Decision-Making in War: Iranian Commanders’ Decision-Making in the War between Iraq and Iran, a Case Study of Walfajr Operation 8

Abstract

Decisions include a set of techniques, principles, and rules providing the context for overcoming problems and crises, the use of which in times of war is far more vital than in normal times. In one of the greatest operations, that is, the First Battle of al-Faw, the Iranian commanders took decisions unique of their kind in the Iran-Iraq War. A number of commanders were interviewed, whose decision-making model was extracted by qualitative methodology and the underlying theory of their decision-making pattern with six main categories and one core category were extracted through coding: Military and strategic thinking, operation maneuver plan, reconnaissance operation, combat information circuit, dialectic formulation of consultation, decision-making, synthesis of indigenous decision-making as a victorious event are some of the extractive categories. Looking at the categories of the research, it can be said that commanders’ decision-making is influenced by platforms such experience operations, winning thinking, detailed information, and analysis of ideas.

1. Introduction

Now that we are spending the first days of new 2023 year, the importance of revising the most important evolutions of this century increases. Twentieth century has been a period of fundamental transformations in all human life domains such as security. We observed the occurrence of wars with a similar objective and lots of heavy human life and financial losses. Among the big and small evolutions of this century, wars have been the main evolution that not only governments but also most people have reacted to. Several big wars have occurred in this century, such as First Chechen War, Yugoslav Wars, and two Gulf Wars, that the first Gulf War has been the longest twentieth century war after Vietnam War. On the other hand, some of the texts related to war have been written biasedly; some authors have also showed off their role in wars instead of narrating truths and facts inside wars and have only confirmed and highlighted their military knowledge (which is undeniable) and have faded the basic elements. Therefore, some of these texts do not reflect war truths and facts. Defects and shortcomings existing in wars texts and literature and inaccessibility to firsthand sources in past wars made one of the longest wars of the century, that is Iran-Iraq War, be analyzed considering accessibility to its commanders and “decision-making in war” by commanders and methods and strategies have been applied in war be also investigated. The writer believes that Iran-Iraq War is worth studying considering thought, political sociology, military sociology, strategy, decision-making, crisis management, national security and also investigating the role of different classes in it, social culture evolution, worldview and ideology, war and defensive politics and economics and thing like that and scientific studies are possible about it. The current study has military-political view (mostly descriptive) of war prioritizing military issues in decision-making and measure. The difference between this text with other ones published about war; far from historical aspect, is its instructional features. Also, lots of sources have been studied due to wideness and diversity of subjects that consequently much more untold things have been considered in it about war. In this section, firstly, decision-making and its process, types of decisions, and decision-making styles are briefly explained, and then the characteristics of commanders’ decision-making in war are mentioned, and at the end, decision-making about Wal-Fajr 8 operation is discussed to be.

2. Decision-making process in war

One of the processes that all managers constantly deal with is “decision-making.” The inseparability of decision-making from management is such that they are considered synonymous with each other. Two important points regarding decision-making and policy-making (at the level of public organizations) are that “most managers are unable to analyze how they make decisions” and the other is that “most managers consider decision-making as a point activity and do not have a process approach to it”. In order to analyze and explain these two issues, we explain the stages and process of decision-making and review how to make decisions through models.

For managers, there are duties and responsibilities and roles, some of which are specific to managers and some of which are more intense than other employees. Duties such as planning, organizing, leadership, control, and resource management are among the duties that the manager is ultimately responsible for. In all management duties, a basic, continuous, and inseparable role, regardless of the levels, type, scope of management, accompanies the manager and from the strategic manager to the operational manager, from the main body of the organization to the supervisors and executive managers, from line and mission managers. Up to the support and staff managers, etc. All of them are constantly involved in directing and choosing the right path in order to solve problems or to achieve opportunities and development. Due to the importance of this role and its inseparable and challenging presence in the organizational life of all managers, the following principle has been proposed:

$$\text{Management=decision-making}$$E1

In general, a manager plays different roles in the execution of daily tasks with his overall duties. Some of these roles are less important and some are more important and fundamental. The most important role that the manager plays in the range of his administrative, financial, or political duties is the role of decision-making. From another point of view and according to the definitions and interpretations expressed by experts about the nature of decision-making, decision-making is like the spirit of organization, equipping resources and facilities, and directing and controlling in order to achieve the goals of the organization in line with the value system of the society and the organization, which is in a relationship complement forms the manager’s managerial personality [1]. To better understand the organization’s decision-making, it can be seen in the form of a process that includes all of the organization’s activities, and organizations will not survive without this process and mechanism. Here are some definitions of decision-making:

• Decision-making is a process through which an efficient and effective solution to a problem is selected and applied, and in a very simple definition, decision-making is: choosing one way from among different ways according to elements and parameters.

