Perspective Chapter: Key Issues of Curriculum Revision and Integration of Novelties in Education and Training in Food and Nutrition in Slovenia

Abstract

Updating the curriculum should be viewed as a process by which meeting student needs leads to improvement in student learning. The chapter presents some key issues to updating the curriculum at the level of post-secondary professional higher programmes in Food and Nutrition. Innovations and changes must be continuously introduced into these study programmes, as a result of global trends, scientific progress, the changing needs of the users, and the opinions and experiences of stakeholders, which include both active students and graduates as well as the latter’s employers. An overview of the steps necessary for a successful revision of study programmes is given in the Introduction. The chapter briefly focuses on ways of obtaining data that are useful in the revision process. It emphasises the importance of introducing new developments in the profession, green and digital competences and new ways of practical teaching. The competences of the food and nutrition engineer and the model of inter-company training centres, which Slovenia is developing and introducing as an innovative model for practical training in Vocational Education programmes in food and nutrition, are briefly presented.

1. Introduction

Effective and quality education is not possible without well-developed curricula. Updating learning processes is a key element of quality teaching and is essential at all levels of education. Due to increasing innovation needs of the food industry and complexity of its services and products, consumer protection and public health policies, there is a constant need to renovate the education programmes. Vocational education in the food industry professions is organised in different ways in European countries. Food and professional regulation have been evolved over the years and raised the debate on the regulation of food technology professions. The study of [1] pointed out that a few countries were found to have a regulated profession in the food sector. The food technologist in Italy and the food engineer in Turkey were found to be the only completely regulated professions found in Europe. In individual European countries [2, 3], food-related education is provided at several levels, either as 2 years of higher professional education (European Qualifications Framework (EQF) level 5) or as 3 or more years of higher EQF levels. Depending on the needs of the industry, training can be dispersed in different directions depending on the origin of the raw material, and in addition to the ‘genera’ technologist, there are technologists for cereal products, dairy products and meat and fish products [4], as well as technologists for various beverages. The need for food professionals is mainly in the food industry and trade. The field of work of nutritionists and dietitians is linked to the food industry. Their mission is primarily to improve the nutritional status of healthy individuals, but in the clinical setting the main area of work remains the prescription of diets. Increasingly, there is a need for nutritionists in other sectors, food stores, government, industry, academic and research institutions. Training to become an Administrative or Clinical Dietitian is a regulated profession and is provided outside the Vocational Education and Training (VET) context of post-secondary programmes. The European Federation of the Associations of Dietitians (EFAD) [5] identifies dietetics as healthcare professionals, educated to at least the Bachelor level. The higher vocational training in food science is primarily practical and does not allow for the continuation of a Master’s degree. We can conclude that typical profiles of professionals that can be trained under the VET system are food engineer/technologist and food and nutrition engineer. The study of the European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training (Cedefop) [6] indicated some trends in the expansion of higher VET education. Expansion and diversification of vocationally oriented education and training has been offered at higher levels in European countries over the last two decades. Enrolment has increased and various forms of programmes and qualifications have been introduced. Increased provision of vocationally oriented programmes at higher levels and stronger emphasis on VET elements in programmes are noted. Increased practice orientation is also observed in traditional higher education programmes, including applied research; strengthening work-related learning within institutions (on-site laboratories, workshops, etc.) and work-based learning in companies (e.g. industry projects, on-the-job training periods and apprenticeship-type schemes at higher levels).

One of the primary tasks of educational institutions, regardless of the level of study, is to continuously monitor trends and regularly evaluate study programmes in accordance with the Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) [7], to ensure that they achieve their objectives and meet the needs of students and society. Regular monitoring, review and revision of study programmes aim to ensure that the provision remains appropriate and to create a supportive and effective learning environment for students. The Standards and Guidelines [7] propose the evaluation of many key elements of curriculum, in doing so it is most important to consider the content of the programme in the light of the latest research in the given discipline, thus ensuring that the programme is up to date and meets the changing needs of the society. Programmes are reviewed and revised regularly involving students and other stakeholders. The information collected is analysed and the programme is adapted to ensure that it is up to date. Changes and updates must respect the fundamental objectives of the programmes and maintain the coherence of their content or subjects. Updating shall be carried out taking into account the development of studies, scientific, technical, professional, research and disciplines and the needs of the profession in which the field is situated. Depending on the type and level of the study programme and the objectives set, it is necessary that the competences or learning outcomes meet the objectives and needs of society. At the same time, they must meet standards, where they exist at national, European Union or international level. The revised and updated programme of study must be refined in terms of its structure and must keep the curricula and syllabuses coherent with each other, with the objectives and competences of the programme of study, and linked to the horizontal and vertical axes.

