The Captive Nations in Malay and Persian Travel Narratives

Abstract

Siyāḥatnāmah-ʾi Ibrāhīm Bayg (SIB), a fictionalized Persian travelog by Zayn al-ʿAbidīn Marāghah-ī, and Kesah Pelayaran Abdullah (KPA) a Malay travelog by Abdullah Munshi, similarly portray unfavorable commentaries about the nation from observations during travel. Both deliver multilayered messages through series of dialogs, intertextuality quotes, and various analogies. Paradoxically, the unfavorable remarks about the nation act as wake-up call to the awareness of the nation’s real condition. SIB was published anonymously but later it gained recognition as being important in the process of a country’s revolution. KPA was published publicly from the beginning but was seen as propaganda to devalue the nation. However, KPA is deemed revolutionary due to its contribution for the development of Malay literature. Despite the displeasing ambiance of both narratives, the doctrine of nationalism actively echoes. Therefore, KPA and SIB should be considered as cultural products of nationalism for their respective countries, Malaya and Iran.

1. Introduction

“…Everywhere the obligations of the ruler and the duties of the ruled are known and specified, except for Iran, where we unlucky people are prisoner to the order and subject to the carnal requests of this handful of pharaohs and Nimrods for whom whatever they command about our property, life, and honor, is carried out, and they are not called to account. Our screams for justice get nowhere. Today, the blacks of Habash and Sudan have been delivered from this imprisonment and oppression and possess every kind of human right. But poor us, they harden the chain of our captivity daily and tighten the circle of our human rights every moment more than before [1].”

This passage from SIB expresses sorrow over Iran, depicted as a country lacking justice. The reference to historical figures such as the pharaohs and Nimrods, notorious for their tyrannical rule, highlights the oppressive nature of the nation’s leaders. In contrast, the citizens are portrayed as unfortunate captives, deprived of their freedom, particularly when compared to the Habash and Sudan, which have a history of slavery. The tightening restrictions on their human rights are metaphorically depicted as a constricting chain of captivity. Although it may initially appear as the cry of an oppressed heart, the passage prompts a deeper understanding of captivity. While it may not be accurate to associate a nation with physical or mental captivity, it is justifiable to symbolically portray a desolate nation as conceptually imprisoned.

2. Kesah Pelayaran Abdullah (KPA) by Abdullah Munshi

KPA stands out as an innovative piece of early modern Malay literature due to its pioneering use of Western travel writing techniques [2]. Its author, Abdullah bin Abdul Kadir, also known as Abdullah Munshi, was an Arab-Tamil figure celebrated for his remarkable skill in crafting Malay literature and regarded as the Father of Modern Malay literature. Notably well-educated, Abdullah Munshi demonstrated proficiency in Tamil, Malay, Arabic, English, and Hindi. He had prior involvement with the British and Christian evangelists, working as a language teacher, translator, and scribe [3].

In March 1838, Abdullah took on the role of a letter bearer to Kelantan and personal interpreter for an English officer named Grandpe. Their journey involved traveling by water and making stops in other states such as Pahang and Terengganu. Abdullah’s decision to document his experiences was influenced by the encouragement he received from Alfred North, a British missionary who later assisted him in publishing the travelog. It is worth noting that KPA generated controversy due to Abdullah’s inclusion of unfavorable remarks about Malay society and a member of the Malay royal family, Tengku Temena. Additionally, sarcastic comments comparing the Malays and the British portrayed Abdullah as a subservient figure to the English. However, it is important to note that the narrative does not touch upon sensitive religious issues.

Despite KPA’s inclination toward Western values and its critical tone toward the Malays, it continues to be valued for its revolutionary style and has even been used as a textbook in schools. In comparison to earlier travelogues, Skinner lauds KPA for its intellectual writing style as it goes beyond mere description and incorporates analytical situations, information searches, and expressions of opinions [4]. In essence, KPA can be viewed as a manuscript that played a role in literary reform. However, Sweeney disagrees and accuses it of undermining Malay values [2]. This study proposes a different perspective, suggesting that the antagonistic narratives in KPA should be seen as a strategy to expose the nation’s captivity, positioning it as an act of rescuing the nation rather than one of ‘treachery.’ KPA will be compared to another travel narrative, Siyāḥatnāmah-ʾi Ibrāhīm Bayg, which shares similarities in various aspects.

3. Siyāḥatnāmah-ʾi Ibrāhīm Bayg (SIB) by Zayn al-ʿAbidīn Marāghah-ī

SIB, authored by Zayn al-ʿAbidīn Marāghah-ī, is a fictionalized travelog that reflects the author’s extensive experiences abroad, including stays in Russia and Istanbul. While he primarily wrote social and political articles for newspapers, his most notable work is his travel narrative of Ibrāhīm Bayg [5]. According to Yaḥyā Aryān Pūr, SIB holds a pioneering status in Persian literature as it is regarded as the first Persian novel to adopt a European style [6]. SIB had a profound impact on the Iranian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1907) by providing a portrayal of the actual conditions of politics, society, and culture in late nineteenth and early twentieth century Iran [1]. Notably, it achieved this through the guise of an imaginary travel account.