• Decision-making is defined as a way of acting and moving in a specific path that has been chosen with reflection and awareness, among different ways and methods to achieve a desired goal.

• Decision-making is the process of choosing the most desirable or logical solution in solving a problem or in achieving a goal.

• Decision-making means choice, when we are faced with multiple paths, the issue of decision-making arises [2].

2.1 Scientific concept of decision-making

If you consider the various activities and aspects of management and command, it is clearly seen that the essence of all management activities is “decision-making”. Decision-making is one of the integral parts of management and it is manifested in each of the management tasks. “Decision-making” is considered the main component and basic pillar in setting policies, setting goals, organization design, selection, evaluation, and in all actions and actions of management. Managers are always faced with cases that require them to make a decision. Therefore, it is the quality and manner of implementation of these decisions that determine the degree of success and achievement of goals.

Therefore, it is very important for commanders and managers to be familiar with decision-making methods and methods and to be aware of decision-making techniques, and it is by using these methods and tools that their ability to make effective decisions becomes more efficient.

2.2 Scientific process of decision-making

In a very simple definition, decision-making is “choosing one way from among different ways”. Therefore, as it follows from this definition, the main task of the decision-maker is to receive the possible ways and the results resulting from them and choose the best among them; and if the manager can make this choice in a correct and favorable way, his decisions will be effective and productive. The decision-maker may make the decision by resorting to supernatural powers, experience, nobles, chance or accident, etc.

In general, the decision-making process can be considered to include “six stages” as follows:

• First step: Recognizing and determining the problem that has created an obstacle in the way of achieving the goal.

• At this stage, efforts should be made to identify the main and real problem and define it correctly. Sometimes we cannot distinguish between the problem and the effects of the problem. For example, fever in humans is a symptom of the disease and not the disease itself; if we take painkillers, the fever will stop temporarily, but it will return after a few hours, so this is a sign that we should look for the disease and the source of infection. Now, if the center of infection is found through careful examination and the appropriate medicine is taken, it can be stopped and the patient’s condition will improve. So, there is a difference between the problem itself and its effect and symptom.

• Second step: Finding possible solutions to solve the problem.

• Of course, the statistics of the solutions are done according to the scientific and practical experience of the manager and commander, as well as the amount and accuracy of the information and statistics available to them. The more solutions are found and determined to solve the problem; the better choice will be made in decision-making.

• Third step: Choosing criteria to measure and evaluate possible solutions.

• In order for the solutions to be measured against each other; it is necessary to evaluate these solutions by a criterion. For example, it is possible to base the cost (losses) or profit on the evaluation of possible splits, and then measure which of these solutions will result in lower cost or higher profit.

• Fourth step: Determining the results of implementing each of the possible solutions.

• At this stage, for example, the costs that arise from the use of each of the solutions are calculated and are the basis of subsequent evaluations; and based on the selected criteria, the positive and negative results of each of the solutions are determined at this stage.

• Fifth step: Evaluating the solutions, through examining the results obtained from them.

• Each solution is checked with other solutions and determining their priority according to the results that will be obtained from it. Because based on a criterion, a specific solution is prioritized. While on the other hand, the selected criterion will not have that priority. In such situations, the manager or commander should try to create a unified standard and make evaluations based on it.

• Sixth step: Choosing one way among different ways and presenting the final statement of the decision.

• This part, as the final step in the decision-making process, is fulfilled by itself at the end of the evaluation and setting of priorities, and the solution that produces the best result and has the highest degree of priority will be the “selected solution”. But here, the mentioned solution is meant as a decision taken by the manager; which can be considered as an independent step in the decision-making process [3].

• But it is important to pay attention to this important point in crisis and especially wartime and during operations, obstacles and problems occur that are unpredictable and the manager or commander must make a decision at the moment and choose the final solution personally and take action that this situation will be raised and investigated in its own place.

