Perspective Chapter: The True Cost of Coal – Should Ego Veto Eco?

Abstract

There is an urgent need to address the ever-growing concerns about the long-term impacts of coal mining as a cheap energy source in the 21st century because the consequence of inaction threatens the health of the environment, which is inextricably linked to human health. The discovery of the world’s largest solid fuel no doubt brought about industrial and modern technology revolution, but its cost on air, water, land, ecosystem, animal, and human health has brought about new realities that intreat urgent action. As humans, we sit on top of the food chain perpetuating our dominance over other species and studies have shown that with regards to the battle for the earth, human needs come first. To maintain a sustainable ecosystem, we need to foster a mutually beneficial relationship that promotes both the health and sustainability of our environment. A targeted transition away from coal to cleaner forms of energy will undeniably benefit the ecosystems, however appropriate measures are needed to continually reduce the environmental footprint, of the most available energy source so we can protect both the environment and human health.

1. Introduction

There are numerous economic and immediate benefits arising from coal mining [1] because it is a cheaper energy source and power drives the economy, hence, increased demand by many countries despite mounting evidence that using coal as an energy source poses serious threats to both humans, animals, and the environment, we share [2].

All phases of coal utilization involve many hazardous aspects [3]. Coal mining processes require major earth movements which disrupt and/or damage vegetation and topsoil, leaving mined areas prone to erosion. When coal is burned it also releases harmful pollutants into the atmosphere and this contributes to the climate change crisis, acid rain, and various respiratory health problems, and its left-over waste also poses the risk of water pollution and loss of habitat to wildlife [4, 5].

Coal is a non-renewable energy resource [6], which when mined, becomes difficult to clean up. It leaves an undesirable, long-term effect on the environment as many old mines are abandoned when it is no longer profitable to mine, desperately leaving the sites needing reclamation and/or remediation.

1.1 History of coal mining

The “black gold” as it was called when it was first discovered, is the most abundant fossil fuel on earth [7]. Coal mining, by definition, is the extraction of coal deposits from the surface of the earth and from underground. History showed that this energy source powered the Industrial Revolution. Large-scale exploitation of coal deposits was largely responsible for industrialization that occurred in that era: between the 18th–19th century.

Archeological evidence from the bronze age period from 3000 to 4000 years ago suggests the use of coal in funeral pyres in Wales. The Chinese earliest mentions of a coal mine being opened was over 3000 years ago and the Romans were the first recorded to have used coal more extensively; they used coal as fuel to heat baths, ornaments, iron forging, and for religious ceremonies and coal was used to worship the goddess of wisdom, Minerva [7, 8].

Around the 1700s due to the population boom, the demand for coal exploded. The invention of the steam engine helped the mining companies overcome the issue of flooded mines as water could be pumped out, which allowed coal mines to delve deeper into the ground [8]. The mines became not only deeper, but also more dangerous, with other threats arising from explosives, poisonous gases, and possible collapse of coal mines [9]. Nowadays, coal continues to be used directly (heating) and indirectly (producing electricity). It is used as fuel around the world, and in developing countries, it is the leading choice of energy [10].

Individual households and industrial furnaces use coal directly through burning. Widespread indirect use involves the use of coal to generate electricity [11]. Coal-fired power plants are arguably the most popular ways to produce and distribute electricity. Coal-fired power plants combust coal to power boilers whose steam is used to turn turbines to activate generators that produce electricity [12]. Likewise, the use of metallurgical coke for steelmaking has been a major driver for technological innovations [13]. Many countries generate electricity through coal-fired plants [14]. There is no denying the contribution and importance of coal to the world’s energy budget. Its relative ease of extraction and ubiquitous nature, make it desirable for use as an energy source [15]. Coal production is not weather dependent, and upon mining it becomes very readily available for use all year round.

1.2 What is coal?

Coal is made up of trapped carbon and hydrogen-rich material, whose energy is released following combustion. Coal is a sedimentary rock that is usually either black or brownish-black in color [16]. Coal formation began hundredths of millions of years ago when plants, which were once alive, die with their stored solar energy acquired through photosynthesis [17]. The plants then began the process of decay. And this process of decomposing becomes intercepted for thousands of years, allowing for pressure and heat buildup on top of the plant remains and also for further physicochemical changes, which force oxygen out, such that its remains turn into coal [18].