Due to the stark depiction of societal realities in SIB and the existing restrictions on controversial publications, the first and second volumes of the travelog were published anonymously at different locations and times. Possessing or reading the work could result in fines, yet it gained popularity due to its alignment with the constitutional movement [7]. The initial volume was published in Cairo in 1896, followed by the second volume in Calcutta in 1905, and finally, the third volume in Istanbul in 1909 [5]. It was only after the establishment of the constitution that the author’s name, “Ḥājī Zayn al-ʿAbidīn Marāghah-ī, an Iranian merchant residing in Istanbul,” was revealed in the third volume [7].

The first volume of SIB primarily presents itself as a travel account, characterized by a prevailing mood of disappointment and annoyance. For the purpose of this chapter, only the first volume of SIB will be incorporated as it offers significant observations about a nation during travel, aligning well with the topic of a captive nation. SIB has been translated into various languages, including German in 1903, Russian in 1963, and English in 2006 [8]. The English translation by James D. Clark specifically covers only the first volume. In general, the first volume recounts the story of Ibrāhīm Bayg, an individual of Iranian origin but born and raised in Egypt. His father imparts to his tales and wonders of Iran, instilling a sense of patriotism and yearning for his homeland. Ibrāhīm then embarks on a journey to Iran to fulfill his father’s last wishes. Paradoxically, Iran turns out to be different from his father’s descriptions, leading him to experience bitter disappointment. This unexpected contradiction gives rise to an identity crisis, torn between his aspirations as a nationalist and the realities he confronts. The distressing conditions he witnesses in Iran contribute to a prevailing tone in SIB that is either bleak or cuttingly sarcastic.

It is indeed intriguing to observe that both travel narratives depict a nation in a state of captivity. Through their realistic descriptions, they effectively highlight the captivity of society, its leaders, and ultimately, the nation as a whole. An interesting point to consider is that both KPA and SIB present the metaphorical “chains” of captivity in strikingly similar ways, implying that there are universal factors that hinder a nation’s progress and development.

4. The captivity of society

Undoubtedly, the people form a crucial pillar of any nation, and the state of society greatly influences the overall well-being of a country. In both KPA and SIB, the descriptions of the people evoke a sense of frustration that encompasses a combination of anger and sympathy. The narratives highlight the challenges faced by the society, emphasizing three significant problems that act as shackles on its progress: ignorance, filthiness, and idleness.

4.1 Ignorance

In both KPA and SIB, ignorance emerges as a significant chain of captivity, manifesting in various forms and underscoring its role in hindering a nation’s progress. Ignorance is explored through two prominent themes: the knowledge diversity and the prioritization of its application. Both KPA and SIB express profound concerns regarding society’s neglect of various types of knowledge. In KPA, there is a specific focus on the indifference of the Malay people toward the importance of developing their Malay language skills. Abdullah, during his visit to Pahang, articulates his frustration with this indifference:

The Malay spoken in Pahang is elegant and correct as it should be since it is the Malay of Johore. When I heard how well and charmingly the people spoke, I felt really grieved that they did not study their own language and had no schools. If in Malay countries (states) the people would exert themselves to get a good teacher for their children, all those states would be full of people knowing how to read and write and compose religious and scientific books. I pray that Almighty God may open their eyes and turn their thoughts to more useful objects. What a useless life they lead. As the proverb says, they grasp at shadow and lose the substance, that is, they never really learn Arabic and neglect the study of Malay. It is very wrong that children should waste their youth when they should be learning their language [9].

The commendation of the Malays in Pahang for their eloquent speech implies an assumption regarding their inherent talent in the Malay language. However, Abdullah’s despair arises from the lack of proper language education and refinement of their skills. This critique underscores concerns about the future of Malay composition, which is crucial for expressing the identity of the Malays through the beauty of language. In essence, KPA suggests the following formula: (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

Formula for a civilized nation in KPA.

The improvement of Malay language knowledge becomes crucial in sharpening the composition skills of the people. Furthermore, the publication of books covering various fields can help spread knowledge and contribute to the nation’s development. However, the process of building a civilized nation through enhanced language skills faces a major obstacle: the lack of educators. The inclusion of prayers amidst the criticism reflects a dual voice, serving as both a plea for the Malays’ awareness of the ignorance chain and a cry for help. While the people study Arabic, the language of the Qurān, KPA emphasizes the importance of mastering their native language first before delving into foreign languages. The absence of proper Malay education for the younger generation is seen as a significant flaw that could lead to various detrimental consequences for the Malays in the future.

KPA also emphasizes the importance of life management knowledge. During his visit to Kelantan, Abdullah is taken aback that people are incapable of recognizing life opportunities and making prudent choices to improve their future:

And I saw cattle and buffaloes and goats by the hundred lying all over the rice fields; they had no pens and no one was looking after them; they just lived on their own.

I asked the man who owned them.

He said that everyone on the locality owned some; they went about in herds and multiplied; they might get taken by tigers, they might just die, and they might produce young—no one cared.

I asked whether they were not milked and was their flesh not eaten.

He said, no, people in Kelantan did not care for milk or meat; they infinitely preferred fish.

I reflected that if a man in Singapore had even half of these animals, they would soon make him rich. I observed too that all these animals and the livestock, generally, and the plants were in fine condition [9].