Basic guidelines on how to design and revise training programmes were already provided by FAO in 1996 [8]. The aim of this work was to identify and propose new key contents to be introduced in food and nutrition studies through programme revision, based on general trends in society and literature data. The problem addressed in the chapter is also the introduction of new methods of practical training in VET in food and nutrition. The work presents the model of inter-enterprise training centres developed and used by Slovenia for VET in food and nutrition.

2. Curriculum renewal process

Creating renewed programmes and changing curricula and renewing professional standards is not an easy process, and many authors [9, 10] stress the need for an interdisciplinary team approach. If not all key stakeholders, such as schools, students, teachers, employers, chambers and associations, professional societies, competent education and labour market services, including trade unions, quality agencies, etc., are involved in the change process, the stakeholders in the learning process, especially students and practitioners, may feel threatened by the idea of changing a new curriculum, which brings about the failure of the renewal. The basic activities in a redesign usually do not depend on the type of programme being redesigned. According to the FAO recommendations [8], the redesign process comprises the following key stages:

• Identification of the current problems and needs.

• Developing a competent team.

• Planning work and collecting relevant data.

• Data processing and introduction of changes.

• Updating subject content or vocational standards, taking into account vertical and horizontal cross-curricular links.

• Implementation, putting into effect and evaluation of impacts.

Curriculum development is a dynamic, interactive process that requires adjustments even when the process is not yet complete. Many authors [11, 12] consider that the phases of renewal are highly interactive, requiring a great deal of coordination. Each phase has a number of steps or tasks that need to be carried out in a logical sequence. The steps are not always separate but may overlap and occur simultaneously. It is essential for the Redevelopment Team to obtain the necessary baseline data, in particular:

• opinions and needs of stakeholders, students, teachers and education advisory centres,

• link with the environment and the views and needs of users/employers, producer associations,

• identifying new knowledge in the field,

• identifying societal needs and global challenges, and

• identifying new teaching methods to achieve the intended results.

The FAO guidelines [8] point out that an important step in the renewal is the creation of a working group. The group takes overall decisions based on the systematic processing of the data collected and the objectives set. Choosing the team members depends on the level of the study. The renewal of secondary and post-secondary programmes for standardised vocations that are the subject to national qualifications is being carried out at national level. The redesign is being led by the Vocational Training Advisory Centre at national level. The team is usually made up of a national coordinator and representatives of the schools implementing the programmes. This is because the same programmes are delivered in several colleges. The team may also include representatives from industry, professional associations and chambers, and education advisory centres. The composition depends on the complexity of the profession and innovations in technological and industrial practices.

The composition of the teams for the renewal of studies that are not subject to national qualifications and are carried out at faculty level is slightly different. Each faculty runs its own specific study programmes that are unique and therefore the renewal is not coordinated by the national agencies. The core of the Renewal Team usually consists of a group of lecturers who are the course leaders. The team is involved in all steps of the renewal process, while delegating tasks to all those who have a role to play in shaping the learning content.

When redesigning the study processes, it is important that the team is balanced, so that it is equally represented by the providers of core subjects (e.g. chemistry and biochemistry) as well as of subject-specific subjects, and also of other areas of relevance to a particular course.

2.1 Identification of the current problems and needs

Identifying the key issues and trends in renewal is one of the basic steps in preparing for renewal. The Renewal Team gathers all internal and external data that provide a view on the current state of the study. In particular, the expert team should assess the relevance of the curriculum delivery, teaching methods and formats and student work. It must evaluate student workload, progression and completion. Information on the achievement of competences or learning outcomes and their comparison with the planned knowledge is very important, as well as the adequacy of testing and assessment. Educational institutions usually evaluate the educational process through annual self-evaluation reports. The self-evaluation report is an integral part of the quality system of each educational institution [7] and is based on analyses of surveys and opinions of the stakeholders of the learning process, action plans, implemented quality measures and strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis. The annual self-evaluation reports are subject to periodic audits by the Agency for Quality Assurance in Higher Education (AEQES).