2.2.1 Logical approach

From a rational point of view, the organization is a tool designed to achieve specific goals, and these specific goals guide decisions and lead to choosing the optimal solution. It is assumed that managers’ decision-making is logical and they constantly choose the best solution that has the highest value among various solutions according to specific limitations. A completely logical decision-maker first identifies and defines the problem well, and while he has a specific and clear goal, the various stages of the decision-making process lead him to choose the best solution and maximum efficiency and reach the goals. In logical decision-making, the problem is clear and the decision-maker has complete information on the issue he wants to decide. In this approach, there is no challenge regarding the goal and the decision-maker has a defined goal that he is trying to achieve. The decision-maker extracts all the options and is aware of the possible results for each option.

Logical model is a classic orientation in the field of decision-making theory. This model is the basis of quantitative principles in economics, mathematics, and statistics. This model works in a closed environment with a certain number of variables, so it is useful for planned, constructed, and normal decisions.

2.2.2 Garbage model

When there is no agreement on the goals or controversial issues and the means to reach them, the decision-makers are faced with both uncertainty and ambiguity, it seems that under these conditions, the trash can model is the best way to describe the organizational decision-making process. It describes what happens in the organization. This model is particularly suited to situations where the environment or technology is not fully understood, or where key actors move in and out of the decision-making process, other activities occupying their time and attention. The reason for naming the model as a trash can is to emphasize the randomness of the decision-making process. Although no organization operates in this mode all the time, every organization will find itself in this situation from time to time.

In the trash can model, issues, solutions, participants, and selection opportunities are independent options, flows, and events that exist within and throughout the organization, which are combined with each other in a trash can, and whenever some solutions, participants, and selection opportunities The option is linked, a problem may be identified or solved [4].

2.3 Effective factors in decision-making

One of the factors influencing the manager’s decision-making is his personality and psychological characteristics. His intelligence, emotions, prudence, and views on various issues are all among the things that are effective in his decision-making. In equal conditions with the same factors, two managers cannot be expected to make the same decision. Their different opinions are due to the unique characteristics of each one, which ultimately leads to a decision. Therefore, in studying the decision-making process in the organization, it is essential to know and examine his personality traits. Individual differences between people derived from genetic factors or their experiences cause them to have different perceptions in determining and interpreting information, and the effect of these differences can be seen in their decisions. Here are some influential factors in decision-making:

1. The role of social position in decisions: depending on the social time and place, a person makes different judgments and makes different decisions. The manager’s social position in the organization is very effective in shaping and directing his thoughts. How to think, interpret the obtained information, and apply the existing knowledge are all affected by factors such as society and nationality, social position, and finally the atmosphere of the organization in which it operates.

2. Influence of the manager from external groups: only the internal environment of the organization and internal groups do not influence the behavior of the manager. Rather, external norms and behavioral patterns outside the organization also interfere with the manager’s decisions. The realism of the manager in this regard is positive and desirable as long as it is reasonable and as long as this modeling is for the benefit of the organization. Because sometimes incompetent people are considered role models by the manager and this can have bad effects. Experience and expertise cannot always be the basis of modeling.

3. Limited temporal and spatial vision: One of the distinctive features of a manager is his foresight to the extent that he can go beyond appearances and not just be satisfied with tangible issues. Managers who only consider the present in terms of time and place, ignore many variables and make quick decisions without thinking about issues, except in cases where certain situations are critical and exceptional. In long-term decision-making, the manager’s point of view must be beyond the time, place, and situation in which he is in order to be able to make the right decision.

4. The important point in decision-making is that decision-making does not always mean a positive and favorable answer. In decisions, there are situations that must be opposed. Giving a negative answer should not scare the manager. Quick approval may give a person a pleasant feeling temporarily, but this pleasant feeling at the beginning of the work may prevent the prediction of the consequences of the work. In other words, the principle of realism should be taken into account in decisions and decisions should be made with reflection in every case. Behind all the sudden and thoughtless decisions lies the feeling of regret. The positive and negative consequences of each decision must be evaluated in advance, and this is the art of management. Of course, stating this does not mean unnecessary opposition to all suggestions, because there are managers who see the face of management in saying “no” and consider giving a positive answer a management bane [5].