KPA sheds light on a societal issue concerning inadequate management of domestic animals. Despite having an abundance of domestic animals, the Malays in Kelantan fail to seize this valuable opportunity, often without even realizing it. Due to the absence of proper living conditions and supervision for the animals, there is a lack of benefits derived from them, resulting in complete negligence. This portrayal depicts the community as trapped within the prison of ignorance. Although there is no direct criticism aimed at the people of Kelantan, the comparison with Singaporeans carries a dual-tone, suggesting the ignorance of the Malays in Kelantan who could lead better lives if they knew how to harness the benefits of their abundant natural resources.

In contrast, SIB places a greater emphasis on the indifference of Iranians toward arts and sciences. The narrative often conveys a sense of disappointment through a blend of anguish and melancholic narration.

If the nation had learned this noble science in schools from books, recitation, and the instruction of intelligent teachers, today they would have found numerous valuable mines around the country and have relieved some of the needs of the homeland to a degree. And, to the same extent, having saved from that destructive fire the homes that the false and inhumane alchemists burned with the destructive spark of the elixir, it would have protected their inhabitants from the misfortunes of abjection following honor and have gradually added to the civilization of the homeland [1].

The comments are characterized by the use of conditional sentences, which express a dual voice of regret regarding the perceived “damage” inflicted upon the nation. As the protagonist journeys through Iran, he witnesses the absence of exceptional educators, which consequently leads to a lack of emphasis on science education. This societal neglect results in missed opportunities, preventing the exploration and appreciation of the wonders and richness of the world. Furthermore, it exposes the community to the misfortunes that arise from ignorance. Unfortunately, this chain of ignorance becomes a shackle that engulfs the society in despair and holds the nation back, leading to stagnation and backwardness.

In essence, both KPA and SIB consistently highlight the absence of diverse knowledge as a significant factor contributing to a nation’s captivity. The variety of education should have been in dialogism to create a civilized society; however, ignorance becomes the monological factor that hinders progress. This raises questions about the capacity of individuals such as the Malays in KPA and the Iranians in SIB to absorb and retain a substantial amount of knowledge. In SIB, there is a strong emphasis on the immense potential of Iranians residing in foreign lands, thereby rendering the excuse of incompetence based on ethnicity or nationality as unacceptable. The protagonist firmly believes that Iranians can attain a high level of education as he has personally witnessed such achievements:

I know a group of children of the nobles of Iran who entered numerous schools in Russia, France, and England to study. With all the difficulties of living abroad and being aliens, it seems that they have surpassed the natives in the matter of education. But with all of this God-given ability, the readers will ask, “Why Iranians remained behind the others in everything?” The reason for that is obvious: from the lack of mentor and from the lack of an educator [1].

Irrespective of nationality, Iranians have demonstrated their ability to excel in knowledge when given the opportunity in developed countries. The protagonist’s rare praise in SIB carries a deeper message of captivity awareness, indicating a recognition of being trapped or limited in their own homeland. While acknowledging the brilliance of Iranians abroad, there is an underlying emphasis on the invisible confinement experienced by Iranians within their own country. Their right to education and opportunities for advancement are hindered by a lack of qualified educators. This may suggest a dual voice that encourages Iranians to seek knowledge outside their homeland as a means of liberation. Alternatively, the praise can be interpreted as a warning about the potential loss of Iranian intellectuals who may eventually emigrate in search of knowledge if efforts to free Iran from the chains of ignorance are not undertaken. In summary, both KPA and SIB underscore the significance of expertise in diverse fields of knowledge as a means for society to break free from the chains of ignorance.

In summary, both KPA and SIB extensively explore the theme of ignorance, highlighting its profound impact on society. The portrayal of ignorance is conveyed through diverse linguistic expressions, encompassing descriptive, anguished, melancholic, and sarcastic tones. The presence of numerous narratives on this subject in both travelogs enables readers to perceive the interplay of voices, depicting ignorance as a formidable chain that restricts society. However, ignorance is not the sole captivity chain addressed in these narratives. KPA and SIB also delve into the issue of filthiness, emphasizing the significance of cleanliness and its potential to exert adverse influence on a nation. Despite its seemingly trivial nature, the pervasiveness of uncleanliness can significantly undermine individuals and consequently hinder a nation’s progress.

4.2 Filthiness

Interestingly, both KPA and SIB underscore the significance of hygiene and cleanliness, recognizing them as essential for human well-being. Both narratives emphasize that cleanliness is a fundamental aspect of civilization and is closely tied to the development of a nation. However, despite its importance, the people in these narratives are depicted as neglecting cleanliness and remaining oblivious to its consequences for their lives and their homeland. In order to raise awareness about this captivity chain, KPA and SIB employ different strategies. While KPA frequently addresses the issue of filthiness and highlights its negative effects, SIB employs exaggeration and vivid descriptions to bring attention to the topic. This strategic approach aims to capture the reader’s attention and provoke a response, ultimately fostering captivity awareness. For instance:

I saw an old man of seventy years who had a felt hat on his head, a towel wrapped around it, a red beard, and a black face. A ton of dirt had been sifted on his head and all of his teeth had fallen out. His half-dead eyes rolled in their sockets. His clothes were so filthy that it is beyond description. It was not clear what color the cloth of his clothes was in the beginning [1].