It is useful to complement the data in the self-evaluation reports with external sources. A methodologically based analysis can be carried out by the higher education institution (HEI) itself or commissioned from relevant ministries, chambers, associations or elsewhere. It should show the link between the learning outcomes in the proposed programme of study and the findings of the profession with regard to knowledge needs, graduate employability or further education, depending on the type and level of the programme of study. The curriculum development process may also include surveys to identify trends and potential problems at national level. The data allow the Renewal Team to identify key issues and trends that dictate or support changes that should be made.

2.1.1 Analyses and links with the environment

Higher education and post-secondary institutions conduct stakeholder satisfaction measurement in line with the recommendations [13]. Stakeholders are all actors in an educational institution, including students, employees and external stakeholders, such as employers and other external partners of the institution. The measurement is carried out through student surveys to evaluate the teaching performance of the providers, surveys on the content and organisation of the courses, employee surveys, lecturer surveys, surveys for mentors in companies involved in the practical training of students in companies and graduate surveys.

2.1.2 Exploring students’ views and needs

Curriculum development should be viewed as a process by which meeting student needs leads to improvement in student learning. Student-centred teaching is important in promoting student motivation, self-reflection, satisfaction and participation in the learning process. In line with the quality standards [7], student-centred learning and teaching includes in particular:

• respecting and considering the diversity of students and their needs, enabling flexible learning ways,

• addressing and using different delivery methods where appropriate,

• adaptive use of different teaching methods,

• checking knowledge, adapting delivery methods and teaching methods,

• promoting the student’s sense of autonomy, with appropriate guidance and professional support from the teacher.

Student surveys are an important source of information on student satisfaction and the fulfilment of student expectations [13]. A student survey is an opinion poll in which students express their views on the content and organisation of courses, the teaching performance of staff and their attitudes towards students. It is useful to conduct surveys at the end of the course, i.e. during the semester. The lecturer survey is an opinion survey in which lecturers express their opinion on the relevance of the programmes, their desire for further training and job satisfaction, and the difficulties and material conditions for the delivery of the courses. The tutor survey is an opinion survey on the delivery of practical training for students in enterprises. The alumni survey is an opinion survey in which graduates express their opinion on their studies at the Faculty, their future working career after graduation and the development of this career. Before a programme renewal takes place, it is useful to conduct a survey of students’ expectations, needs and satisfaction for each course of study in the form of focus groups. The focus group is led by a moderator who is usually a member of the Programme Renewal Team. The moderator moderates the group’s discussion in such a way as to identify different points of view and opinions. In the focus groups, we get to know in depth the students’ possible problems, their satisfaction, their expectations, and we also ask the students about the coherence and possible duplication of material between the different courses. Focus group interviews can also be conducted with lecturers from different colleges of higher education in the same subject areas. The redesign team systematically examines the results, comparing the findings of each subject. The conclusions are used both to create curriculum changes and to make suggestions to subject providers.

2.1.3 Exploring the links with the environment and the views and needs of users/employees

A methodological study conducted by Paulin [14] concludes that it is essential for the present and future of the European labour market to ensure a smooth transition of young people equipped with the relevant knowledge, skills and competences from the world of education to the labour market. Monitoring the employability of graduates is a key element of the development process of all higher education institutions, as the employability or career path of graduates is one of the indicators of the quality of an educational institution [14]. The employer survey is an opinion poll in which employers express their opinion on their satisfaction with graduates in various areas. For employers, theoretical and professional knowledge, the ability to apply knowledge in practice, teamwork, social skills, entrepreneurship, initiative, adaptability and skills are important.