2.4 The role of “Governing Values” on decision-making

In all managerial actions, duties, and roles, what is the limit, the strength and the guide of the manager will be the “Governing Values”. For all the followers of religions, a central rule has been drawn in the circle of Governing values: “God’s power is the highest power, whoever supports anyone, no one can win over him, he has trust in him in success or problems, and that is because he is sent to man in the divine book, he puts a light on his way. Among these divine guidelines is “trust and consultation”. “Consult with them in matters. But when you have decided, put your trust in God, because God loves those who trust. If God helps you, no one will be victorious over you, and if he stops helping you, who will help you after him, and the believers should only trust in God.” (Al-Imran).

$$\left[\text{Efficient decision-making=possibility+consultation with others+trust in}\text{God}\right]$$E2

2.5 Types of decisions

Decisions are presented at three levels: 1. Individual decisions, 2. Group decisions, and 3. Organizational decisions. In individual decisions, a person in the organization makes decision and personally assumes all of its results and consequences. However, in group decisions, the leader discusses the issue in a group meeting and the decision is made through consensus, while organizational decisions are defined as the process of identifying and solving the problem, including two main steps. The problem is identified when the information about the organizational situation and environmental conditions are under control in order to determine whether the performance is satisfactory or not so as to find out the deficiencies’ cause. The problem-solving step occurs when different solutions are considered, one of them is chosen and then applied. Organizational decisions vary in terms of complexity and they may be classified into planned and unplanned decisions formed under different situations: 1. Certainty/reliable situation, 2. Risk situation, and 3. Uncertainty/unreliable situation. In the reliable situation, what will happen in the future can be predicted. In this situation, the available information is precise, correct, sufficient, and reliable. In the risk situation, the probability of occurrence of each of the results is certain; that is, full information is not available and predictability is less; but making a decision is possible according to the possible results. In the unreliable situation, the probability of each possible outcome, and how and even the number of possible results are all unknown; that is, we have very little information about the issue; that is, a situation with unknown aspects is ahead [6].

2.6 Decision-making styles

Individuals’ decision-making style indicates the habitual pattern used by them when making decisions. In other words, each individual’s decision-making style represents his/her personality approach in understanding and reacting to his/her decision-making duty. Scott and Bruce present the following five styles as general decision-making styles:

Rational decision-making style: This style indicates the decision-maker’s will to identify all possible solutions, assessment of each solution’s results from all different aspects, and eventually choosing the optimal and ideal solution by the decision-maker when faced with decision-making conditions [7].

Intuitive decision-making style: Intuitive decision-making refers to an unconscious process obtained in the light of inferred experiences. In this decision-making style, the decision-maker does not have a clear logic/reason for his/her decision’s correctness but just does what he/she thinks is right through relying on his/her insight and inner wisdom.

Dependent decision-making style: This style represents the decision-maker’s lack of practical and intellectual independence and his/her reliance on others’ support and guidance when making a decision. When faced with a problem or opportunity, managers following this style need to have someone by their side to do completely based on what he/she says.

Immediate decision-making style: This style indicates the decision-makers anxiety and his/her will to make the final decision in the shortest and fastest time possible. In other words, when faced with a decision-making situation, these managers immediately make their main decision.

Avoidance decision-making style: Managers using this style postpone decision-making as much as possible, avoiding any reaction to the problem when faced with an issue (problem/opportunity).

Perhaps some criticize adapting the war achievements to the management field (not just military management, but the common field of management, that is, business and production). In response, it should be noted that many management fields and specializations are rooted in wars and their related research, among which the strategy of the theory of quality control operation research organization, etc. may be mentioned. Furthermore, scientists and experts in the field of war have greatly affected management; for example, the martial art of Sun Tzu can be mentioned, which is about the defeating methods in different battles as well as the use of trickery in wars, with many books written in its management description. Undoubtedly, for military commanders, particularly in difficult battlefields, the decision-making’s significance and position are manifold, and it can be claimed that timely, appropriate, and efficient decision-making is the foundation of all the commanders’ duties on the battlefields. Besides, the military strategies’ effectiveness and efficiency on the battlefield depends on their measured and calculated decisions. Moreover, the quality of the battlefield results (victory/defeat) generally follows the quality of the decisions made by the commanders at the decisive moments of the war. In the following, some parameters and their definitions are presented, and subsequently, the decision-making method used by Iranian military commanders in the Iran-Iraq war will be discussed.

1. Strategic decision-making: It is the highest decision-making level, adopted by the decision-maker during a particular process and given the environmental conditions, capacities, and powers for selecting the best solution to a strategic problem through taking advantage of a chance and relying on rational and intuitive power based on culture and values to achieve specific goals.

2. Decision-maker: It is the main decision-building and decision-making factor, deciding based on faith and knowledge of personality traits and leadership feature in order to solve problems or use environmental opportunities. In the present study, the decision-makers refer to the Iranian commanders present in the Iraq war against Iran.

3. Decision-making process: It is the chain of systematic activities of problem-finding, solution-finding, implementation, assessment, and decision control.