Since coal is subjected to different phases of carbonization over millions of years, it is usually found at different stages of development [19]. There are several types of coal ranked according to how much it has changed over time. The general rule is that the deeper the coal seam, the more the temperature and pressure the coal becomes subjected to, and the greater its transformation into carbon [20].

1.2.1 Types of coal

Lignite - This coal is the lowest rank of coal. It contains low amounts of energy—its carbon content is about 25–35%. It comes from relatively young coal deposits. Lignite contains more moisture than other types of coal, usually crumbly brown and susceptible to fortuitous combustion.

Sub-Bituminous Coal - Contains more carbon than lignite, about 35–45%. In many parts of the world, sub-bituminous coal is considered “brown coal,” along with lignite. Like lignite, sub-bituminous coal is mainly used as fuel for generating electricity.

Bituminous coal is formed under more heat and pressure and is usually between 100 and 300 million years old. It is named after the sticky, tar-like substance called bitumen and contains about 45–86% carbon. There are three types: smithing coal, coking coal, and cannel coal. Anthracite - This is referred to as the peak coal. With the most abundant carbon (97%), it contains the most energy. It is harder, denser, and glossier than other types of coal. It burns cleanly with very little soot and is used in water-filtration systems. (Source: Coal 101, Student Energy, www.studentenergy.org).

2. Coal form an ego standpoint

The worldwide consumption of coal as an energy source is quite extensive [14]. In South Africa 93% of electricity is generated by coal [21]. About 45% of the US national grid is coal driven while countries like China, India, Russia, and Australia are also heavily reliant on coal-powered energy [22]. The economics that drives the coal mining industry is huge, providing millions of people worldwide with jobs. Many of them have a wide range of knowledge and skills, ranging from miners to chemists, engineers, geologists, etc.

The coal industry is deemed critical to development in both the developed and developing world. Although as non-renewable energy, we cannot add to the world’s coal, and it may not be available forever. However, with approximately 11 trillion tons of coal distributed worldwide, and recoverable coal estimated at 760 billion tons (Europe 49%, North America 29%, Asia 14%, Australia 6%, Africa, and South America 1% each), coal mining would still be around for a long time [7].

While coal by far is considered the dirtiest fossil fuel there is in terms of carbon emissions and air pollution [23], arguments to support its use as a way of life from a cultural and political standpoint continues to be made, despite evidence of the environmental cost and the health care cost [24], especially in comparison to other energy sources like natural gas and renewables like solar and wind.

In the US, some lawmakers continue to make the case for coal by appealing to people’s sense of history and heritage. Blocking legislation that would speed the country’s transition away from coal to other clean energy sources, and advocating to relax environmental legislations that hold them accountable for pollution, serves only the interests of the energy-producing companies [25]. The argument that the environmental cost of coal extraction pales in comparison to the economic toll, is one that many environmentalists find insupportable because they believe that this threat is beyond economic, and should, first and foremost, be a moral issue; an obligation owed to the planet.

Coal amongst other energy sources is a necessity for the developed world to maintain their prosperity and the developing ones to push to lessen poverty. It is pivotal to economic growth, infrastructural development and urbanization [26]. The demand for roads, airports and housing drives those of electricity, steel and cement typically rely on coal to fuel their production. Coal retains its prominence because of the global energy demand.

2.1 The energy-manipulating machine

There is no doubt that the world has largely become a consumerist society, especially in the developed countries where the means, the purchasing power, and the resources are replete.

Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) the British Philosopher, termed energy as being fundamentally responsible for material inequities between societies. The richer countries produce and have access to more energy than they need when compared to the poorer countries. There was the belief that a society that harnessed the most energy from its resources was by far superior [27].

Historically, Wilhelm Ostwald described energy transformation from its crude form into its useful form as the base for all social change “a guideline for cultural development” [28]. The race to exploit these natural resources was seen as a means of emancipation and empowerment [29, 30, 31]. so much so that even leaders of the communist revolution in Russia, thought electrification could be an agenda towards “true communism” [32]. The Germans on the other hand, through their engineers, were innovators in the field of electric power generation and transmission, they promoted the idea of surpassing profit with efficiency, making efficiency the primary regulator of the economy [33].