The data obtained are valuable information that needs to be interpreted and used to modify or adapt study programmes on an ongoing basis [15]. In the labour market and in society at large, there is a need for graduates with new competences and for people with increasingly specific, especially interdisciplinary, skills. In addition to professional competences, transversal or transferable competences and appropriate approaches to work are also important. During their training, young people need to be properly informed that their career paths will undoubtedly involve continuously updating and upgrading their knowledge and skills, as well as acquiring completely new skills. The strategic objective of any educational programme is to match the acquired competences of graduates with the present and future needs of the labour market and, through a systematic approach, to ensure that competences are matched in the long term and that employers can identify acquired competences in a way that is easy to understand and understandable to them. Achieving the strategic objective contributes to personal fulfilment and development, employability, social inclusion, sustainable and healthy lifestyles, and active citizenship. Knowing the real situation enables the gap between the competences needed on the labour market and the competences actually available through studies to be narrowed.

The employability of graduates should be one of the most important factors in the response of National Education Policy to the labour market, according to the findings of the report [15]. Unfortunately, educational institutions often see their mission as maintaining all the programmes they have cultivated, regardless of the current needs of the labour market. To be competitive, study programmes must respond to the needs of the economy in a timely manner. At the same time, monitoring employability is a mechanism for checking the performance and quality of a higher education institution, which is also a motivator for enrolment.

Given that most higher education institutions are trying to keep track in one way or another, the employability of graduates faces a number of challenges, with some sources pointing out that a single national employability monitoring system would allow for a more comparable, comprehensive and high-quality approach to employability monitoring.

2.2 Identification and integration of new findings and global challenges specific to food and nutrition

The vocational education combines teaching of both practical skills and theoretical expertise. It can be contrasted with education in a usually broader scientific field, which may concentrate on theory and abstract conceptual knowledge. However, during recent years, this differentiation has slowly dissolved as reported by Wolter and Kerst [16]. The latter is also true for the orientations of food studies. The focus of the development of the food industry is on cost-effective production, taking into account sustainable principles of the use of natural resources and the findings of science in relation to the positive and negative effects of processing on the quality of the final product. The food industry’s permanent objective is to develop new innovative products and services to ensure the safety and quality of the final products. Innovations have long-term effects on the modernisation of full-time study programmes. An important focus of the food industry in the last decade has been the efficient development of new functional foods tailored to the consumer for specific target population groups, where the field is linked to health, pharmaceuticals and dietetics. The Functional Food Science in Europe project [17] has highlighted a strong scientific framework to substantiate the concept of functional foods, to discover and develop new functional foods based mainly on functional science-based health claims. Recently, a number of legislations relevant to the marketing of functional foods in the European Union have also emerged. Copens et al. [18] outline the implications for producers, marketers and consumers. Particularly due to safety concerns, these new scientific developments have been accompanied by an urgent call for legislation. Copens et al. [18] also discuss some concrete examples of how EU safety requirements for food products have affected a range of product categories and changes in the manufacturing process. A central trend in the food industry is the so-called smart specialisation. Scrinis [19] argues that in response to the health concerns arising from the consumption of highly processed foods, the food and beverage industry must respond by modifying its existing products and introducing new products with ‘improved’ nutrient profiles. Three different strategies have been identified that can be sensibly applied in the development and marketing of their products: reformulation of foods to reduce the levels of harmful food ingredients, micronutrient fortification of products to address micronutrient deficiencies and functionalisation of products claiming to provide optimal nutritional and health benefits. From the above, we can conclude that it is essential to integrate change into educational processes in a timely manner, and that flexible study programmes are needed to upskill graduates to bridge the gap between the skills acquired by graduates and the expectations of employers more quickly. There is a demand for skills and competences for systemic innovation through the creation of hubs to address challenges, focusing on digitalisation and the green transition to a low-carbon circular economy. A very important segment that needs to be continuously integrated into the curricula is the area of upgrading the product safety system. The choice of environmentally friendly technologies, materials and machinery should be emphasised in working methods. Similarly, responsibility with regard to waste and emissions should not only be mentioned but also experienced as part of the learning process.