4. Decision-making environment: It is the container and context for decision-making with strengths, weaknesses, threats, and opportunities, having social, cultural, political, military-security, and economic aspects [8].

The Iranian commanders’ management style and type of command was one of the enduring dimensions of the Iraq war against Iran, who took unprecedented and unique decisions in their kind in the face of a fully equipped and classic enemy. In this war, where the nature, the essence, the reason, and even the management and command method were fundamentally different from other world wars, decision-making at the level of operational bases as well as the implementation of decisions at the level of armies were the key factors in war management and victory in various operations. Many decisions, command management, and its implementation in war and defense opened the Gordian knots of the battlefields, bringing great victories. The excellent command method in defense exhibited a new type of military command very different from the common command methods in classical armies. Lacking dynamism and mobility, the relationship between the commander and the force in military customs and rituals is indeed a dry, mechanical, and orderly relationship under the essential influence of the bureaucratic factor. The downstream elements in this type of ritual are moved like a piece (in chess); hence, in many cases in the third world, there is no necessary efficiency in the armies. In short, in this command style, the only link between the downstream and the upstream is the organizational factor. Naturally, he/she can advance the assigned tasks up to a certain limit, and from then on, just the spiritual and religious elements may be the facilitator, the same thing considered as the main soul of the excellent command in the Iran-Iraq war. The Iranian commanders and generals’ morality and leadership style were such that they participated in the front line of the enemy just like other warriors. They never forced their forces to conquer a peak or take one of the enemy’s positions; rather, the warriors volunteered to invade the enemy’s fortifications after seeing their advanced commanders. The Iranian command’s management style has played a very valuable role in recruiting and employing human forces. Their ability to motivate their forces to achieve group goals is of paramount importance. Correct use of individuals, ethical and intimate and at the same time military and calculated treatment, encouragement, justification and training, promotion, understanding their feelings and emotions, using their thoughts and initiatives, and helping solve their personal or family problems, etc. are among the cases considered by the commanders.

Iraq’s imposed war against Iran is not an exception and like other wars, particularly in terms of the type of beliefs and behaviors, as well as all-round cultural, social, and military consequences, etc., it has its unique and noteworthy achievements. The command management service in war and at the level of armies is one of the significant matters, and in a sense synonymous with it. The chests of our commanders with the experience of war are full of valuable experiences, including management and the command type at that time. Hence, one of our key duties in this field is passing on such values to the present and future generations for use in command, general management of the country, war, and defense.

As the main decision-makers in the field of operations, Iranian commanders and their presence in the scene of action and consequently, their creativity and initiatives, as well as the type of their encounter on the battlefield, gradually developed the mental school of each of them and in practice, it established the type of macro defense-security policies.

The Iranian commanders and generals’ way of management and command in leading the war, as well as their style and decision-making have unique and noteworthy achievements in terms of the type of beliefs, behaviors, and military and cultural consequences that should be transferred to others.

2.7 Some features of Iranian commanders’ decisions in the war

1. Decision-making based on sufficient information: Information refers to one of the foundations of effective decision-making; since when making a decision, you may make the required predictions about future events by means of precise information. When making any decision, its various aspects and angles should be investigated well and sufficient knowledge from the results of the decision should be obtained so that the decision-maker will not experience remorse due to not examining and lack of knowledge. Hence, obtaining sufficient and correct information is the prerequisite for making a correct and wise decision. To make effective decisions on the battlefield, it is of paramount importance to get to know the enemy, and collect sufficient information about his situation, besides understanding one’s own situation and natural and unnatural conditions. With a quick look at the methods of decision-making, designing, and implementing small and large operations by Iranian commanders, it is realized that considering the category of information and examining the enemy’s most detailed news and information is one of the key factors in most operational decisions of Iranian commanders in the war.

2. Foresight and caution: Another feature of effective decision-making is that the decision should be combined with foresight and caution; that is, making a decision with foresight and caution refers to a prerequisite and basic measure for a reasonable logical decision, and everyone, when making decision on an issue, should carefully investigate its various aspects and angles and forecast its possible consequences. Foresight and caution are essential for any kind of decision and its necessity and importance in the battlefield is greater since dealing with human lives. The commanders’ decisions and their foresight on the battlefield were such that they altered the battle scene’s fate and provided the bed for future operations.

