that apprentices can transfer their certifications to other companies and employers. However, Germany’s labor market is highly determined by occupational certificates, which leads to a lower ability to switch between occupations later in life. Also, for students who are for any reason incapable of finishing the occupational training, there is very often no possibility of finishing it later in life, because German dual system is organized as initial vocational training only [3].

3. Vocational training in Switzerland-history and characteristics

3.1 History of vocational training in Switzerland

3.1.1 Vocational training in Switzerland from thirteenth to nineteenth century

Similar to Germany, apprentice training in Switzerland also began during the thirteenth century through the guilds of artisans. Through the French Revolution (1789–1799) and the collapse of the Old Swiss Confederacy, the guild system also collapsed, and in the nineteenth century, they started gaining more rights. During the nineteenth century, there have also been some efforts to establish a Ministry of Education, but these efforts failed, and organization of the educational system has been left to the cantonal government, with the exception of VET, which is regulated on a national level. Because of that, Switzerland still remains one of the few countries that does not have its own Ministry of Education [11].

The rights of the guilds depended a lot on the regulations of cantons, since Switzerland was (and still is) divided into French-speaking, Italian-speaking, and German-speaking cantons. Because of that, the development of the apprentice training was very different, depending on cantons and their organization. For example, in some mountain cantons, guilds have never had as much influence as in the city cantons. Even now, in German-speaking parts of the country, dual apprentice training still remains a predominant base of economy, whereas in Italian- and French-speaking parts, predominant are technical colleges that offer technical and general subjects [11].

However, in 1870s, caused by a long-lasting recession, local craft and trade associations emerged and created the Swiss Association for Small and Medium-size Enterprises. In 1880, the apprentice training was in the process of institutionalization. Educational aims became more important, and school began to play a big role in apprentice trainings; hence, the hours at school were increased, and apprentices, known as “young workers,” have slowly became “learners.” [12].

3.1.2 Vocational training in Switzerland during twentieth and twenty-first century

Around 1900s, this association started drawing up regulations and laws of apprenticeship training. The laws regulated the relationship and the agreements between apprentice and the firm they are to be taught at, their contract and the theoretical training that is supposed to be done parallel with the company training, as well as the final exam that is to be completed. Up to 1930s, these changes were only on cantonal level, until the first federal law on VET was published. This law applied to the training in trade, transport, industry, crafts, hotel, and catering sector and it was to be executed by cantonal governments. The execution included control of the duration of the training (the law required minimum of 1 year), intermediate examinations as well as final examinations. The aim of these regulations was to assure better working and training conditions for apprentices. In the years after World War Two, there was a big economic boom. During this period, the conditions of schooling and training were gradually getting better. In the year 1963, there was one revision of the Vocational and Professional Education and Training Act (Bundesgesetz über die Berufsbildung) [11].

After that, in 1978, other legislation of VET was introduced. These laws were designed in order to expand vocational training to non-German-speaking cantons, while keeping its current variety. In the 1990s, the Vocational Baccalaureate was introduced, which marked formal integration of VET into the Swiss education system [12].

The laws from 2003 and 2004 have essentially made that possible, holding to the agreement that every cantonal government still has its power to organize the education, while this law is providing more mobility through the systems and the cantons in the country. Also, all draft legislations are to be discussed with all interested parties before it is brought up in parliament. This law has also introduced introductory courses for young people, who are beginning their vocational training.

3.2 Institutional configuration of VET system in Switzerland

Switzerland is a federal republic consisting of 26 partly sovereign cantons and four linguistic regions. Regional and local autonomy is very high, which can be proved by the fact that Switzerland does not have an education ministry. Educational laws are being brought by joint work of the Federal government or the State Secretariat for Education, Research and Innovation, cantons, and professional organizations. These partners work together to provide and maintain the quality of education throughout the country. For the implementation of these laws, the responsibility lies in the hands of respectful cantons. These obligations and partnerships are regulated by the contemporary VPETA-the Federal Vocational and Educational Professional Training Act [13].

It is, however, important to highlight that apprentice training is the most popular kind of training in German-speaking parts of Switzerland. In French- and Italian-speaking parts, it does not play such a big role as it does in German. Therefore, one can say (as many experts do) that Switzerland uses the German dual model of apprentice training and education. However, it is not the one-to-one copy of the German VET system but is rather a blueprint with some adjustments to the Swiss governance and social system. Also, important to highlight is the fact that Switzerland is a part of the European Qualifications Network, organized in order to keep the educational systems more transparent and to provide people with the possibility to transfer their educational degrees to other systems easily. Switzerland also has its own National Qualifications Framework, which is in line with the European one, making it more transparent and easily accessible [10].