The portrayal of the old man’s appearance and clothing in SIB is deliberately exaggerated, employing vivid analogies to create a strong visual depiction of extreme filthiness that evokes disgust. In contrast, KPA frequently highlights filthiness to the point of annoyance to emphasize the seriousness of the matter and foster a realization of its pernicious effects. KPA presents filthiness in a comprehensive manner that involves many aspects:

The houses were thatched and poorly constructed; under them were puddles and piles of rubbish. I entered a number of houses to see how they were arranged inside and observed the sleeping and living and eating arrangements; everything was dirty and smelly [9].

The observations in KPA highlight filthiness in various areas, including dwellings, habits, utensils, food, and surroundings. While not as detailed as SIB, the repetition in KPA leaves a strong impression of filthiness. The narrative appears to be from the perspective of someone with high cleanliness standards, meticulously pointing out even minor details. KPA even compares Malay food unfavorably to Western cuisine, which has led to accusations of an Anglophilic bias. Nevertheless, this strategy effectively raises awareness about the issue of filthiness and its role in societal captivity.

Exposing the reality of society’s dirtiness matters because both KPA and SIB view it as a significant problem with the potential to bring misery to the nation. While their styles of presenting the issue differ, with SIB emphasizing vividness and KPA focusing on frequent repetition, both narratives converge in highlighting the inimical effects of filthiness. For instance, SIB vividly describes the experience in a bathhouse:

When we entered the bath, the smell of the putrid water almost choked me from afar. They had collected a pool of stinking water and called it a cistern or, in other words, kor. Its water had taken on the colors of a peacock because of the abundance of filth, and its foul smell agitated a person’s brain [1].

On the other hand, KPA illustrates the condition of houses, where toilets are located directly beneath them:

It is as if they rejected the mercy of God who has made smells what they are; and so, they keep pools of water and privies right up against the place where they live and sleep in order that the smell may seethe up into their brains instead of being carried away by the wind. And thus, it is that they live all their lives in stink and sickness [9].

Both narratives vividly depict the repulsive effects that can be perceived through the senses of smell and sight. In SIB, the analogy of the water’s color resembling that of a peacock enhances the reader’s imagination of the filthiness. In contrast, KPA highlights the habit of leaving excrement beneath houses and tolerating a foul environment as a defiance of God’s blessings. Prophet Muhammad also emphasized the significance of cleanliness in life, as conveyed in a hadith from Sahih Muslim: “Purification is half of faith [10].”

Indeed, both KPA and SIB emphasize the significance of cleanliness, particularly in the context of Islamic teachings. They portray indifference toward cleanliness as a disregard for religious principles. Through their aggressive narrations on filthiness, they aim to highlight its negative impact on the brain. The foul odors are depicted as harmful to both physical and mental health, impairing intelligent thinking and hindering personal development, as well as societal progress. Although not as extensively explored as the issue of ignorance, the focus on cleanliness remains a significant factor that must be addressed to attain liberation and advancement as a nation.

4.3 Idleness

During a visit to Terengganu, KPA vividly describes the state of idleness within the society. Unfortunately, the captivity chains are not only limited to ignorance and filthiness. Idleness is also seen as a damaging disease that contributes to the captivity of individuals and the nation as a whole. For instance:

I felt really distressed when I saw that it was women who sold in the market and women who hawked goods, women in fact who kept the house in food. The work that women did ought to have been done by men. * For when women do men’s work and leave their houses for the whole day, there is no one to look after their children, who do as they please, and wallow in dirt, and get cold or wet or dry with no one to say to them nay. And so, the children get all sorts of diseases and fall about and get bumps; and their bodies get enfeebled and covered with itch and yaws** and so on.

Surely women ought to stay at home and see to their husbands’ meals and save their children from the dangers above described and from bad associations. And they ought to employ themselves in cleaning their houses and the surroundings.

If the men went out to earn their living and do work profitable to themselves and their families, they would show themselves more truly brave than by carrying weapons hither and thither all day long in times of peace. Now, they are like children who trail about without doing anything that serves a useful purpose. The really brave man is he who overcomes his desire to be idle and sit swapping stories and do nothing but eat and sleep. Any coward can carry weapons [9].

This excerpt sheds light on the chronic illness within society by examining the components, consequences, and recommendations pertaining to idleness. KPA portrays the elements that contribute to the chain of idleness, which can be understood as follows: (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Elements of idleness chain in KPA.

The citizens’ mundane activities of eating, sleeping, storytelling, and idle weapon handling are deemed worthless by KPA. The author challenges the traditional notion of manliness, sarcastically remarking on how even coward and unworthy individuals can handle weapons. The lack of urgency to improve their lives, absence of focus, and overall laziness are portrayed as elements forming the chain of idleness, leading to harmful consequences, especially within the family institution.

KPA directs attention to the destructive impact of idleness on family heads as their inactivity can harm other family members. Interestingly, this creates a paradox, where idle men inadvertently push women to become active breadwinners. Consequently, women’s increased work responsibilities lead to their absence from home, potentially affecting the well-being and upbringing of children, thus posing a threat to the family’s health, safety, and overall welfare.