3. Using experience: The use of experiences is one of the key issues in decision-making. Proper use of experiences may provide valuable information to decision-makers. If the experiences are properly and appropriately employed, the amount of errors and mistakes in decision-making will be declined and the decisions will be of more value and credibility. Just as the proper use of experiences plays a role in the managers’ success as well as their decisions’ effectiveness besides helping them achieve their goals, not using experiences may be followed by adverse consequences. During the war, Iranian commanders always paid attention to their experiences when deciding, making their decisions mature and effective. For instance, deciding on implementing the First Battle of al-Faw (Valfajr 8) operation in The Grand FAW port in Iraq is among the history-making decisions of the Iranian commanders. This decision was made based on complex, specific, and various factors and conditions. There was a very complicated and ambiguous political, military, regional, and international situation at the time when the decision to implement the FAW operation was made. The battle was at a critical dead-end and irreparable events could happen.

4. At that certain time, just the courage to decide and implement an important and successful operation could take the war out of the abovementioned dead-end. Deciding on implementing a large, complex, and unequal operation was a great political-military feat/masterwork at that certain time. A bunch of factors was involved in making this extraordinary decision, the commanders’ special attention to experiences in operational areas may be mentioned among whose contexts. The commanders’ decisive decision, proper planning, collecting precise information, and maintaining information, as well as taking the experiences into account resulted in the Iraqi army’s defeat and this strategic port’s capture in the FAW operation, surprising the world once again and imposing their own will on the enemy. The Iranian commanders’ decision-making on this operation has been published by the author in a paper with Engeström’s activity theory.

5. Using the benefits of group decision-making: Management experts discuss decision-making in both individual and group forms, each having advantages and disadvantages. The strengths of group decisions include collecting more comprehensive and complete information, faster acceptance of the decision, and more legitimacy, as well as enhancing the diversity of views. With this approach, attention to group decision-making is observed in Iranian commanders’ most operational decisions, so that a new decision-making type emerged among commanders over the war. The term “persuasion decision-making” was mentioned a lot by the commanders during the war. According to this type of decision, the discussion and exchange of opinions for the design of an operation were continued until all the involved ones became acquainted with all the aspects and were convinced about its implementation. Sometimes the commanders discussed the points determined for the implementation of the operation for a long time, so that all the involved, expert, and experienced people’s opinions were used.

6. Decisiveness in decision-making: Decisiveness and stability in decision-making stand as one of the features of effective and successful decision-making. Decision-making will be effective and efficient when having the required decisiveness and stability levels. When all the angles of an issue are measured and its various aspects are precisely investigated, there is no room for doubt and hesitation anymore, and decisive action regarding decision-making and implementing it must be taken. After examining the issue’s various aspects, reasonable decisiveness and stability play a significant role in resolving matters and achieving goals, and in case of excessive laxity, hesitation, and caution, things will not be carried out at the right time and irreplaceable damages may occur.¹

Obviously, decisiveness does not refer to being careless in decision-making, not examining the problem’s various aspects, making hasty decisions, tyranny, and harshness and inflexibility in decision-making, but decisiveness means that when the required information about a problem is collected, various opinions and suggestions are made, the best solution was determined, and the bed for the taking action was provided, the suitable decision should be taken with complete decisiveness and necessary stability, and implemented seriously. Examining the decision-making methods and the commanders’ decision-making features in war reveals that, besides taking advantage of the capacities required for decision-making, after making a decision, they implemented it with complete decisiveness. There are many examples of commanders’ decisiveness in decision-making (mostly reaching positive results). The victory of the two major operations, First Battle of al-Faw8 (Valfajr 8) and Siege of Basra (Karbala 5), each considered as one of the rarest Iran–Iraq War operations of their kind, was achieved in the shadow of the commander’s decisiveness in decision-making at that very time [9].