Awareness of ethics in the work environment is extremely important, and the student’s ability to perceive ethical principles at work, in their interactions with each other, and in the final products of the production and services in which they participate, should also be developed. It should also take into account knowledge and attitudes in the area of responsibility for the health of the individual and society as a whole in relation to safe working environments, ergonomic and personal choices. Recent migration flows in Europe have also stimulated the need to know how to manage potential problems and misunderstandings caused by cultural patterns in the right way. There is a growing need for skills on how to make productive use of intercultural diversity. Many authors stress the importance of knowing the basics of intercultural coexistence. Kühlmann and Heinz [20] have highlighted and summarised the essential concepts of managing cultural diversity on the way to successful integration. They suggest some approaches for the effective integration of cultural diversity management into the production process.

There is a need to introduce students to the basics of modern interactive marketing as part of how society and businesses operate in modern times. Innovation in marketing is a key factor in the competitive advantage of agri-food companies, according to Baiazza and Bigliardi [21]. The technologist contributes to the development of marketing messages through his/her knowledge of the food. The progressive and continuous affirmation of the Internet in the global economic panorama imposes the need to go beyond traditional marketing models. In this new context, the food technologist must think of himself primarily as an information provider and must be aware that he is confronted with a new type of customer who is becoming an active element in the marketing process.

2.2.1 Global needs for digital competences

Like the great technological advances of the past, digitalisation is affecting the way we live, interact, learn and work. Many professions and industries will change or disappear and new activities will emerge. Digital competence is the confident and critical use of digital technology and encompasses the knowledge, skills and attitudes that everyone needs in a rapidly evolving digital society. The European Digital Competence Framework [22] describes digital competences in five areas:

• information and data literacy,

• communication and cooperation,

• digital content creation,

• safety and well-being; and

• algorithmic problem solving.

Increasingly, the education and training system is part of the digital transformation and can take advantage of its benefits and opportunities. But it also needs to effectively manage the risks of digital transformation, including the risk of a rural-urban digital divide that may lead some people to benefit more than others. Digital transformation in education is accelerated by advances in connectivity, the widespread use of devices and digital applications, the need for individual flexibility and the growing need for digital skills.

In response to these challenges, Europe has launched an updated Digital Agenda for Europe education and digital competences. The Digital Education Action Plan [22] is a renewed European Union policy initiative that sets out a common vision of high-quality, inclusive and accessible digital education in Europe, and aims to support the adaptation of the education and training systems of Member States to the digital age. The strategy for introducing the digital transition in higher education institutions [23] is based on the idea of ensuring that all individuals have the opportunity to be educated in an open, creative, progressive and sustainable learning environment. This environment should be supported by innovative use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) to enable the acquisition of knowledge and skills, key competences and twenty-first century skills needed for successful integration into society, in an efficient and high-quality way. Digital competences are also part of the European Reference Framework of key competences for lifelong learning.

According to the EU Commission education plan [24], the strategic tasks focus on two interrelated aspects of digital education:

• Systematically promote (ensure) the use of ICT in the education process and provide appropriate e-services and e-content as tools for the computerisation of education,

• All students need to be equipped with the digital competences (knowledge, skills and behaviours) to live, work, learn and thrive in the environment. Globally, digital technologies play an increasing role in the use of a wide range of digital technologies (applications, platforms and software) to enhance and extend education and training. Concrete examples of ways in which technology can support teaching and learning include online learning, distance learning and blended learning.

Higher education in the EU needs to evolve towards more flexible, accessible and more inclusive learning. In this context, the use of digital technologies has enormous potential. The use of digital technologies is also key to achieving the goals of the European Green Deal and climate neutrality by 2050. Digital technologies are powerful enablers of the green economic transition, including for the transition to a circular economy and the decarbonisation of energy, transport, construction, agriculture and all other industries and sectors. In the context of the objective of designing study programmes for the professions and challenges of the future, it is envisaged that modern study programmes for the professions and challenges of the future, in particular those addressing the European Green Deal, the digital transformation of society and the transition to a sustainable society, will be offered, ensuring that graduates are highly employable and professionally qualified to be competitive in the domestic and international employment market.