KPA may appear to lean toward anti-feminism by suggesting that women should be confined to the home. However, from a paradoxical standpoint, KPA can be seen as advocating for feminism by highlighting the mistreatment of Malay women who are denied the freedom to manage their own households and children due to their husbands’ idleness. The criticism of idle men and the concern for the well-being of the future generation emphasize the need for responsible male leadership and the importance of competent and well-managed family institutions. Ultimately, KPA urges men to be more aware of the harm caused by idleness and to actively fulfill their roles as leaders within their families.

As educated individuals, the protagonists of both travel narratives find it disheartening to witness the prevalent idleness within their respective nations despite the alarming conditions. In SIB, the author frequently summarizes the visits to various locations by emphasizing the society’s general state of sluggishness:

As I said about the condition of the people of the city, they are, to that same degree, satisfied with the world day and night. They do not want to rise one step above the place where they are standing now. Self-indulgence and wantonness have taken over every bit of their bodies. One brother is distant from the home because of being afflicted with the illness of leprosy. Another brother is enjoying himself beside the river with others. A group is afflicted with the incurable pain of smoking opium, which is worse than leprosy. All are ignorant of the meaning of “Love of the homeland is part of faith.”

Never were they informed about this world and the hereafter. They are completely ignorant of the benefits of increasing the wealth of the general populace, the science of living, and patriotism.

They are dead, but alive, alive, but dead [1].

In a regretful tone, SIB portrays the severity of societal slothfulness by enumerating key factors contributing to it: lack of ambition and motivation, self-indulgence, and wantonness. Through the example of three indifferent brothers, the narrative aims to serve as a wake-up call, illustrating the reality of individuals drowning in purposelessness. In comparison to KPA, SIB takes a more proactive approach in linking the destructive effects of captivity chains to the nation’s development, specifically highlighting their impact on the economy, knowledge, and patriotism. The recurring sentence “they are dead, but alive, alive, but dead” within the summaries serves as a powerful declaration of captivity, demanding attention to be paid to these living corpses.

KPA and SIB both highlight the peril of idleness within a community. Despite its seemingly harmless nature, sluggishness can inflict significant harm upon a nation as its people are the architects of its progress. By exposing the societal captivity through various chains, both narratives delve deeper into the root causes. They emphasize the crucial role of leaders in safeguarding and nurturing their people, akin to the relationship between parents and children, in order to foster a thriving nation. Through persistent narration on leadership, it becomes evident that KPA and SIB attribute the main cause of societal captivity to corrupt rulers.

5. The leaders

The narratives of KPA and SIB shed light on the societal plight of being trapped in multiple captivity chains, and they recognize that the blame does not solely rest on the shoulders of the society itself. Despite the presence of hope, awareness, and efforts for progress, the society is hindered by the oppressive rule of its leaders. Through heteroglossia narratives, including personal observations and dialogs with others, both narratives actively depict the lamentation and anguish caused by such oppression. Tragically, the presence of cruel and oppressive leaders is portrayed as a normalized representation of the world.

Despite their perceived power and dominance, KPA and SIB suggest that cruel leaders are themselves trapped in an invisible captivity. The narratives portray these leaders as living in an illusory world of success, oblivious to their own acts of oppression. While they belong to the upper class, they too are imprisoned by two chains of captivity: indifference and greed. The narratives provide numerous hostile accounts of these leaders, highlighting their lack of empathy and insatiable desire for personal gain. This portrayal serves to expose the self-imposed limitations and blindness that hinder their ability to govern justly and compassionately.

5.1 Indifference

KPA portrays Tengku Temena, a member of the royal family, with a sense of remorse and sadness:

Early next morning Gradpre and I went ashore to see Raja Temenabut we found that he was still asleep in a house by the shore; he did not get up until about 11 o’clock. The fact was that he was an opium smoker; he was very thin—a bag of bones, in fact—and his lips were black and he had a spiritless look. When he got up, I sat chatting with him for a while about my forthcoming voyage; we were only waiting for the Chinese boat [9].

The excerpt provides a straightforward description of a royal figure, but beneath the surface, it reveals the concerning issue of a leader who lacks ambition, charisma, good health, and concern for the people. The expression of pity demonstrates an awareness of this captivity, yet the leader remains oblivious or indifferent to it, raising doubts about their suitability to guide a community in the pursuit of nation-building.

5.2 Greed

SIB highlights the captivity of leaders through their insatiable greed, which has rendered them senseless. The narrative depicts the governor of an Iranian city as a prime example, emphasizing his lust for power, authority, wealth, and recognition as manifestations of this captivity:

“It is the governor of the city,” he said. “He is going hunting.” He told us, “Stand up straight. When he passes, bow like the others are doing.” When I took a good look, I saw that the people were prostrating from all four sides and in six directions. And he, paying no attention to it at all, kept twisting his mustache right and left.

“What will happen if we don’t bow?” I said.

He said, “They call those on that side of him with their clubs the footmen. It seems that you have grown tired of living.”

“No,” I said. “I still have a thousand desires left in my heart.” Very courteously and standing up straight, I bowed with complete humility when the governor came near. “A calamity had come, but it passed without incident.”

Since I had never seen this situation anywhere until now, I was very surprised. I said, “May you be civilized Iran! The governor of a city like London with a population of a million goes everywhere alone and no one pays any attention to him. It is remarkable that the governor of one of our small provinces garners such respect. Kingship must be like this [1].”