This research has used qualitative methodology and grounded theory method according to the topic of its investigation. The participants of this study were a number of Iranian commanders. Penetrating and in-depth examination of the conditions and their decision-making methods necessitated the need for a qualitative examination for the researchers of this research, and to select the participants, a purposeful sampling method was used. Giri is used with maximum variety. The main method for data collection was in-depth interview. It is especially suited to the methods of contextual theory. In this research, at the beginning of the work, an informal dialog approach was used to obtain the concepts and categories. After the initial concepts and categories were revealed, using the general interview guide approach, the categories and concepts were followed up in the interview process. This work is also done in the direction of theoretical sampling and is highly compatible with the nature of the grounded theory method. After the outlines of the interviews were formed by concepts and categories, the design of the set of open questions was discussed. And this process continued until the stage of theoretical saturation. The main structure of data analysis in contextual theory is based on three coding methods: 1. open coding, 2. axial coding, and 3. selective coding. In qualitative functions, such as quantitative works, it requires the evaluation of findings, analysis methods, used tools, and the researcher’s work in general. Here, several methods were used to ensure the accuracy of the data, its sources and the method of data collection: 1. audit, 2. review by members, and 3. analytical comparisons. Considering the focus on one of the most special operations, that is, Wal-Fajr 8 operation and review of the previous operations, that is, Khyber and Badr, this research shows the researcher’s theoretical sensitivity toward the subject from the perspective of experience, the concerns of the participants, and the research surrounding this operation in the form of it shows an innovation that has not been carried out, so the present section seeks to represent a decision-making result resulting from the platforms that facilitate it in the scene of action and war, the result of which is a decisive victory in Wal-Fajr operation.

The context and backgrounds of the commanders and generals’ local decision-making in the 41st Tharallah Division regarding FAW operation² through reviewing the previous operations (Kheibar and Badr), their shortcomings, and disadvantages, the reasons for low success in achieving the predicted goals were considered among the valid and effective reasons for the commanders’ decision-making regarding this operation. Interviews with the commanders about making decision on this operation revealed important issues, which were briefly discussed; besides, the native and final models of the commanders’ decision-making in this operation are presented.

2.7.1 Commanders’ political, military, and strategic thinking

In the postmodernism era, the motto of managers is the quality of 100% and error of zero. Studying and checking prior to taking any action is necessary for decision-making. There is no gap/difference between the managers and their subordinates. Everyone has to work and produce the best products [10]. According to some of the participating commanders, the commanders’ military, political, and strategic thinking was the thought of victory and being able and beyond time and space. They were aimed at being better than before and overcome the enemy’s equipment by means of their thoughts. The commanders’ thought was the thought of victory, that is, defeating the enemy; or spiritual thinking, that is, protecting the homeland and defending their own religious beliefs.

2.7.2 Planning the Maneuver and Division’s Operation

Two factors were very effective in planning Al-Faw 8 operational maneuver: 1. The experiences of operation Badr and 2. The complexities and special features of this operation in this context [11]. Based on one of the commanders: “To carry out the operation, the division’s operation and maneuver were both planned and announced by the headquarter. After receiving the plan, it should be implemented at the division level to do the operation.” Another participant says, “A special schedule was made for the implementation of the plan; the time was divided into three from the notification of the operation plan to the start of the operation; one-third for the battalion’s preparation, two-thirds for the company and platoons/squads’ preparation.³” The maneuver is planned according to the required information and the general agreement of the commanders.

2.7.3 Reconnaissance of the operational zone and the enemy

The commanders took measures to plan the preparation Al-Faw 8 8 months before starting it. In this operation, the principle of surprise should be used; to this end, the reconnaissance was secretly started. Reconnaissance forces penetrated deep into the enemy’s sequels and collected the required information. Regarding reconnaissance operations, a commander says that obtaining the following information is very important in reconnaissance, 1. Atmosphere, 2. Operational zone or land, 3. Enemy, and 4. Ally/Friend. In reconnaissance work, the safe routes for troops to move and break the enemy’s line are found to reach the goals; that is, finding the main axis to implement the operation and determining the current axis to deceive the enemy [12].

2.7.4 Combat information circuit

The information circuit provides a simplified model of how intelligence operations are directed and creates a basis for the terminology of tactics, common intelligence techniques, and processes [13]. About the information collection, one of the commanders says, “Information was received by overt and covert intelligence agents, placed in their information circuit, refined, and analyzed to provide commanders with precise relevant and timely decision-making information for the operation management.” Thus, by identifying the zone and collecting and analyzing information, the necessary information was prepared for the division commanders to make decision on Al-Faw 8 operation.