Whatever ideology drove massive energy production, profit was at its core, some ideologies even subscribed to the use of energy as a form of currency to replace gold [34]. Energy producers designed ways to market their products in a way that interacted with societies, cultures, economics, and the environment [35]. The societies measured value based on what was owned; soon the race to possess numerous gadgets which required power to run, became a fad. Unaware, the public was successfully programmed into making consumption a way of life.

In Germany for example, there was an economic boom post-WWII, and increasing the sales of electricity became part of the social construct for nation-building, due to mass consumption. An assortment of electricity advertisements marketed modernity, freedom, leisure, and progress as their subtexts. France on the other hand, marketed a new social order reinforced by electricite de France, promoting a rapid accumulation of appliances in households, for comfort and then later, as lifestyle objects [36].

Many high-energy consuming countries were not formed through cultural exemplifications of energy alone, but also, by the actual consumption patterns. Electricity utility companies envisioned households as a part of their production and marketing strategy and used appliances to shape consumer practices.

2.2 Making a case for coal

There’s undoubtedly, a huge skepticism when it comes to clean coal and quite frankly, it sounds paradoxical to use the label ‘clean coal,’ considering how inherently dirty and destructive the mining process is, from extraction to utilization. There has been a concerted effort since the first coal-fired generator began running in England back in the late 1800s to find cleaner ways to burn coal and this continues to develop.

Progress has been made from burning coal inside homes to moving power plants with tall smokestacks outside of cities, thus, reducing the immediate problem of inhaling soot. Further advancement came with the technology of installing filters to retain particulates and scrubbers to trap the sulfur gases that were generating acid rain [37]. The newest technological advances are now able to capture CO2, preventing its release into the atmosphere. The trace metals and sulfur are concentrated as coal waste stored in slurry ponds or landfills as fly ash and gypsum. However, occasionally due to flooding or procedural mishap, some of this waste spill into rivers.

Although the older coal power plants were more notorious for releasing pollutants, some people continue to make the case that deploying higher-tech plants with lower emissions, such as the ultra-supercritical plants, which also have lower operational and maintenance costs technologies may be beneficial, the downside is that they are more capital intensive [38]. In general, as operations become more advanced in tech, they become cleaner and more efficient, and require less human involvement, thus reducing potential hazards to miners and the workforce.

Advocating for stricter emission standards has been the view of many environmental stakeholders. In China, for example, there has been a steady tightening of pollution emissions standards as Beijing rolled out a new air quality monitoring system that provides real-time information on air quality across the nation [39], pressured by its citizens, authorities abandoned the previously subjective air quality reporting system [40]. Currently, China’s new air pollution emissions standards for new and existing coal-fired power plants are sturdier than those from the European Union and the United States [41].

One of the strongest advocacies for the continued interest in coal mining has been that the world’s economy may collapse if we move away since power drives the economy. The livelihoods of many people depend on the extractive industries and even for some, it is an identity and a way of life. China’s newer power plants are becoming more efficient in terms of labor, employing fewer human hands [42]. The coal sector in China was expected to lay off approximately 1.3 million workers between 2016 to 2020 [43]. Similar pattern is recounted in the US where coal mining employment has been experiencing a steady decline [44, 45, 46]. A shift from labor-intensive underground mining in the East to highly mechanized surface mining in the West is responsible for the decline in employment [47]. Other associated factors are the falling demand for coal and electricity, price drop for natural gas, solar, and wind which serve as alternative renewable sources, and the rising energy efficiency [48].

The simple fact shows that in the United States new jobs are being added in the renewable energy sector [49], which competes favorably with coal-fired electricity generation—particularly shale gas, wind, and solar. Similarly, U.S. electric utility executives are directing their business models towards renewable options—and away from coal [50]. Some visionary leaders are making strategic choices in the direction they want their country to go especially in China, where the political will is rooted in both international and domestic pressure, however just like in the rest of the world, vested interests serve as a political clog in the wheels of accelerated progress.