The governor’s arrogance and enjoyment of the people’s submission, enforced through fear and threats, reflect his immense greed for authority and attention, despite being ill-suited for it. The act of prostration is performed out of fear as the people face the threat of physical abuse if they do not comply. The protagonist’s prayers for the Iranians and the comparison between leaders in London and Iran serve as a plea for awareness of the captivity caused by greed. The declaration of surprise serves as a heteroglossia expression, conveying sarcasm toward the harsh reality in Iran. It expresses a sense of irony and disbelief, highlighting the bitterness and adverse circumstances that exist within the country. The chains of greed and indifference that bind the leaders contribute to societal harm and the lack of protection and guidance for the people, making them crucial factors in the society’s own captivity.

Both KPA and SIB portray the captivity chains that restrict both societies and their leaders. In the upcoming subtopic, the concept of layered captivity will be explored, delving deeper into the multiple levels of confinement that hinder progress and development.

6. The imprisoned nation

Benedict Anderson defined a nation as “an imagined political community…and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign [11]”. The citizens and rulers are interdependent in building a nation, and its existence, progress, and downfall rely on both. KPA and SIB illustrate the captivity experienced by the society, and its leaders, highlighting the chains of ignorance, filthiness, idleness, indifference, and greed. While these captivity chains differ between the two groups, they converge to create a tragic victim, which is the nation itself. The nation becomes trapped in layered captivity, hindering its progress and leading it toward misery. KPA and SIB present this concept of layered captivity in distinct forms within their narratives.

6.1 The captive nation in KPA

The tiered imprisonment of the nation in KPA can be viewed as follows: (Figure 3).

Figure 3.

Tiered nation captivity in KPA.

From the pie chart, it is evident that the leaders’ captivity has ensnared the citizens, showcasing the profound decline of the nation into conceptual imprisonment. This visual representation illustrates the stages of imprisoning the nation and suggests the necessary measures for liberation. To break free from the confines of these multiple prisons, a rescue path must be constructed and it should start from the stage of rulers.

6.2 The captive nation in SIB

In contrast, SIB presents a more intricate layered captivity of the nation compared to KPA, involving multiple tiers and victims. The fourth victim identified in SIB’s nation’s layered captivity is the protagonist, Ibrāhīm Bayg. This raises questions about how a protagonist, who functions as an observer in a travel narrative, could become entangled in such a complex captivity. Firstly, Ibrāhīm’s imprisonment within the prison of nostalgia will be explored, followed by an explanation of how this captivity renders him a victim of the nation’s layered captivity.

6.2.1 Captives of nostalgia

SIB explores the intricate connections between nostalgia, nationalism, and fanaticism, blurring the boundaries between these concepts. The protagonist’s father is depicted as a character trapped within this complex web of ideologies. SIB begins by introducing Ibrāhīm’s father:

This honest merchant of pure belief, during the long years that he resided in Egypt, never changed a single one of his admirable national habits or his own praiseworthy Iranian manners. In his association with people, in his eating and sleeping, and in his own dress, he behaved in the same manner that was seen in his ancestors. In terms of patriotism, he was so intense that during all those years he had not spoken one word of Arabic with anyone. On the contrary, he did not want to learn it. All of his talk was about Iran. He continuously sang a melody of the homeland. From every person he would see, he would inquire about the state of the country and the conditions of his fellow countrymen. He himself was in Egypt, while his thoughts were always in Iran [1].

Instead of focusing on the protagonist, SIB initially introduces the father to explore the possibility of inherited imprisonment, which Ibrāhīm might have acquired from his father. The father is depicted as a person who maintains a strong sense of patriotism toward his homeland, even while living abroad. The portrayal of his nationalism reflects the ambivalence of fanaticism. However, his daily activities, fashion choices, language preferences, singing habits, and longing for Iran also contribute to a nostalgia prison, which carries a more melancholic tone compared to fanaticism. Nostalgia possesses a magical quality, allowing one to relive sensations and emotions, particularly when separated from one’s homeland. Despite being a trader and having the opportunity to seek better business prospects elsewhere, the father chooses to settle in Cairo, Egypt. Yet, his deep attachment to Iran raises the question of why he does not choose to return. Nevertheless, he consistently instills a love for Iran in his son, nurturing a longing for home.

This sparks an assumption that perhaps the father’s longing for Iran may be more related to a lost time rather than a physical space. His love for Iran could be directed toward his childhood or memories of his youth spent in the country. Since it is impossible to revisit the past in the same way one can revisit a physical location, he continually postpones his homecoming and may not have genuine intentions of returning. His strong emotional connection to Iran can be seen as reflective nostalgia, where he consistently experiences a yearning for his homeland. This brings up the query of whether his longing for Iran originates from his individual encounters in the nation or, paradoxically, is an idealistic creation formed by his own mix of poignant recollections. However, for this discussion, we will assume that Ibrāhīm’s father is trapped in his nostalgia for a bygone era in Iran, forming the first of the four models of Iran that emerge throughout SIB.