2.2.2 Integrating the challenges of the sustainable development into education

Environmental change and biodiversity loss cut across many issue areas and sectors, so an environmental sustainability education approach needs to be integrated and holistic. It should lead to an understanding of the multidimensionality and interconnectedness of the causes of environmental change and its consequences. The content and delivery of study programmes should therefore be adapted to the development of sustainable values and the development of sustainable competences as defined in the European Sustainability Competence Framework [25]. Mechanisms shall be put in place to allow for continuous upgrading of programmes to develop in the field of sustainable development and the circular economy. Study material related to environmental sustainability should be evidence based and based on scientifically verifiable facts. Bianchi et al. [26] stress that education should build confidence in climate science. As the state of the climate is constantly changing, environmental sustainability education should aim at empowerment and not just at information provision. Environmental education should be experiential, also focusing on understanding and skills, developing systems and critical thinking, encouraging problem solving, and where possible framing messages or learning material in a context that is familiar to the student. Education should be inclusive, not leading to a shifting of responsibilities between stakeholders, and passively waiting for others to take initiatives. The messages of environmental sustainability and biodiversity education should not be based on cataclysmic predictions and should not be scary. Environmental sustainability and biodiversity education messages should be moderately dosed, presenting successes to date, and showing the potential for achieving future environmental goals and opportunities for biodiversity conservation and revitalisation. Barth et al. [27] advise that environmental and biodiversity education should be approached from an interdisciplinary and system’s perspective, and not conceptualised only as the science of environmental change and biodiversity. Barth et al. [27] argue that environmental change and the importance of biodiversity should be considered in close connection with issues of politics, econoICE, food security, health and justice. Disciplinarity and specialisation are appropriate in all segments in the deployment of climate-neutral technologies, materials and services. The complexity of the environmental change phenomenon makes it impossible to address it without simultaneously addressing other environmental and nature conservation issues together with social and economic development issues [28].

2.3 Integration of new teaching and training methods

Teaching methods are subject to considerable change in line with professional knowledge and the needs of users. It is essential to keep them up to date in the teaching process. The emphasis is no longer on frontal lectures and classical exercises, but on the participation of the student in the whole process. Students receive assignments in advance and prepare for lessons in advance. The methods that could be followed for different levels of students discussed in the paper of Walter et al. [29] are: play-way method, Dalton’s plan, project method, heuristic method, seminar method and demonstration method. Information technologies, as well as videos, can also be used for theoretical lectures, and it is welcome to build on the e-content from the COVID-19 days, as both lecturers and students were very innovative in that period. The desire for increased efficiency and the experience of the COVID-19 situation have stimulated many debates on the effectiveness of distance education [30] and at the same time encouraged the introduction of new methods. For the students, lockdown is a novel situation; they do not have any previous experience. COVID-19 is moving the world towards a significant number of structural changes, and this pandemic is influencing each individual, education system, society and industry at large. A strong emphasis in the teaching process should be placed on project work. Project work is one of today’s job offers. Students, regardless of their discipline, need to learn to work in groups and to practise teamwork, as Emilio et al. note [31]. An interdisciplinary approach and cross-curricular cooperation are desirable. Students need to be constantly creative, and it is important to be innovative, to create innovative products, innovative methods, innovative approaches and innovative solutions. Communication training on a personal level and on an impersonal information level is also important, as part of learning to relate and work professionally.

A particular innovative approach to learning is the Inter-enterprise Centres of Excellence (ICE) [32, 33, 34], a system developed by Slovenia. ICEs operate as units of vocational school centres, where practical training is provided. They provide training for occupations at the levels of secondary vocational and professional education (EQF 3 and 4) and higher professional education (EQF 5). Schools and their ICEs work with employers in the fields of activity for which the school provides secondary and higher education. The ICEs are equipped with modern technical and technological equipment to carry out production processes, products and services in the field of activity and education; the products are mostly sold in the school’s own shops, which can also be a promotional point of sale for the school. The ICEs produce finished products suitable for the market or provide services. The ICE is essentially a small or medium-sized enterprise within the school, which can follow the path from learning to product and from product to user or consumer. It is partly financed through the competent government bodies and partly financed through its own activities, projects or production. The ICE is a small business model for students, an innovation incubator for the development of new products and services, including new human resources. It is also a learning environment for the acquisition of professional qualifications (master examinations, national professional qualifications) (Figure 1).

Figure 1.

The concept of inter-enterprise centres of excellence (ICEs).