Coal remains abundant and cheap as an energy source, the question then arises if the fact justify the true cost paid by the people whose lives are profoundly altered through exposure to hazardous materials, or the communities who breathe air polluted by coal or mining dust, or drink water contaminated by coal mines or coal combustion residues [51, 52, 53]. The scale of pollution that coal generates at every step when compared to other sources make it an environmental liability. If new technologies were adequate to remove air and other forms of pollutants from coal, if CO2 were captured and stored safely in underground reserves, perhaps there would be less call to shift from fossil fuels to alternative sources.

3. Coal form an eco-standpoint

One of the most powerful tools for many fossil fuel energy companies has been the power of denial. The intentional and persistent denial of the link between their activities and the climate change crisis. There is an alleged campaign of deception and misinformation which has been since the early 1990s. The World Coal Institute’s position was that: “model-based projections are controversial, uncertain, and without confirmation, and that scientists were divided in their opinion about the likelihood and consequences of climate change” [54].

With almost 40% of the world’s carbon dioxide emissions arising from burning coal, the environmental effects of the coal industry seem harmful, producing gases such as carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), sulfur trioxide (SO3), nitric oxide (NO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) [55, 56]. A report suggested that considering the severe damaging effects on human health and environmental health, that it needs to be addressed as a public health issue [57]. Occupational hazards to miners resulting from accidents and also to their health are of serious concern, an example is black lung disease (coal workers’ pneumoconiosis) [58].

Although many corporations are largely not held accountable for the damage they create, by releasing lead, mercury, selenium, and other toxicants into the environment, this raises serious moral and ethical issues because it puts humans and the planet at risk. At the least, these threats should trigger precautionary measures even if direct cause and effect correlation has not been fully elucidated [59]. The onus probandi then lies with the coal industry that no harm is caused [60].

3.1 Environmental concerns and consequences

3.1.1 Land

The environmental impacts of coal mining are dramatic. Due to major earth movements, the landscape is torn apart, destroying habitats and entire ecosystems. Mining also causes landslides and subsidence (when the ground begins to sink or cave in), thus reducing the value of the natural environment in the surrounding land [61], or rendering the land completely unusable.

Vegetation, wildlife, and habitat, general topography are usually sacrificed in areas subjected to mining [62]. Paleontological, cultural, and archeological loss may ensue due to the blasting, ripping, and excavation processes [63]. Heavy hauling of soil and coal increases dust dispersal during mining operations which degrade air quality and impacts vegetation. Waste piles accumulate, and there is a loss of topsoil, forming large infertile wastelands [64]. The whole sight, sound, and smell of a mined area may become affected.

3.1.2 Water

Coal mining activities can constitute a major and persistent source of pollution to water bodies either directly or indirectly. This presents harmful consequences to aquatic animals, poses risks to humans who are downstream end users, hinders aquatic activities, and impairs the quality of water for use [65]. Other changes may affect the physicochemical and biological characteristics of the water bodies in a manner that potentially threatens the organisms inhabiting the water, the aquatic ecosystems, and biodiversity [66] which may then upset ecological and ecosystem services, disturbing its quality and productivity.

One major way coal mining activities usually contribute to water pollution is by promoting an acid mine drainage environment. It happens when chemical changes occur from weathering of minerals (pyrite) which contacts water and air, then discharges with the resultant release of metals, generating acidity (sulfuric acid) to receiving waterbodies [67]. Waste piles also contribute to the deterioration of water quality, groundwater contamination, toxic trace elements, and the presence of highly dissolved solids. Coal-fired boilers, using either coal or lignite rich in limestone also contribute to salinity in water bodies [68].

3.1.3 Air

Burning coal releases gases and particulates that are harmful to the environment. Hazardous air pollutants emitted from coal-fired plants include toxic heavy metals (e.g., As, Pb, Cd, Se, Hg), sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, and radioactive elements (e.g., uranium, radium, thorium) [69].

Particulates (fly ash), and fugitive dust released are a risk to humans, animals, and the environment. Coal dust are respiratory irritants that have been linked to black lung disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and silicosis [70]. Likewise, the potential health impacts of nanoparticles generated during coal mining and coal combustion continue to raise questions [71], and reports of increasing human morbidity and mortality in people living near and far from coal power plants owing to air pollution are disturbing [72].