2.7.5 Dialectic formulation of consultation

Investigation of the method used and decisions made on successful operations shows that the decision-making process of the ally forces against the enemy has changed through using some factors and factors previously ignored were included in the decision-making process. In short, it can be said that given these factors, a local software was prepared for decision-making and management of Iran-Iraq War. This software could resolve the arisen problem, that is, the expulsion of the enemy from the occupied zones. Dialectic is one of the words that entered the philosophical literature simultaneous with the beginning of philosophy and used by most philosophers, of course with different meanings. Literally, dialectic refers to the art of discussion and debate. What is of paramount importance in dialectics is the presence of two opposite things, that is, considering the opposition of affairs in the dialectical perspective, that is, one thing (entity) against another thing (anti-entity), is of interest in the dialectical perspective. Through this opposition or because of this opposition, the third thing (co-entity/homologous) is reached. Hegel’s philosophy has expressed its ideas in a three-part set including “thesis,” “antithesis,” and “synthesis”. Everything creates its opposite in its course. The first one is called “thesis” (the state of the entity) and the second one is called “antithesis” (the opposite state, anti-entity). “Synthesis” (the state of the homologous/co-entity) is created from the combination of these two, at the same time containing both of them. The synthesis itself becomes a new thesis, and so on. The commanders explained in brief concerning the dialectic of consultation that is the main point of the story as well as the main thesis of the present section directly related to the central phenomenon and closely related to the fundamental phenomenon [14]. One of the commanders of special and shock trooper battalions says, “The commanders’ art is to make decisions under difficult and crisis conditions. The constructive and decisive role of commanders was specified in decision-making since the political conditions of the combat zone and the conditions of operations were very difficult.” Another commander says, “There was always a difference of opinion, anyone with an opposing opinion only disagreed out of his compassion. Everyone thought again regarding the difference of opinions in the previous meetings, looking for new and better solutions to the issue or problem with the help of other forces. Everyone consulted to resolve differences or opposing opinions, ideas were strengthened and better ones were given.” What the commanders expressed was the introduction of the plan and thesis, its confrontation with antithesis, and consensus co-thinking in the analysis of success (synthesis) that automatically paved the way for new thoughts, new ideas (new thesis), and its evolution course was repeated until it reached what was accepted by everyone in terms of rationality. Thus, the category “Dialectic of Consultation” indicates the basis of a scientific, philosophical, and experimental viewpoint among the commanders of the 41st Tharallah Division, trying to achieve the most detailed investigation and the most precise way to make a decision in a fully critical situation, that is, war.

2.7.6 The outcome of decision-making

Using experiences is one of the key issues in decision-making. Taking advantage of experiences may provide valuable information to decision-makers. Hence, investigating the experiences of this operation led the 41st Tharallah Division commanders to follow the decision-making about this operation in a special and innovative way different from before. The commander of the marine unit says, “The weak points and problems of the operations Kheibar and Badr made us to specially pay attention to the smallest issues and nothing was hidden from our eyes.” Upon receiving the operational plan and maneuver, the division started reconnoitering and preparing the operational zone in compliance with the full protection principles. The commanders observed all the work and participated in reconnaissance operations in order to obtain the most accurate and correct information about the enemy and the atmosphere of the zone by analyzing and placing the information in the information circuit.

3. Conclusion

The decision-making process of the 41st Tharallah Division commanders was formed in a circle resulting from their interaction and fraternal communication, consulting, presenting ideas (thesis) and opposing opinions (antithesis), analyzing opposing opinions, reaching a consensus resulting from their collective wisdom (synthesis) and using accurate information and their war experiences to achieve a decisive victory. Through a deep look at the dialectic category of consultation, which is the outcome of new ideas, taking the opposing opinions into account, and ultimately synthesizing the positive and negative opinions, it can be considered as the most influential type of learning. In the conducted discussions and controversies, the commanders learned how to propose new ideas and how to encourage each other to present plans and opinions (Figure 1) [15].

Figure 1.

The paradigmatic model of the local decision-making synthesis to the victory event.

From the participants’ statements about this operation, it can be generally inferred that using consultations, accurate information, and their military experiences, contexts were provided, the output of which was one of the most accurate decisions about Al-Faw 8 operation in the 41st Tharallah Division and a lasting event in the history of the war took place. It is possible to look at the decision-making method of the Iranian commanders in the Wal-Fajr 8 operation from this angle that with the implementation of this operation, the war process became closer toward the acceptance of bilateral peace and the end of the war, and the lessons learned from it lay the groundwork for the creation of regional and geographical security and it is to help the peace of warring countries. Faw, in general, the differences and variations of the present study with the conducted research can be considered as the result of the analysis type as well as how the effective aspects played a role in revealing and describing the deep and hidden layers of this decision-making pattern among the 41st Tharallah Division commanders. Entering into the research with such a qualitative approach claims this difference and asserts that entering into an event besides discovering its deep layers and describing its way, differentiates this research from other research [16].

Acknowledgments

Here, I sincerely appreciate the cooperation of Ms. Ivana and Romina Barek who helped me regulate this chapter.