Above all, it is an incubator of sufficiently well-qualified professionals in selected fields. It cooperates with companies, chambers, professional associations and strengthens business links. The ICE also organises expert lectures and seminars on topical issues necessary for good professional work. It networks professionals and employers, organises meetings, presentations of new technologies, company presentations, introduces new materials and raw materials, and provides expertise on them. It works with partners in local, national and international projects, and establishes partnerships with schools and universities. It also prepares its students for opportunities at home and abroad and promotes international cooperation. It also identifies skills gaps (e.g. professional terminology in a foreign language, media communication, media marketing and narrow areas of expertise) and organises training. ICE can also be used for thesis preparation, research topics for research papers and innovative projects.

2.4 Harmonising the renewals of programmes by the politics of National Quality Agencies in higher education

Education and training is the responsibility of the EU Member States, but a unified European labour market requires a certain degree of participation both in vocational education and at university level [34]. Accreditation of new study programmes at the post-secondary level is handled by competent national agencies. National Reference Points for Quality, like CPU in Slovenia [35], take care of the development, introduction and monitoring of the quality of Vocational Education and Training (VET) in all levels from study. When the Vocational Education programme is implemented as part of higher education professional programmes, it makes sense for the quality and control over study changes of the National Agency for Quality in Higher Education [36, 37]. National agencies join the ENQA—European Association for Quality Assurance in Higher Education. ENQA’s association members are quality assurance organisations from the European Higher Education Area that operate in the field of higher education. National agencies must demonstrate their compliance with the Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the EHEA [7].

When making changes to existing programmes, the Agency assesses the coherence of the contents of the study programme, their relationship to useful or fundamental knowledge from the field and discipline, and the conceptual selection of contents, clearly defined and meaningfully connected to the current state and development trends in science or the profession. The structure and content of the study programme must offer students comprehensive knowledge and enable them to achieve the set goals and planned competences or learning outcomes.

The ENQA states [7] that study programmes are at the core of the higher education institutions’ teaching mission. They provide students with both academic knowledge and skills including those that are transferable, which may influence their personal development and may be applied in their future careers. In particular, according to criteria of ENQA, the following objectives are important:

• programmes are designed with overall objectives that are in line with the institutional strategy and have explicit intended learning outcomes;

• programmes are designed by involving students and other stakeholders in the work;

• are designed so that they enable smooth student progression;

• define the expected student workload, e.g. in European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS).

The programme of study should be appropriately placed in the intended field and discipline in terms of its name, purpose and content. In the event of changes to programmes of study, they shall verify, within the scope of their competences and responsibilities, that the changes to the compulsory components, while developing and modifying the content of the programmes of study, maintain the programme’s sophistication in terms of content and structure, that the curricula and course content are linked to the objectives and competences of the programme of study and that the content is linked along both horizontal and vertical axes. Changes to the compulsory components of the study programmes adopted by the higher education institution must be notified to the Quality Agency. These changes must not affect the content and structure to such an extent as to significantly alter the objectives, competences and outcomes of the accredited study programme. It is reasonable for the Agency to introduce an extraordinary evaluation of a study programme if it finds that the introduction of changes has led to major deficiencies or inconsistencies. If, as a result of the redesign, the objectives, intended competences and learning outcomes go beyond the accredited status of the study programme, it is reasonable to prepare and submit an application for accreditation of the newly created study programme.

2.5 Specific competences of a food and nutrition engineer, an example of updated curriculum implemented in Slovenia

Education for food and nutrition professions in Slovenia comprises 3-year vocational training (most common are baker, confectioner, dairy farmer and butcher), 4-year technical secondary education (e.g. food and nutrition technician), 2-year post-secondary vocational education (e.g. food and nutrition engineer) and 3-year higher education studies (e.g. Bachelor’s degree in food and nutrition engineering, manager in food and nutrition). There are also upgrades at Master’s level (Master of Food and Nutrition, Master of Food Safety) and PhD level.

The occupation-specific competences of food and nutrition engineers/technologists do not differ drastically between European countries. An example of the training objectives and expected competences for the Food and Nutrition Engineer VET programme is given below (summarised from the Centre for Vocational Education, Slovenia [35]). The duration of the study programme is 2 years and it is assessed with 120 ECTS credits.