The meaning of initial VET in Switzerland is teaching and acquiring skills, knowledge, and competences, which are required in a certain occupation and vocation for carrying out work activities. It also includes basic general education and the ability to contribute to sustainable development.

The companies that are hiring apprentices are usually the ones bearing the costs of the whole process. When it comes to the costs of schooling, the public funds on a federal level usually cover up to 25% of the costs, and the rest is covered by the cantonal government [13].

Completed compulsory education and a minimum age of 15 are the requirements for entering vocational training. The vast majority of students coming out of compulsory education decide to enroll in some sort of vocational training. Many people also opt for a transitional option, which is either entering the 10th grade or enrolling in the preparatory course of VET. Vocational education and training in Switzerland are provided at the upper-secondary level, and professional education is provided at the tertiary level. Both of them are based on clearly defined training plans and use national qualification procedures. They are designed to enable switching between vocational or professional pathways and university pathways, enabling one to pursue other career paths or subsequent education and training opportunities.

Duration of VET varies from 2 years, after which apprentices can gain a Federal VET Certificate to 3–4 years, after which apprentices are able to get a Federal VET Diploma. School-based VET programs are also being organized and are a preferable way of schooling in Italian- and French-speaking parts of the country.

Speaking of places of learning, during company-based VET, it can be organized in a company, VET school or VET center. School-based vocational trainings are organized in schools, workshops, business schools, and companies which are offering practical training at one point of schooling [9].

Both of these trainings are completed with a final examination. Intermediate examinations are also carried out for various occupations. The exam is free of charge and can contain various parts, such as practice, occupation-specific training, and general school education. It is organized by the cantonal authorities. It usually consists of one practical assignment either as an individual practical assignment or as a predefined assignment.

VET in Switzerland is characterized as “dual system,” following the example of Germany’s dual system. This means that students attend vocational schools where they gain theoretical knowledge as well as apprentice training, where they gain practical knowledge and skills. In vocational schools, subjects that are related to vocation are being taught, but also subjects regarding languages and social skills. School attendance is usually limited to 1–2 days of school. The remaining time is spent in companies, where apprentices are actively taking part in the everyday work life of the company. There are also branch courses that are being offered as some kind of support to the apprenticeship training. They are usually organized by third-party training centers and often take place outside of school and work.

When it comes to the core syllabus, it is being created by representatives of the authorities, companies, and especially teachers employed at vocational schools. It is based upon pedagogical and didactical principles but also upon a list of vocational activities and a qualification profile, that both serve for the development of training plans [9].

The apprenticeship market is a structure that has two sides, one being the supply side and the other one being the demand side. The supply side implies host companies that are offering the apprenticeship trainings and the demand side is formed by young people who are seeking apprenticeship positions. The side that plays a mediating role is the State, ensuring the best possible conditions for both companies and apprentices, while also helping young people find the best suitable occupations. The state is also offering various counseling options and has opened and formed various bodies and agencies in order to help young people transition from compulsory education to vocational education and training.

Before the beginning of the training, apprentices and companies sign contracts, which in its sense is a standard employment contracts with notice that the purpose of the contract is completing a VET training. Besides the purpose of the training, it also regulates the duration of the apprenticeship, training obligation of the employer, and the time off work for attending school and/or additional programs.

Preparations for federal professional examinations are considered as tertiary level of schooling and take place alongside one’s working obligations. There is no obligation to do so, but apprentices can enroll in preparation programs offered by public or private organizations [13].

Speaking of access to higher education, Federal Vocational Baccalaureate gives people access to study programs at universities of applied sciences and, if they complete an additional, one-year program, access to Swiss tier-one universities.

4. Vocational training in Austria-history and characteristics

4.1 History of vocational training in Austria

4.1.1 Vocational training in Austria from fourteenth to nineteenth centuries

Vocational training in Austria has a long history, especially when it comes to VET colleges. These colleges have a long tradition, coming from educational reforms of Maria Theresia in the eighteenth and from the influence of French educational ideas in the nineteenth century. Although, apprentice trainings have a much longer history than VET colleges and schools. During the fourteenth century, the craftsmen that were practicing their work in the cities, have also actively taken part in the city council. They have wanted to protect their interests and have decided to regulate the apprenticeship trainings by law. The guilds were formed during the eighteenth century and lasted until the nineteenth. They still show great persistence and have kept existing in some forms up until today. In the nineteenth century, through industrialization, the role of handworkers was reduced. More often, machines were used instead of manual work [14].