The extraction and burning of coal releases sequestered carbon into the atmosphere, which leads to a build-up of greenhouse gases responsible for climate change and global warming [73]. Coal fires emit tons of greenhouse gases, and due to their combustible nature, coal seams can self-ignite and burn underground threatening valuable infrastructures [74]. Lightning, wildfires, and explosives used in the extraction process may also start coal fires which release deleterious gases.

3.2 Global warming and climate change

Greenhouse gases produced by human activities have been implicated in global warming and rising climate-related surface level air warming [75] which occurs at the rate of 0.8 to 1.3°C, and this assertion is unequivocal. Burning fossil fuel releases large amounts of carbon into the atmosphere, causing CO2 levels in the atmosphere to rise along with CH4 and to a lesser extent, NO [76]. The observed impact within the scientific community is shifting from that of concern to threats.

Changing weather patterns are significantly changing the timing of the seasons and affecting species and their ecology [77]. The disappearance of glaciers is forcing migration towards the poles to maintain temperature stability. A study showed that since the start of the twentieth century, animals’ reproduction and migration occurred earlier than they did when the average global temperature was 1°F cooler [78]. Scientists observed the earlier arrival of migrant birds, the earlier appearance of butterflies, earlier spawning in amphibians, and the earlier flowering of plants [79]. Evidence suggests a broad range of organisms with different geographical distributions have been affected by climatic changes.

Climate change issues have resulted in food and water shortages, and increased the risk of flooding, particularly for those living in poverty [80], and countries that cannot afford the infrastructures to accommodate floods, droughts, severe storms, and epidemics of disease that make them vulnerable. It is projected that by 2065, the community of property reinsurers’ losses from climate impacts on the global economy may tend towards bankruptcy if we do not act now to mitigate the risks [81]. Extremes of temperature are reported to account for 9.4% of global deaths (up to 5 million annually) between 2000 and 2019 [82].

4. Human health impact

4.1 Occupational hazard

Historically, coal mining is thought to be a very dangerous activity, with attending historical disasters arising from wall failures and vehicle collisions, the danger of suffocation, gas poisoning, and explosions. Many miners die annually, either directly from accidents in coal mines or adverse health consequences. The United States reported an average of 23 coal miners’ death per year from 2007 to 2016, while Chinese miners related death around the same time was 6027 [83, 84].

Other risks are those associated with suffocation due to the buildup of hazardous gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen, the risk of explosion from highly flammable gases, and asphyxiation from possible methane poisoning [85].

4.2 Pathophysiology of coal inhalation in humans

4.2.1 Lungs

The lungs are the predilection site for air pollutants [86].Coal inhalation triggers several respiratory diseases collectively known as coal mine-dust lung disease which affect the lung health of miners; Silicosis, chronic bronchitis, chronic obstructive airway disease, including emphysema and mixed dust pneumoconiosis [87].

Indirect exposure predisposes to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, lung cancer, and respiratory infection, children and the elderly are more vulnerable [88], leading to reduced life expectancy and co-morbidity.

Black lung disease is still common in some mining countries, affecting 4% of US workers and 0.2% percent of China workers. Rates may be higher than reported in some regions, continued prevalence is projected in the future [89].

4.2.2 Heart

There is a strong correlation between increased risks of coronary artery disease, heart failure, stroke, cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, and environmental air pollutants [90]. Many other cardiovascular diseases have been specifically linked to contaminants arising from coal and coal processing found in air and water [91].

The pathogenesis of these cardiac diseases is hypothesized to be related to the development of oxidative stress, immune-mediated systemic inflammation, and endothelium dysfunction, resulting in hypertension, cardiac hypertrophy, atherosclerosis, thrombosis, and myocardial ischemic damage [92] which affect the quality of life and could lead to mortality.

4.2.3 Brain

The human brain is also a likely target for pollutants released from coal burning. It causes brain structural changes, and neuropsychological change alters cognitive development and promotes memory impairment, especially in children [93]. Neurotoxic pollutants are present in coal; As, Hg and Al trigger oxidative stress and apoptosis in the central nervous system [94].