The main objectives of the training programme for the profession of food and nutrition engineer after the revision in 2023 are:

• acquire core, general and vocationally specific competences in the professional field of food and nutrition;

• to acquire, amplify and integrate theoretical and practical knowledge of food, nutrition and food safety, and to gain a holistic view of the development of the food and nutrition profession;

• develop creativity in the field of expertise;

• develop a responsible attitude towards quality assurance in food production and catering;

• keep abreast of new developments in the profession, using a variety of sources in the national and international professional literature;

• develop the confidence and expertise to make business decisions and solve specific professional problems;

• communicate with different stakeholders in the work process in a respectful manner;

• manage information, data and content in different digital environments to achieve work-related goals;

• work in accordance with the rules of occupational safety and health;

• follow the principles of sustainable development;

• develop digital literacy, entrepreneurship and other key competences (Table 1).

Generic competences:

Occupation-specific competences:

developing professional identity and professional responsibility; continuously improving your own work through self-evaluation; the ability to integrate knowledge and take initiatives to bring innovation to the profession; contributing to the development of the profession; the ability to think analytically and creatively to solve professional problems; organising and managing work processes; using a foreign language to follow professional developments abroad and to communicate in professional terminology; data processing using selected statistical methods; business communication and negotiation; participation in integrated product development; - decision-making on business and professional matters

managing and controlling food processing technology; planning and organising the preparation of safe and healthy food; ensuring the quality of production processes and products in food and catering; optimising food processing technologies; developing new and improving existing food products; promoting new or improved food products; ensuring the quality of food products and services; organising, planning and managing catering in large kitchens and catering establishments; menu planning and innovations in healthy eating; nutrition advice and education; ensuring the quality and safety of products and services; advice on improving the dietary habits of different population groups; analysing production and technological parameters from different perspectives; solving practical cases in the workplace; co-decision in the selection and use of appropriate methods to ensure the proper composition and quality of food and foodstuffs; developing new products or services in the Development Team

Table 1.

Generic and occupation-specific competences of a food and nutrition engineer, summarised from [38].

3. Conclusions

Innovations and changes must be continuously introduced into study programmes, as a result of global trends, scientific progress, the changing needs of the users, and the opinions and experiences of stakeholders, which include both active students and graduates as well as the latter’s employers. Labour market requirements are changing rapidly these days and new skills, materials, machines, information technologies and new guidelines are constantly emerging. The labour market is characterised by rapidly changing needs as it responds to the wider functioning of society. Already today, and especially in the future, many individuals will not stay in one occupation for their entire career. Individuals learn the new competences they need on their own in the labour market or by working in a company. In education, it is essential to keep up to date with all new developments and to integrate them into the teaching process. At the same time, it is important that students are trained to be continuously flexible in terms of integrating different skills and to face the demands for knowledge in the working environment with courage. Professions can be acquired through study or through certification of previously acquired skills. This allows each individual to adapt to the labour market. Institutions should monitor and periodically review their programmes to ensure that they achieve the objectives set for them and respond to the needs of students and society. These reviews should lead to a continuous improvement in the programme. The development or revision of curriculum and professional standards requires several precisely planned phases and a close cooperation with the most advanced representatives of the industry and food and nutrition services.

The updated curricula should be designed in such a way that the interconnectedness of each curriculum can be identified, both at the horizontal level (i.e. between curricula of the same programme) and at the vertical level (i.e. a meaningful build-up of the objectives and standards of each curriculum).

For higher education programmes, it is essential to link the objectives and competences to the Master‘s degree. In practice-oriented higher education programmes, it is important to link the objectives and competences to the needs of the working environment. There must also be coherence and consistency between the objectives and knowledge standards within the curriculum. There should also be a link and a meaningful gradation or upgrading between the curricula for upper secondary, higher education and Master’s level (EQF levels 5, 6 and 7). A curriculum is internally consistent when all the curricular components in it are coherent with each other and this is, as far as possible, visible to the teacher using it. This is also why it is important to ensure that all knowledge standards are consistent with the intended objectives. To achieve internal consistency, all curricula are designed according to the same principles, with the same structure and the same conceptual underpinnings, both within and between programmes. The acquisition of practical competences is of paramount importance for VET programmes.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.