During the first half of the nineteenth century, there were Sunday school courses for apprentices who had been attending trainings in firms, in order to educate them about the positions they worked on but also to follow the degree of industrialization. These courses were, in the latter half of the nineteenth century, institutionalized, and there were already schools for apprentices. This was the time when VET colleges were recognized and institutionalized. Already then, these schools became obligatory by trade law, for all apprentices that are going through apprenticeship trainings in the trade branch.

4.1.2 Vocational training in Austria during twentieth and twenty-first centuries

This law was a base for further laws, all the way up until 1970s when the First Vocational Training Act-Berufsausbildungsgesetz (BAG) was published. Based on this, other vocational schools, even these that exist today, were formed, but they were recognized during the twentieth century. These decisions were foundations on which VET colleges were built, combining a strong, school-based VET and dual apprenticeship training. With their long tradition, they are still an option number one for many Austrian students. Education at VET colleges takes five years to complete and provides a double qualification-a VET certification and the possibility to enter higher education [15].

During the law reformation in 1994, these schools were no longer recognized as low-level schools but rather as schools of higher educational level. School years were prolonged, and the curriculum was modified to fit the duration of the training. Later on, the system was changed and reformed to fit the modernization of companies. Curriculums for new apprentice trainings in different branches were written and organized, and companies were supported through various measurements, be it a financial form or in the form of law.

Parallel with the development of the vocational schools, there have also been attempts to create fully school-based apprentice trainings. These schools were also recognized later, during the second half of the nineteenth century, due to the lack of qualified workers in the field of engineering. It was mostly thanks to the liberal government that these schools were recognized, since no other government before had any interest in these types of trainings [16].

4.2 Institutional configuration of VET system in Austria

Austria is a parliamentary republic consisting of nine federal provinces. There is an Education Ministry that, together with federal governments, takes care of the matters of education. The contemporary act that regulates the company-based part of apprenticeship training is called the Vocational Training Act. According to this act, the cooperation between the authorities and the institutions involved in educational training is the responsibility of the Federal Ministry of Science, Research, and Economy. This Ministry also issues the training regulations for apprenticeship occupations, after the evaluation that is done by the Federal Advisory Board on Apprenticeship, also with the involvement of social partners. This is also how the syllabuses are being created, for every specific profession. At the level of federal provinces, they are being converted into a specific curriculum. Contemporary regulations regarding the organization of VET schools can be found in the School Organization Act [9].

The administration of schools and the organization of curriculum are the responsibility of the federal provinces, which means that the governments of the respective provinces are responsible for co-financing teachers, equipping schools, and implementing of the core syllabuses of the Federal Government. There are also apprenticeship offices that are situated in every Economic chamber of the province. Checking the suitability of the training company, making records of apprenticeship contracts, and dealing with the examinations of apprentices are some of the most important tasks of these offices. There are also authorized apprenticeship trainers, who are responsible for company-based trainings in cooperation with the VET schools [17].

According to contemporary the law, VETs should prepare young people to carry out professional activities, and the competences that are required for these activities should be taught in these programs, which should correspond with the “curriculum” of the company. School-taught occupations, however, are not connected so much to the specific professions but are rather educating people for the occupational fields. There is also some criticism regarding the VET system in Austria, stating that some apprenticeship trainings may be too narrow to provide an adequate foundation for a career.

In Austria, a dual system is also the option that was chosen as the most suitable one, when it comes to VET. Because of that, apprenticeship trainings are mostly carried out in companies and, partly, in vocational schools. The amount of time that is being spent in the company is also much longer than the amount of time spent at the vocational school. The companies are the ones that are financing the company part of training. However, there are many possibilities for a company to get a public subsidy, which can then cover mostly all expenses of apprentice training.

After the compulsory nine years of education, there is a possibility to take part in VET in Austria. Usually, a contract between a company and an apprentice has to be concluded, and some of the contents regulated by law are to be included. The duration of the training may vary, but it usually lasts from 2 to 4 years. Most of the trainings usually last 3 years. There is obligatory attendance at school that usually takes place once or twice a week, but it can also be organized as block classes, that are being taught once every few weeks, during a longer period of time. Other days of the week are usually spent in a company [18].