People exposed to arsenic present with axonal degeneration of peripheral nerve and the role of Hg in neurodegenerative diseases, like Alzheimer’s disease has been elucidated, and Hg is reported to be the most substantial trace-element causing an imbalance in the amygdala, hippocampus, and cerebral cortex [95].

Other associated disorders related to coal inhalation include causing possible DNA damage [96], drop in reproductive capacities and infertility [97], fetal- toxicity, and other co-morbidiites [98].

5. The future coal field

Although coal mining may have earned itself a bad name especially amongst environmentalist, and scientists who have clearly established a link between climate change and coal burning [99] and its potentially dangerous consequences for humanity [100]. Our current reality does not support a total abandonment from coal use, and despite these issues, it is crucial to explore ways to reduce anthropogenic emissions by re-inventing coal utilization for the future. For example, the use of technology for Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) or Carbon Capture and Sequestration (CCS), will help reduce greenhouse gas emissions [101], likewise, technological improvements that employ supercritical (SC) and ultra-supercritical (USC) technologies make coal-fired power plants become more efficient and cleaner [102], because it produces smaller amounts of CO2 per unit of electricity generated, and consequently, require less to be captured, this ultimately improves efficiency and cost, and lowers penalties for CO2 release.

Moreover, the fact that in some parts of the world, coal is still the primary source of energy for electricity generation and transitioning to other sources may be costly and difficult, efforts must therefore be geared towards improving fuel combustion efficiency and pollution control equipment performance. Similarly providing much needed funding for equipment upgrading, performance monitoring and diagnostic testing would be immensely beneficial to curbing pollution [103].

Offering incentives to continue research and development towards a near-zero emission technology can further help make the case for the continued use of the world’s most abundant solid fuel [104]. The integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) is said to have the potential to achieve higher efficiency, it is intended to decarbonize coal combustion and these system technologies when refined, can be deployed for commercialization purposes [105].

6. Conclusion

Coal as an energy source has contributed tremendously to industrialization and technological advancement and the argument is not to shut down all coal plants by tomorrow, but to acknowledge its setbacks as a power-generating source that competes with the essential elements necessary for human survival: water and air. That in mind should be a driver towards being intentional about putting adequate measures in place to preserve human health and protect the environment.

Unfortunately, neither the producers nor consumers of coal energy are immune from the consequences of the danger the industry poses. The realization that we are all a part of this increasingly vulnerable community, should prompt a new sense of common purpose, that sets the tone for a renewed relationship. The energy conglomerates want to thrive and promote their business, we the consumers understand energy is a necessity for a vibrant economy, however, their activities and our demand should not be solely motivated by the economics of the market which does not account for community and/or environmental consequences of its operations.

There must be a way to expand wealth in a global context without destroying the physical environment on which it depends. Humans have fared well when faced with challenging situations. We have negotiated peace in the time of war, survived and beat a global pandemic, and there is hope that we can find a way to avert this impending and inevitable catastrophe. The entire human enterprise collectively needs to see transitioning to sustainable energy as a global project that could pull us out of the impending natures fury.

Nowadays, alternative fuels (e.g., natural gas, wind energy and solar power) are becoming widely available for generating power [106] and more investments into alternative sources, offer a greater chance of rendering coal mining in some countries uneconomic, especially the older mines. However, the political will to support such projects will be needed. The recent breakthrough announced by US scientists in nuclear fusion [107] involves the technology that could potentially provide near-limitless clean energy, but this development is yet to come to the fore in any major way.

There is optimism for the future in our resourcefulness and creativity to tackle this problem, but time may not be on our side as people around the globe continue to feel the economic impact of climate change and the cost of mitigation becoming unjustifiable.

In conclusion, although technological advancements in the future could make coal utilization cleaner and more efficient, we need to do more in the present. It is worthy of note that cost should not be the reason why the world has not committed to clean energy despite the evidence that millions of jobs will be created, and that the industry is growing faster than fossil fuel-powered industries. Our biggest impediment is change — one that “big coal” does its best to encourage.