In the narrative, Ibrāhīm is depicted as a young man who takes great pride in his love for Iran despite never having set foot in the country. However, this so-called “nationalism” is portrayed as a form of misguided and blind fanaticism. Unbeknownst to him, he is actually a victim of his father’s captivity in his nostalgia for Iran. The narrator describes Ibrāhīm’s obsession with Iran as something that cannot be adequately described or put into words:

In any case, his fanatical Iranianness was of such a degree that the pen is incapable of writing about it in detail. For example, whenever someone unintentionally or unknowingly related something bad about Iran in his presence, he would label him with impiety and cowardliness to the point that until the end of his life he would not speak to him [1].

Ibrāhīm not only inherits his father’s fanaticism but also takes it to a more extreme level, leading to obsessive behaviors. He tends to label people as impious or coward and resorts to intense silent treatment, revealing the depth of his own captivity. The stories and experiences shared by his father about Iran have constructed an idealized and imaginary image of the nation, forming the second model of Iran in the travelogue. As a result, Ibrāhīm has created a monolog of love for Iran, rejecting any aspects that could tarnish its reputation and embracing anything positive about it. Unfortunately, his unwavering adoration for Iran becomes his greatest vulnerability, as others exploit it for their own gain.

Nostalgia is not always about the past [12], Ibrāhīm’s confinement in his nostalgia for Iran despite never having been there, suggests that he is trapped in a restorative nostalgia, longing for a homecoming that is fueled by his father’s determination. His intense sentiment has made his imagined Iran feel real to him, and despite warnings against traveling to Iran, he remains resolute in his decision to see it. The formation of Ibrāhīm’s nostalgia for Iran originates from his father’s nostalgia for the past. As a result, an amorphous nostalgia is shaped, not belonging to a specific time period—neither past, present, nor future. In summary, Ibrāhīm and his father’s nostalgia for Iran are as follows: (Figure 4).

Figure 4.

Model 1 and model 2 of Iran in SIB.

From another perspective, Ibrāhīm’s imprisonment extends beyond his own version of an amorphous Iran to include his father’s nostalgia as well. In reality, Ibrāhīm finds himself caught between the past and a nebulous vision of Iran, rendering him unable to perceive the truth and further entrenching him in his captivity.

Ibrāhīm’s situation in the travelogue can be connected to Reinhart Keselleck’s categorization, particularly in terms of the horizon of expectation and the space of experience [13]. While existing within the confines of an amorphous Iran, Ibrāhīm finds himself in a state of confusion between reality and his expectations. Prior to embarking on his journey, his expectations were disguised as reality, leaving him unaware of his imprisonment in nostalgia.

Upon Ibrāhīm’s first encounter with Iran, he enters the actual space of experience, unveiling the present-day Iran as the third model of Iran within the narrative’s timeline. A sense of ambivalence permeates the text as his expressions about Iran manifest in binary oppositions. Overwhelmed by the stark reality he witnesses, Ibrāhīm laments:

My view of the world turned black from hearing about this happening. I let out a sigh from my pain-filled heart and said, “O God, these are all punishment for the arguments I unjustifiably had in Egypt with people about these subjects. Not believing what they said about these kinds of things, I quarreled with them and made them very upset [1].

In this moment of realization, beneath his expressions of regret, Ibrāhīm is essentially confessing his own blindness. This marks the moment when he becomes aware of his captivity, causing a crack in the prison of nostalgia he had constructed. His monolithic love for Iran is shattered, giving way to a more nuanced understanding regarding his fanaticism. Ibrāhīm is left astonished as he had always assumed that his expectations would align with the reality he experiences. However, the disparity between these two perceptions can be outlined as follows: (Figure 5).

Figure 5.

Expectation versus experience in Siyāḥatnāmah-ʾi Ibrāhīm Bayg.

Indeed, the disparity between the horizon of expectation and the space of experience becomes apparent, leading to a hostile tone in the text as Ibrāhīm visits present-day Iran. It is in this space of experience that he not only becomes aware of his own captivity but also begins to recognize the captivity of the nation. Through his direct experience of Iran, Ibrāhīm starts to perceive the truth and no longer avoids reality. His honest observations about Iran can be seen as his attempt to break free from the confines of his own nostalgia-induced captivity.

Despite the constant shocks and the growing awareness of Iran’s critical captivity during the expedition, the frequency of ambivalence in the narration increases. Struggling to cope with the stress and burden, Ibrahim experiences numerous collapses, including physical sickness, depression, and a hint of madness. These regular breakdowns become obstacles in Ibrāhīm’s attempt to escape from the grip of nostalgia-induced captivity. Even when it becomes evident that he has been suffering throughout his journey in Iran, he appears to be in denial about the harsh reality. In a dialog, he firmly expresses his unwavering opinion about Iran, showing his resistance to accepting the bitter truth.

“It becomes apparent from the manner and words of what you say that you suffered very much from Iran,” I said.

Ibrāhīm said, “God forbid that I should suffer from my beloved. ‘I boast of love. When should I actually do it? My life is in a handful of soil from that blessed land. All the vexation harbored by my sad heart is from the heedlessness of the gardener. Otherwise, the garden is not at fault [1].”