At the end of an apprenticeship training, there is always a final exam, in order to determine whether or not the candidate has required skills and knowledge for practicing the profession that they were trained for. The exam consists of two parts, one being theoretical and the other being practical. Practical exam consists of written tasks that are more practice-oriented and of an oral interview. It is regulated by a general law, describing the exam committee, procedure, and the determination of the result. There are also specific laws for different kinds of professions that are regulating the nature of the exam [9].

Once the apprenticeship training in Austria is done, it allows one to take part in a number of schooling activities and higher vocational and tertiary-level programs, such as master and qualifying exams, part-time industrial master colleges, and colleges of advanced vocational studies and specialist academies.

A special type of VET education in Austria is VET colleges. Education in these colleges usually lasts five years, which is longer than education in other schools. After five years, education leads to the double qualification of a VET diploma and an academic baccalaureate, which offers general access to higher education or the possibility to practice higher-level occupations. VET colleges cover six major fields: engineering, arts and crafts, business administration, management and service industries, fashion and design, agriculture and forestry, and tourism. There is a possibility for those who take training at VET Colleges of Engineering, Arts and Crafts and Agriculture and Forestry, to apply for the official “Engineer” title at the responsible ministry. These titles enjoy a great amount of popularity at the labor market and offer more possibilities for people holding them. Completion rates in upper-secondary education are very high by international standards [9].

It is important to highlight that Austria is a part of the European Qualifications Framework, established in order to keep educational systems more transparent and to allow one to transfer its own degree to other school systems inside Europe. Austria also has its own National Qualifications Framework, based on an eight-level structure, keeping education standardized [10].

5. Comparing VET systems in Germany, Switzerland, and Austria

Having everything previously written in mind, in this part of work, we will compare VET systems in Germany, Switzerland, and Austria, based on the following criteria: ways of regulating VET; costs; types of VET; previous education necessary to take part in VET; duration of VET; completion of vocational education and access to higher education after VET.

Speaking of regulations of VET in Germany, it is regulated by Vocational Training Act (VTA) and by regulations and laws of constitutional states. In Switzerland, it is regulated by VPETA-the Federal Vocational and Educational Professional Training Act, and by laws of Federal Government and cantons. Austria, however, has an Education Ministry that issues the laws regulating VET, but Federal Government as well as governments of federal provinces, takes part in regulating VET. All in all, it can be said that in all of these countries, VET is regulated by general law, followed by federal laws and laws of constitutional countries (cantons, provinces, or states).

When it comes to the costs of VET, in Germany, the companies are the ones bearing the cost of company training, and the government is the one having a budget for school training of apprentices. A similar situation is in Switzerland, as well as in Austria. In all these countries, companies have a possibility to get subsidies from the government covering certain expenses or the whole expense of training an apprentice.

Organizing apprenticeship training is an important aspect of apprenticeship training. In Germany, there are dual trainings, taking place partially in a company and partially in a vocational school. There is also an option of taking part in school-based vocational training. In this case, vocational trainings are being taught at schools with a practical part during the school year. There are also prevocational training measures, helping future apprentices to prepare for trainings. These programs do not issue an official certificate that can get one a job but is rather a way of preparing for learning for a certain job. In Switzerland, the situation is similar to in Germany-there are dual trainings, school-based programs, and preparatory VET courses. The same case is in Austria.

Previous school diplomas are a condition that needs to be fulfilled in order to take part in VET in Austria and in Switzerland. In Austria, one has to have finished a minimum of 9 years of compulsory school in order to join a VET, and in Switzerland, there is a condition of completion of compulsory education and a minimum of 15 years of age, in order to be a VET. In Germany, however, there is no rule about having any degree before joining a VET. However, this is rarely a case, since many people starting a VET hold an intermediate or an upper-secondary degree.

The duration of VET in all of these countries is similar: In Germany from 2 to 3.5 years; in Switzerland 2–4 and in Austria also, from 2 to 4 years. At the end of the training, there is a final exam in all of these countries.

Having access to higher education is an option in Austria and in Switzerland. In Austria, there are different options for apprentices finishing their trainings, such as master and qualifying exams, part-time industrial master colleges, and colleges of advanced vocational studies and specialist academies, as well as VET colleges. In Switzerland, holding a Federal Vocational Baccalaureate also opens many doors in the institutions of higher education. In Germany, there is a theoretical option of enrolling in higher education. However, practically this is rarely possible. When it comes to higher vocational education in Germany, there are options such as master craftsman or craftswoman, industrial foreman, or forewoman and senior clerk.

Also, all three of these countries are a part of the European Qualifications Framework, database that keeps track and all the important information on the educational systems of 11 EU countries, countries that are candidates or potential candidates for membership and Iceland, Norway, and UK. It is organized in order to keep educational systems more transparent and provide easier access to people seeking work or education. Germany, Switzerland, and Austria also have their own National Qualifications Frameworks, that are in line with the European one. This shows a great and important step on connecting with other countries and creating a more open system for everyone who wish to take part in it, whether it is getting a professional qualification or finding work [10].

Regarding everything that has been said, it can be concluded that each and every one of these systems has its advantages and disadvantages compared to the other two systems. For example, the system in Germany is so organized, that it is possible for people without previous education, or for people coming from other countries who have finished their education there, to enroll into VET. There is usually one preparatory year after which it is possible to fully take part in VET. Compared to that, Switzerland and Austria have a requirement of a minimum age and of a minimum of age that are required for enrolling in VET.

On the other hand, access to higher education after the apprenticeship training is easier in Switzerland and in Austria, than it is in Germany. In Switzerland, it is necessary to finish another year of education and get the baccalaureate, whereas in Austria there is open access to higher education for all apprentices finishing their trainings. In Germany, that is theoretically possible, but practically it is not. Because of that, German VET system appears to be the most rigid one, even though it provides the country with a stable economy. Criticism striking the Austrian system is mainly pointing out the fact that it should be giving a broader basic knowledge and better professional orientation.

Of course, it is only fair to point to the advantages of these systems, such as are the facts that apprenticeship trainings are very seriously taken by government and that there are many investments going on, helping companies, schools, and apprentices to get the best education possible. Also, these systems are very stable and long-lasting, which shows how important for the society they are. There are also many institutions and bodies taking care of the functioning of the apprentice training systems, starting from the government, chambers, federal and land governments, companies, and scientists in the whole country. It shows that there are many people with different opinions and skills of critical thinking involved in the organization of the system. There are many additional programs organized around the VET system, offering additional help to apprentices, companies, and schools. This shows how big and important the role of the VET in these countries is, as it has been recognized by the countries but also by other people and organizations.

6. Conclusion

Vocational and Educational Training in German-speaking countries is a topic concerning researchers and decision-makers for decades. It has caused a lot of criticism and ideas for reforms through the years.

Starting from the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, from inns, and apprentices learning for their vocations there, through the centuries of fighting for organized chambers and reforms, all the way up to the first apprenticeship laws, there has been a long way of establishing VET systems in Germany, Switzerland, and Austria.

These systems are based upon federal laws and the laws of the specific lands and parts of the country, also involving experts in education and companies and chambers. Countries are investing resources into VET systems and supporting them through all kinds of different ways, such as subsiding the education, investing in schools and teachers and creating different programs in order to help the apprentices, companies, and schools.

Apprenticeship trainings in these countries last from 2 to 4 years, with an option of attending another year of education, in order to get the access to the higher vocational education or higher education in general. All trainings are completed with a final exam.

Although not perfect, these systems are keeping the economy of these three countries alive for centuries, assuring low rates of unemployment among young people and providing them with the necessary knowledge for starting a career. Besides that, there are many other ways of helping apprentices, companies, and schools in organizing the best apprenticeship trainings possible, which shows the level of importance of VET in these countries.

Of course, they are not flawless, in fact, they should be more flexible and agile, accepting changes in the society and adjusting themselves to the needs of a modern society.

Considering how important VET in these societies is and the number of investments in it, it would only be fair of the system to adjust itself to the society and the people in it, as well as to the times and the needs that are changing.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank my academic mentor, Prof. Dr. Milica Andevski and the Faculty of Philosophy, University of Novi Sad, for helping me get here where I am now by providing me with all the necessary knowledge in the field of Pedagogy. Also, I would like to thank my employer and my colleagues from the team Ausbildung at Bildungswerk der Hessischen Wirtschaft in Frankfurt am Main. Thank you for helping me learn a lot about VET training in Germany by giving me the opportunity to work for and with you.

Last, but most certainly not least, I would like to thank my husband, Dejan, for being there for me through my academic and private journey, helping me and supporting me, as well as my parents, Radojka and Srdjan, brother Momcilo and my best friend, Jovana. Thank you all for the endless amounts of support and for believing in me.