Ibrāhīm’s declaration of unwavering love for Iran, presented in a poetic manner, creates a paradoxical effect within the narrative, especially considering the series of negative expressions about Iran and its people that dominate the text. This act of defending Iran introduces a subtle emergence of a new form of captivity. While Ibrāhīm initially succeeded in breaking free from the nostalgia prison house of the past and amorphous Iran through his captivity awareness, the various breakdowns, moments of denial, and hints of madness he experiences are interwoven, forming a new prison for him. Although he may not be aware of his own condition, this new captivity becomes apparent through the expressions of a side character:

The owner of the house says, “No matter how much I knew about Ibrāhīm Bayg’s fanaticism from a long time ago, I thought that after his journey to Iran and seeing all of those unpleasant things the fires of his fanaticism had cooled and subsided to a degree. But after observing this condition and hearing these details, I saw that, no, my suspicion had been wrong. On the contrary, his nationalist fanaticism had increased. So, I confirmed in my heart that this disposition of his was intrinsic, not accidental. ‘Having been mauled by the lion, escape with your life.’ In truth, my heart ached because of his cold sighs one after the other. I took pity. Weeping, he stood up, and I took him aside, kissed him on the head and face, and said, “Dear brother, may the blessing of patriotism be pleasing [1].

The melancholic statement made by the house owner regarding Ibrāhīm provides an unexpected turn in the narrative, revealing the sense of defeat of a person who has been struggling to free himself from the chains of nostalgia. The description encompasses various elements, such as a disappointing condition, shattered expectations, heartache, cold sighs, weeping, consolation, and prayers, all of which collectively confirm Ibrāhīm’s status as a rebounding captive.

Indeed, Ibrāhīm finds himself trapped once again, but this time in a different form of nostalgia prison. This occurs because he lacks the strength to confront the chronic state of the nation’s captivity. As a result, the captive nation figuratively consumes Ibrāhīm, pulling him into his own imprisonment. This situation can be visualized as follows: (Figure 6).

Figure 6.

Tiered nation captivity in SIB.

The pie chart represents the four tiers of captivity that are interconnected with the captive nation. In contrast to KPA, SIB places Ibrāhīm in the lowest tier, portraying him as the most deeply affected victim of the nation’s captivity. In this scenario, the nation’s captivity plays a role in constructing Ibrāhīm’s new prison house, which encompasses nostalgia for both the present Iran and the future Iran. This can be visualized as follows: (Figure 7).

Figure 7.

Model 3 and model 4 of Iran in SIB.

Ibrāhīm’s descent into the second prison of nostalgia brings about a more distressing captivity as it engulfs his soul and mind with depression and hopelessness. Unlike in the first prison, where he remains unaware of his captivity, in this second prison, he finds himself trapped between the present and future visions of Iran. This is evident in the contrasting criticisms and hopes he expresses about the country. Unfortunately, the intensity of his confinement takes a toll on Ibrāhīm, leading to a breakdown during a heated debate with a mullah. When accused of apostasy by the mullah, whom he believes is responsible for the nation’s suffering, Ibrāhīm succumbs to madness, screaming uncontrollably, and foaming at the mouth. The tragic ending of SIB, with the tent consumed by fire ignited by a candle, symbolically suggests that Ibrāhīm is consumed by the captivity caused by the nation’s imprisonment.

7. Conclusion

The critical remarks about the nation in SIB and KPA serve as a wake-up call, raising awareness about the nation’s true condition. Despite being initially published anonymously, SIB later gained recognition for its importance in the country’s revolution. In contrast, KPA, which was publicly published from the start, was perceived as propagandistic and detrimental to the nation’s image. However, there is a lack of research on the potential influence of KPA on the political situation in Malaya. Nevertheless, KPA is highly regarded as a valuable work during the transition from classic to modern Malay literature, contributing significantly to the language and literary development of the nation. Thus, KPA can also be considered a revolutionary work in its own right.

Benedict Anderson’s book Imagined Communities introduces the concept that patriotic works can encompass both positive and negative sentiments, which may initially seem contradictory. In his chapter on ““Patriotism patriotism and racism,” Anderson argues that patriotism can be intertwined with antagonistic tones:

In an age when it is so common for progressive, cosmopolitan intellectuals (particularly in Europe?) to insist on the near-pathological character of nationalism, its roots in fear and hatred of the other, and its affinities with racism, it is used to remind ourselves that nations inspire love, and often profoundly self-sacrificing love. The cultural product of nationalism—poetry, prose fiction, music, and plastic arts—show this love very clearly in thousands of different forms and styles. On the other hand, how truly rare it is to find analogous nationalist products expressing fear and loathing. Even in the case of colonized peoples, who have every reason to feel hatred for their imperialist rulers, it is astonishing how insignificant the element of hatred is in these expressions of national feeling [11].

This perspective sheds light on the notion that despite the unfavorable ambiance depicted in KPA and SIB, the underlying theme of nationalism actively resonates within both narratives. Indeed, KPA and SIB can be seen as cultural products of nationalism for their respective countries, Malaya and Iran. Despite the differences in their expressions of love, both works reflect the sentiment of national identity and pride. They serve as literary representations of the nations’ histories, struggles, and aspirations, contributing to the shaping and preservation of their cultural and national identities. Through their narratives, KPA and SIB evoke a sense of belonging and foster a collective consciousness among their readers, making them significant cultural artifacts in the context of nationalism.

Acknowledgments

This research was funded by the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) Malaysia through the Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS) under the grant number: FRGS/1/2022/SSI10/UKM/03/1.